E

EARTHWORMS

The pale red garden earthworm is often called “nature’s plow.” That’s because an earthworm pushes through soft earth with the point of its head. If the soil is hard, the worm eats its way through, forming interconnected burrows, some several feet deep. Burrows loosen the soil, admitting air and water and helping roots grow. A single acre of cultivated land may be home to as many as 500,000 earthworms, each making the soil a better place for plants.

Earthworms in your garden: When you add nitrogen-rich compost to your soil, you help worms thrive. However, adding synthetic nitrogen fertilizers may repel earthworms. Worms are very sensitive to physical and chemical changes and will flee the salty conditions that result from an application of chemical fertilizer.

As an earthworm feeds, organic matter passes through its body and is excreted as granular dark castings. You may see these small casting piles in your garden. An earthworm produces its weight in castings daily. Worm castings are a wonderful fertilizer, rich in nutrients otherwise unavailable to plants.

In cold weather, a soil search will turn up mature and young earthworms as well as eggs. By late spring, most worms are mature. As temperatures rise, activity slows; many lay eggs and then die. By midsummer, most worms are very young or protected by egg capsules. As the weather cools, young worms emerge. With wet weather, they grow active, making new burrows and eating extra food, resulting in more worm castings. Egg laying occurs again. Activity continues as long as soil stays damp.

After a heavy rain, earthworms often appear aboveground. They haven’t drowned. Fresh water doesn’t disturb earthworms—they need ongoing skin moisture to breathe—but stagnant or contaminated water forces them from their burrows.

Earthworms can survive in soil that freezes gradually, but sudden freezing can kill them. Protect earthworms against sudden freezes with mulch or a cover crop, both of which also provide worms with food.

Earthworm Bins

You can raise earthworms yourself using purchased redworms—a process called vermiculture or earthworm composting. Kept in a cool, dark place, such as a basement, a worm bin provides a composting system for kitchen scraps and a source of rich, fertile worm castings for the garden. For more information on vermiculture, see Resources on page 672.

Commercial bin systems. Commercially available bins are typically made from durable black plastic, with trays that fit on top of a base. The trays have mesh bottoms for drainage, and the base catches “worm tea” and dispenses it from a spigot so you can use it to water your plants. A top keeps light out and worms from escaping. You fill the lowest tray with a moist filler material (usually a soaked coir fiber brick and/or shredded paper, with a little compost or garden soil mixed in to provide beneficial organisms). The filler should be uniformly damp but not wet, just like any working compost pile. Once you add the worms, you can begin adding kitchen scraps every day or so as the worms consume them, transforming them and the filler into nutrient-rich castings. As with any compost pile, keep meat, fats, and dairy products out of the pile. Coffee grounds and filters, tea bags, oatmeal, bread, and fruit and veggie scraps are excellent worm compostables.

As each tray fills with castings, you can repeat the process in the tray above. Worms will migrate through the mesh to the new source of food, and you can then spread the contents of the lower tray on your garden or greenhouse beds or use it to enrich potting soil. Put the newly emptied tray at the top of the bin, and the cycle can go on indefinitely. Another advantage of commercial multi-tray bins is that they’re portable, so you can set one up outdoors in a shaded area during the growing season, then move it to the greenhouse, sunroom, or basement when cold weather arrives and continue composting.

Homemade bins. Commercial bins work beautifully, but tend to be pricey. If you don’t want to pay big bucks for a worm bin, you can make your own from a plastic storage bin, such as a 3 feet by 2 feet by 1½-feet-deep storage bin, a modified garbage can, washtub, or wooden box. Use an awl to punch small holes in the sides of plastic washtubs or garbage cans for aeration. To keep conditions moist but well drained, make a drainage area in the bottom of the bin; use a rigid divider to separate it from the worms’ living quarters. A loose cover keeps flies and light out and worms and moisture in.

Just as with commercial bins, it’s best to fill the bin with soaked coir and newspaper. (You can buy compressed coir bricks from garden supply stores, catalogs, and Web sites, and from sources of worm-composting supplies.) Garden soil may also be added. Make sure the mix is as damp as a wrung-out sponge rather than wet. Then introduce the purchased earthworms to their new home. Use your purchased worms for composting only—most commercially available worms are species that live only in manure or very rich soil and will not survive in average garden soil. One exception is the enriched soil in a greenhouse bed—if the greenhouse stays above freezing, worms will do very well there.

Feed your worms well-chopped vegetable matter mixed with a bit of water. Soft foods are best for the first few days; if food doesn’t disappear in 24 hours, reduce the amount. For faster composting, run the food through a blender, since worms don’t have teeth to tear off large chunks. The population should double in about a month; after 60 days, your bin should be full of rich compost.

To harvest the compost, but save your earthworms for another session, place the compost outdoors on a sheet of heavy plastic or fabric, and let it sit for about an hour. The worms will cluster together to stay cool and moist. Dig in and find the cluster. Return the worms to the bin or start a second bin.

ECHINACEA

Coneflower, purple coneflower. Summer-blooming perennials; wildflowers; medicinal herbs.

Description: Echinacea purpurea, purple coneflower, bears 3- to 6-inch daisies with prominent pointed orange centers. Flowers are borne in shades of rose, purple, mauve, and white on 2- to 4-foot upright plants with rough, dark green foliage. An explosion of exciting hybrids has introduced plants with orange, gold, and even green flowers, as well as semidouble and double forms. One purple coneflower, Echinacea purpurea ‘Magnus’, which holds its petals out in typical daisy form rather than drooping downward, was named Perennial Plant of the Year for 1998 by the Perennial Plant Association. Zones 3–8.

How to grow: Plant or divide in spring or early fall in full sun and average, well-drained soil. Once established, water only during severe drought. Pick off Japanese beetles.

Landscape uses: Mass in wildflower meadows, or grow along a sunny wall or fence. Coneflowers combine well with larkspurs, yarrows, and phlox. They also are attractive in perennial borders, and look great with ornamental grasses and other daisy flowers, including black-eyed Susans and Shasta and oxeye daisies.

EDIBLE LANDSCAPING

Edible landscapes do double duty—they produce food and make our yards attractive at the same time. The goal in edible landscaping is to include as many edible plants as possible while still following the general guidelines of garden design. To become an edible landscaper, all you really need is the ability to look at your current landscape with new eyes. Instead of a conventional ornamental small flowering tree, could you plant one that also bears fruit? When you’re contemplating ornamental container plantings for your deck or patio, could you choose herbs, attractive veggies, or container fruit trees instead of the usual annual flowers? Once you start looking, the options are endless.

The concept of edible landscaping dates back as far as ancient Egyptian pleasure gardens, which included fish ponds, flowers, grape arbors, and fruit trees. But by the Renaissance, gardeners had begun to exclude edible plants from their formal ornamental gardens. They planted separate herb gardens, vegetable gardens, and orchards. Flower gardens, luxuries only possible for the wealthy, became status symbols, and food crops were banished to small backyard plots and “truck gardens.” Edible landscaping didn’t make a comeback until the 1980s, when gardeners who recognized that many edible plants are also beautiful reintroduced them to the general landscape.

Creating an Edible Landscape

When you become an edible landscaper, you’ll find that bringing vegetables and fruit trees out of hiding and into the total landscape makes your gardening even more rewarding. Unless you’ve just moved into a newly built home, you won’t have the luxury of designing an edible landscape from scratch. Instead, you need to find ways to add edibles within the existing framework. Most likely, your yard already has many permanent plantings. While you won’t want to redesign and uproot your whole yard overnight, you can gradually transform your existing plantings into an edible landscape. Keep in mind that an edible landscape is one in which many, but not all, of the plantings are fruit trees, berry bushes, vegetables, and other food-producing plants.

Start by including some edibles with your annual flowers. Remember, you don’t have to plant vegetables in rows—they’ll grow just as well inter-planted among ornamentals and herbs. Use the same design rules you would with flowers alone. Try accenting a flower bed with deep green rosettes of arugula, small mounds of ‘Spicy Globe’ basil, speckled Romaine or crinkly red-leaf lettuce, and the upright, blue-green leaves of onion sets.

Plant perennial herbs and vegetables in your existing ornamental borders—make room by relocating or replacing existing plants. For example, lavender, chives, variegated lemon thyme, and rosemary will add four-season interest to a border. There are strawberries that thrive in sun and shade, creating a lush groundcover in garden beds. Artichokes are perennial in Zones 9 and 10; their silvery, spiky foliage makes an interesting foil for other plants.

Don’t forget trees. If you’ve been thinking about planting an ornamental flowering tree, consider a crabapple renowned for its delicious fruit, such as ‘Centennial’, rather than one simply grown for its blooms. A dwarf flowering peach or a pluot (a hybrid cross between a plum and an apricot), or a dwarf fruiting cherry such as ‘Lapins’ or ‘CompacStella’ is a great alternative to a flowering cherry. The fruiting trees’ flowers are just as gorgeous as those of the purely ornamental tree, and they have the added bonus of producing abundant harvests of delicious fruit. Be sure to choose disease-resistant cultivars that have been bred to thrive in your climate and conditions.

If you need to remove an existing tree or shrub that has died or outgrown its site, consider a fruit or nut tree as a replacement. A nut tree (pecan, hickory, English walnut, Chinese chestnut, piñon pine—whatever is suitable for your climate) can replace a large shade tree. Consider replacing an existing hedge with shrubby hazelnuts (filberts) or rugosa roses with their showy, vitamin-C-rich hips, or grow a screen of edible bamboo (but make sure you contain its roots in a metal-lined trench so it won’t become invasive). Citrus trees such as lemon or grapefruit, or natives like pawpaws and serviceberries, could be good replacements for medium-size trees, depending on your hardiness zone.

Conditions that might otherwise be challenges can be opportunities for the edible landscaper. Acidic soil? Consider blueberries, which provide three-season beauty as well as delicious fruit, with a groundcover planting of cranberries. Wet soil? Elderberries will thrive. A parched, sunny site? The pads and fruits (tunas) of prickly pears are important edible crops in dryland areas.

There are several other special ways to incorporate edibles into your existing landscape:

Convert areas of lawn into new garden beds and include edibles in the design.

Replace grass with food-producing groundcovers in some areas. Alpine strawberries produce fruit all summer and tolerate light shade, while violet flowers are edible as well as ornamental. In sunny areas, plants like chamomile, creeping thymes, and lemon thyme can replace grass on paths around stepping stones.

Make use of existing walls and fences, or add new ones. Train dwarf fruit trees against them, or use them to support raspberries, blackberries, or vegetables. You’ll find directions for training dwarf fruit trees to a fence or trellis in the Fruit Trees entry.

Plant a fruiting hedge. Besides rugosa roses, you can grow beach plums, shrubby service-berries, fruiting viburnums like highbush cranberry, blueberries, and many others as hedge plants.

Build an arbor or trellis. Grapes are traditional, but hardy kiwi would also be a good choice for a large arbor. Vegetables like cucumbers, melons, and beans work well too, but some need special support for the fruit.

Add containers to your landscape. Many dwarf fruit trees are now available and can be grown in large tubs. Dwarf citrus and figs will grow even in Northern climates if the trees are moved to a cool, sunny, indoor location during the winter. Strawberry jars are good for strawberries or herbs. For more suggestions, see “Colorful and Tasty, Too” on the opposite page.

Don’t forget the tender plants. If you have a greenhouse, sunroom, or other appropriate bright space to overwinter tropical and semitropical plants, you can grow even more edibles at home. Coffee, tea, cinnamon, cardamom, ginger, citrus, figs, pomegranates, vanilla—there are many plants that will flourish outside during the growing season, then overwinter happily indoors until warm weather rolls around again.

Selecting Plants

Food-producing plants can fill a role in every part of your landscape. Fruit and nut trees come in a wide range of sizes and shapes, provide shade, and may provide spring blooms and/or fall color. Berry-producing shrubs, such as blueberries and wild plums, also provide flowers and fall color. Some blueberry bushes even have attractive red branches in the winter.

The flowers of certain annual and perennial flowers, such as nasturtiums and chives, are edible, as well as their leaves and even nasturtium buds (when pickled, they’re a great substitute for capers). Many herbs and vegetables have interesting foliage, and some have showy flowers or brightly colored fruit. Fruiting vines such as grapes, melons, and climbing beans will cover fences and trellises. Some edibles, such as creeping thymes and alpine strawberries, make good groundcovers.

Your personal taste and how much space you have available will determine what you plant. Consider these factors as you select plants:

alt What foods do you like and use most? You’re defeating the purpose of an edible landscape if you plant crops you won’t want to eat.

How big is each plant and how much will it produce? Hardy kiwi vines are vigorous and can produce hundreds of fruits. Will you be able to use them?

Do you have a location suitable for growing edibles? Many fruit and vegetable crops will thrive only when they receive at least 6 hours of direct daily sun. Your choice will be limited if you have a shady yard, but you can expand your options by growing edibles in containers on a sunny deck or patio.

What fresh foods can you buy locally, and which are expensive or difficult to find? You may decide to plant raspberry canes and forego zucchini plants. Good raspberries are next to impossible to buy at the grocery store, while zucchini in season is cheap (or available free from friends).

A Gallery of Edibles

Almost all food-producing plants have ornamental value. The following listings are only a small sampling of the many excellent edible landscape plants available. To see which of the following plants are covered in other entries in this encyclopedia, refer to the Quick Reference Guide on page 676.

Trees: In warm climates, citrus (orange, lemon, lime, grapefruit) are versatile trees. They are large enough to provide good shade, cooling the house or an area of the garden during the heat of the day. They retain their shiny deep green leaves through the winter, and have fruit in various stages of development and ripeness on their branches year-round. When in flower, their fragrance perfumes the air. The flowers of the orange tree are extremely sweet and can be used to flavor honey, sugar, and tea, or as a beautiful garnish.

Colorful and Tasty, Too

Once you begin working with edible landscaping designs, you’ll discover there are nearly limitless possibilities for attractive combinations of food-producing and ornamental plants. The combinations listed below are suitable for container plantings or for garden beds.

Curly parsley and yellow pansies (Viola spp.)
Red leaf lettuce with dwarf yellow marigolds (Tagetes erecta)
Red chard and New Zealand spinach
‘Spicy Globe’ basil with ‘Nantes’ carrots and dwarf orange marigolds (Tagetes erecta)
Dwarf curly kale with dusty miller and pink nemesia (Nemesia versicolor)
Sorrel with curly parsley, trailing lobelia (Lobelia erinus), and Alpine strawberries
Eggplant and ageratum
Yellow zucchini and coreopsis (Coreopsis spp.)
‘Royal Burgundy’ bush beans with
‘Royal Carpet’ alyssum and oregano
‘Bright Lights’ or other colorful mix of Swiss chard with French marigolds (Tagetes patula) and purple-leaf basil such as ‘Dark Opal’ or ‘Red Rubin’

In the East, if your flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) trees are in decline, replace them with Korean dogwood (Cornus kousa). It blooms in June (later than the flowering dogwood), the flowers are longer-lasting, and it has brilliant fall foliage. The edible fruit resembles a pale strawberry. It is tartly sweet, with a pearlike, mealy texture, and is favored by birds and wildlife. Figs make intriguing foundation plants, but they need a sheltered location and winter protection or container culture in the North. Dwarf fruit trees work well in small areas.

Shrubs: A blueberry bush can be a good foundation plant, but must have acid soil to thrive. Bush cherries, wild plums, gooseberries, currants, hazelnuts, and highbush cranberries (Viburnum trilobum) make good hedges. Tightly planted raspberries or blackberries create a living fence. Some shrub-type roses, such as rugosa roses, produce large, bright orange or red, edible rose hips with 60 times the vitamin C of an orange. The hips can be used to make tea, jam, or jelly.

Ornamentals: Plants normally grown as ornamentals can have edible parts. Leaves and seeds of Joseph’s coat (Amaranthus tricolor), leaves and flowers of anise hyssop (Agastache foeniculum), young leaves of balloon flower (Platycodon grandiflorus), seeds of love-in-a-mist (Nigella damascena), and leaves and flowers of nasturtiums and violets are edible.

Edibles with showy flowers and foliage: Edibles can have colorful and attractive flowers too. Here’s a sampling to consider: amaranth, artichoke, cardoon, chives, dill, Jerusalem artichoke, nasturtiums, okra, rosemary, and salsify.

The foliage of edibles also comes in many interesting colors and forms. Various cultivars of artichoke, cabbage, cardoon, kale, lavender, leeks, marjoram, onion, rosemary, and sage feature shades of gray and blue. (Sage foliage can also be variegated yellow and green; purple and green; and pink, white, purple, and green.) Beets, purple basil, red cabbage, red chard, purple ornamental kale, red lettuces, and purple mustard feature pink and red shades. Carrots, endive, white ornamental kale, variegated lemon balm, nasturtiums, and thyme feature light green, yellow, and white foliage. Asparagus has attractive green fernlike foliage.

Many hot peppers have it all: variegated white and green, or white, purple, and green foliage; attractive starlike white or purple flowers; and decorative fruits in green, white, yellow, cream, orange, red, and purple, often all on the same plant.

Vines: Peas are lovely trained on a fence and can be followed by cucumbers or squash as the season progresses. Hardy kiwi is a vigorous climber. ‘Scarlet Runner’ beans have bright red-orange flowers and are pretty planted with white-flowering cultivars of beans. Yard-long beans and asparagus beans produce fascinating fruit, often red or purple, an instant conversation piece. Indeterminate tomatoes can be trained on a trellis or arbor; let the side shoots grow in for maximum coverage.

Groundcovers: Strawberries produce delicious fruit and attractive foliage; some species, such as alpine and Peruvian strawberries, will grow in shade. Violets produce edible ornamental flowers. Many herbs, including creeping thymes, Corsican mint, and pennyroyal, are low growing and vigorous and can be used as groundcovers.

Fragrant edibles: Certain fragrances, like the scent of marigold and zonal geranium (pelargonium) foliage, may be attractive to some people and annoying to others. The most fragrant edibles include basil, chamomile, chives, fennel, mint, oregano, parsley, sage, strawberry, thyme, and fruit-scented sages like pineapple sage. Creeping varieties of thyme and oregano are low growing and work well planted between stepping stones, where they may be lightly stepped on, releasing their fragrance.

Unusual Fruits

As you choose fruit-bearing plants for your property, don’t forget to look past the usual apples and peaches. Many lesser-grown plants provide wonderfully flavorful fruits. Here you’ll find descriptions of a variety of unusual plants and their fruits, as well as notes on their culture. Some of these, such as cornelian cherry, hardy kiwi, rugosa rose, and serviceberry, also have great ornamental value.

BANANA (Musa acuminate, M. ✕ paradisiaca): ‘Apple’, ‘Cavendish’, ‘Gros Michel’, ‘Lacatan,’ ‘Lady-Finger’, ‘Red Jamaica’.

Fruit: Besides the familiar, large, yellow banana of our markets, there are also cultivars with red fruits, and cultivars with small, finger-size fruits. As with other fruits, cultivars vary in flavor and sweetness. Bananas ripen without regard to season.

Plant Type: A treelike, perennial herb with velvety leaves 4 to 8 feet long and 1 foot or more across. Depending on cultivar, height varies from 8 to 25 feet. Suckers grow up from around base of stem, enlarging and eventually replacing stems that fruit, then die.

Culture: Plant in full sun but sheltered from strong winds, in rich, well-drained soil. Depending on vigor of the cultivar, set plants 10 to 15 feet apart. No pollination is needed for fruiting. Prune off some suckers from the base of the plant so that only one or two will be fruiting at a time. Zone 10.

CORNELIAN CHERRY (Cornus mas): Currently available cultivars have been selected for their ornamental rather than edible qualities. Yellow-fruited ‘Flava’ is sweeter than most seedlings available.

Fruit: Fruits are usually oval, fire-engine red, with a single stone. Some cul ti vars have barrel- or pear-shaped fruits; color may vary from yellow through dark purple. Flavor is tart, with varying degrees of sweetness, depending on the cultivar and how long fruit is left hanging. Fruits ripen from summer through autumn, depending on the cultivar.

Plant Type: A long-lived, oval-headed tree or large shrub, growing up to 25 feet tall. The bark is attractive, flaking off in muted shades of tan and gray. Masses of yellow flowers appear on leafless branches in very early spring, but they rarely are damaged by frost. Leaves turn mahogany red in autumn.

Culture: Cornelian cherry tolerates a wide range of soils. Though it will grow in partial shade, full sun is needed for best fruiting. The flowers are self-fertile, but cross-pollination may further increase yield. The plant rarely needs pruning, only enough to shape it and keep it in bounds, if necessary. Zones 4–8.

CRANBERRY (Vaccinium macrocarpon): ‘Early Black’, ‘Howes’, ‘Searles’, and ‘McFarlin’ are commercial cultivars. ‘Thunderlake’ is a popular “no-bog” type for home gardeners.

Fruit: The ½- to ¾-inch, tart red berries ripen in autumn. Fruits usually are eaten cooked.

Plant Type: Evergreen vine with long, thin stems rising about 1 foot off the ground. The vines creep along the ground and root to form a solid mat of plants. Leaves are small and leathery, and a glossy, dark green.

Culture: Cranberries need a sunny site with a soil that is very acidic (pH 4.0–5.0) and high in organic matter. Commercially, cranberries are grown in sunny bogs that are flooded in winter. But ‘no-bog’ cranberry cultivars have been developed for the home gardener that can be grown in acidic beds or even in containers. No cross-pollination needed. Zones 3–8.

FEIJOA (Feijoa sellowiana): Also known as pineapple guava. ‘Mammoth’, ‘Triumph’, ‘Pineapple Gem’, ‘Choiceana’, ‘Superb’.

Fruit: Fruits are torpedo-shaped or round, 1 to 3 inches long, and have a green skin and yellowish, jellylike interior. The sweet-tart flavor is reminiscent of pineapple, strawberry, and mint. Ripens in autumn.

Plant Type: Evergreen tree or small shrub about 10 feet high and wide. Leaves are glossy green above with silvery undersides. Edible flowers appear on new growth. Petals are white, tinged with purple.

Culture: Tolerates part shade, but does best in full sun in a variety of soil types. Thrives in dry climates. Needs cross-pollination. Prune lightly each year to prevent overcrowding of branches. Harvest fruits as they drop to the ground. Zones 8–10, but fruit flavor is best in cooler summer climates.

HIGHBUSH CRANBERRY (Viburnum trilobum): Also known as Pembina. ‘Andrews’, ‘Manitou’, ‘Phillips’, ‘Hahs’, ‘Wentworth’.

Fruit: Showy red fruits are ⅓ inch across and borne in clusters that are ready for harvest in autumn. The tart berries make excellent preserves and jellies. Except for a single, hard seed, the fruit is similar to that of the true cranberry.

Plant Type: Deciduous, round-topped bush 8 to 12 feet high. Bushes are covered in spring with large clusters of white flowers. The large, three-lobed leaves turn red in August; fruits decorate plants through winter if not harvested.

Culture: Moist, well-drained soils in full sun or partial shade. Keep plants productive by removing one or two of the oldest stems each year and thinning new stems. Zones 2–7.

JOSTABERRY (Ribes nidigrolaria): ‘Jostagranda’, ‘Jostina’, and others.

Fruit: The ⅝-inch black fruits of this hybrid have a taste somewhat reminiscent of its parents: black currant and gooseberry. Jostaberries are borne in clusters of 3 to 5 berries on wood at least 1 year old. Fruit ripens in summer.

Plant Type: Shrub that produces vigorous upright branches up to 6 feet tall. The glossy dark green leaves are deciduous, although they hang onto the plant late into fall.

Culture: Jostaberries prefer well-drained, moderately fertile soil. Mulch to keep roots cool. Plant in a sheltered site to protect early-spring blooms from frost. Keep plants productive by removing one or two of the oldest stems each year. Some cultivars, such as ‘Jostina’ and ‘Jostagranda’, need cross-pollination. Zones 4–7.

JUJUBE (Ziziphus jujube): Also known as Chinese date. ‘Lang’, ‘Li’, and many others.

Fruit: Fruits range from cherry- to plum-size. Just-ripe fruit has mahogany skin, and a white flesh that is crisp and sweet like an apple. Left to ripen longer, the fruit dries and wrinkles, and the flesh becomes beige and concentrated in flavor. Fruits ripen in late summer and autumn.

Plant Type: Small, deciduous tree with small, glossy leaves and a naturally drooping habit. Young trees and some clones have spines. Trees sometimes send up many suckers. Masses of yellow flowers are present for an extended period.

Culture: Thrives in the sunniest and warmest possible locations. Not finicky as to soil. Avoid cultivating ground around trees because this increases tendency of plants to sucker. Blossoms late enough to escape spring frosts, but yield in some areas increases with cross-pollination. Zones 6–10.

LINGONBERRY (Vaccinium vitis-idaea and V. vitis-idaea var. minus): Also called cowberry, partridgeberry, whortleberry, mountain cranberry, and foxberry. ‘Erntesgen’, ‘Koralle’, ‘Scarlet’.

Fruit: Slightly smaller than, but otherwise similar to, cranberries in appearance and flavor. An early crop ripens in summer, but the main crop ripens in autumn.

Plant Type: Sprawling, evergreen shrub with leathery, oval leaves. The plant grows from a few inches to 1 foot in height. Spreads by underground rhizomes. Blooms in spring and again in summer.

Culture: Grows best in full sun or partial shade, and in acidic soil (pH 4.0–5.0). Set plants 1 foot apart in all directions to eventually form a solid mat of plants. Apply an organic mulch after planting. Cross-pollination increases yields. Zones 1–6.

MEDLAR (Mespilus germanica): ‘Nottingham’, ‘Dutch’, ‘Royal’.

Fruit: Fruit resembles a small, russeted apple. It ripens in late autumn but must be allowed to soften indoors. Ripe fruit has a baked-apple texture and a brisk, winelike flavor—much like old-fashioned applesauce with cinnamon.

Plant Type: Small, deciduous tree. Flowers appear in late spring, after shoots have grown a few inches, and are white or slightly pink.

Culture: Grows best in a sunny location in any soil that is well-drained and reasonably fertile. Plants are self-fertile. The tree needs little pruning beyond shaping, when young. On older trees, prune out diseased or interfering wood. Zones 5–8.

MULBERRY (Morus alba, M. nigra, M. rubra): ‘Illinois Everbearing’, ‘Wellington’, ‘Black Persian’, ‘Noir’.

Fruit: Fruits are shaped like blackberries, but may be white, lavender, dark red, or black. Flavor may be sweet or a pleasant balance of acidity and sweetness. Ripening begins midsummer and continues for a few weeks or more, depending on the cultivar.

Plant Type: Deciduous 20- to 40-foot tree. Leaves are 2 to 5 inches long and may be pointed or divided into two or more lobes, even on the same tree. Male and female flowers may be borne on the same or separate trees.

Culture: Needs full sun, but not finicky as to soil. Don’t plant near walkways or driveways, where stains from fallen fruits would be tracked indoors, or splatter on cars. Most cultivars are self-fertile. No pruning is needed once young trees have been trained to a sturdy framework. Birds compete avidly for the fruit. Zones 5–10, depending on the cultivar.

PAWPAW (Asimina triloba): Also called Hoosier banana, Michigan banana, and poor man’s banana. ‘Overleese’, ‘Sunflower’, ‘Taytwo’.

Fruit: Greenish-yellow skin becomes speckled brown as the oblong fruit ripens. Flesh inside is creamy white and custardy, tasting like banana with hints of vanilla, pineapple, and mango. Embedded in the soft pulp is a row of large brown seeds. Fruit ripens in late summer and autumn.

Plant Type: Small, pyramidal, deciduous tree with long, drooping leaves. Trees produce suckers. Flowers are lurid purple, though not prominent, and appear late enough in spring to escape frosts. Leaves turn an attractive yellow in autumn.

Culture: Full sun or partial shade in any well-drained soil. Young trees benefit from shade. Trees do not need pruning. Most cultivars (‘Sunflower’ is an exception) need cross-pollination. Zones 5–9.

POMEGRANATE (Punica granatum): ‘Foothill Early’, ‘Granada’, ‘Ruby Red’, ‘Sweet Spanish’ (‘Papershell’), ‘Wonderful’.

Fruit: Fruit is round and the size of a large apple. Inside the hard shell are hundreds of seeds, each surrounded by a sweetish-tart juice sac. Fruit color ranges from off-white to purplish or crimson. Fruit ripens in late summer.

Plant Type: Deciduous or semi-deciduous small tree or shrub, 15 to 20 feet tall. Flowers are brilliant orange red and are borne periodically from spring through summer toward the ends of branchlets.

Culture: Plant tolerates a wide range of soil conditions. Train to a single or multiple stem, then prune every winter by thinning out crowded areas and removing interfering branches and some of the suckers. Zones 8–10, but yields best-quality fruits in dry, hot climates.

PRICKLY PEAR (mostly Opuntia ficus-indica, but other species also): Also known as Indian fig or tuna. Luther Burbank’s superior selections included ‘Bijou’, ‘Elegant’, ‘Superb’, and ‘Whitefruit’.

Fruit: Fruits, called “tunas,” are 1 to 3 inches across, pear- or fig-shaped, and yellowish green to dark purple in color. Except in some cultivars, skin is covered with spines that must be rubbed off. Pulp is sweet, seedy, and red.

Plant Type: Plants grow 3 to 15 feet tall. Cacti with flat pads covered with thorns, except for certain thornless cultivars. Pads are also edible once thorns have been rubbed or burned off, and play a significant role in Southwestern Native cuisine. Flowers are very showy, orange or yellow.

Culture: Plant in full sun in well-drained soil or sand. Zones 5–10, depending on species.

ROSE HIPS (mostly from Rosa rugosa, but other species also): Most renowned rose hip producer, commonly known as the rugosa, or Japanese, rose.

Fruit: Brilliant scarlet red, orange, or yellow, urn-shaped fruit good for jelly or fruit soup. Ripe flavor is good raw, but fruits are very seedy. The fruits (hips) ripen in late summer.

Plant Type: Deciduous shrub 4 to 8 feet tall with prickly stems and wrinkled leaves. Blooms heavily in spring and sporadically until frost. Flowers are 2 inches across, with single, semidouble, or double white, rose, purple, or pink petals, depending on the cultivar.

Culture: Tolerates almost any soil, even salty beach sand near the ocean. Full sun preferred. For maximum flowering and fruiting, prune away very old wood at or near ground level each winter. Self-fertile. Zones 2–7.

SERVICEBERRY (Amelanchier spp.): Also known as Juneberry. ‘Honeywood’, ‘Pembina’, ‘Regent’, ‘Smoky’, ‘Success’, ‘Thiessen’.

Fruit: Fruits are the size of blueberries, and dark blue, purple, or, in the case of a few cultivars, white. Flavor is sweet and juicy, with a hint of almond from the seeds. Fruits ripen in June or July, but the harvest season is very short for an individual plant.

Plant Type: Serviceberries with tasty fruits are represented by plants ranging in size from low-growing, spreading shrubs to small trees. In early spring, the plants are covered with white blossoms. Autumn color can be spectacular, as the leaves turn shades of purple, orange, and yellow.

Culture: Grows in sun or partial shade in a wide range of soil types. Tree species need little pruning. Bushy species should be pruned each winter, cutting away at their bases any shoots more than four years old, and thinning out the previous season’s shoots so only a half dozen of the most vigorous ones remain. Birds are very fond of serviceberries. Zones 3–8.

EGGPLANT

Solanum melongena var. esculentum

Solanaceae

A classic eggplant is deep purple and pear-shaped, but when you grow your own, you can try a cornucopia of other colors and shapes, from elongated lavender and white ‘Fairy Tale’ to snow white ‘Snowy’ to round violet-blushed ‘Rosa Bianca’. But to succeed with eggplants, you’ll need to supply them with steadily warm growing conditions for at least three months. Eggplants growing in cold soil or exposed to chilly weather will sulk and are more prone to insect and disease problems.

Planting: Give eggplants a head start on the growing season by starting them indoors, 6 to 9 weeks before the average last frost. Soak seeds overnight to encourage germination; sow them ¼ inch deep in a loose, fine medium, such as vermiculite. Use bottom heat to maintain a soil temperature of 80° to 90°F for the 8 to 10 days required for sprouting. Transplant seedlings to individual pots once they reach 3 inches. When outside nighttime air temperatures are above 50°F, gradually expose them to the outdoors to harden them off. Keep transplanting your seedlings into larger pots as you wait for both outdoor air and soil to warm up to at least 70°F.

Try growing eggplants in raised beds, which heat up quickly in spring. Plants given plenty of room are healthier and more productive, so space them 2½ to 3 feet apart in all directions. Water well, pour 1 to 2 cups of compost tea around each plant, and firm the soil gently. See the Compost entry for instructions for making compost tea.

Eggplants are also good for container growing, with one plant per 5-gallon pot.

Growing guidelines: Mulch immediately after transplanting, and gently hand pull any invading weeds. Interplant an early crop, such as lettuce, between the eggplant transplants. When the eggplants bloom, apply more liquid fertilizer and repeat monthly. For best production, plants need 1 to 1½ inches of water a week.

Problems: Flea beetles, which chew many tiny holes in leaves, are eggplant’s worst pest. To avoid this problem, keep plants indoors until early summer, or cover outdoor plants with floating row cover or dust the foliage with kaolin clay (reapply it after rain). If plants become infested, spraying Beauveria bassiana or spinosad may knock back the population of flea beetles and save your plants.

Hand pick and destroy yellow-and-black-striped Colorado potato beetles and the yellow masses of eggs they lay on leaf undersides. Hand picking is also effective for tomato hornworms, 4-inch green caterpillars with white stripes. Don’t destroy those covered with tiny white cocoons; these contain the parasitic offspring of the beneficial braconid wasp. Tiny spider mites cause yellow-stippled leaves; control these pests by knocking them off the plant with a spray of water. For details on controlling aphids and cutworms, see page 458.

The most common eggplant disease is Verticillium wilt. Avoid it by planting resistant cultivars and by rotating crops.

Harvesting: Pick eggplant when the skin takes on a high gloss. To test, press the skin. If the indentation doesn’t spring back, that fruit is ready for harvest. To harvest, cut the stem with a knife or pruning shears. Eggplants will keep for 2 weeks if refrigerated. If you cut open an eggplant fruit and find that the seeds inside have turned brown, the fruit is past prime quality and the flavor may be bitter. The best way to avoid this is by picking fruits on the young side, when they are ⅓ to ⅔ of their fully mature size.

ELDERBERRY

Sambucus spp.

Caprifoliaceae

Although they’re not widely grown in North America, elderberries are worth trying for their beautiful—and edible—flowers and the unique taste of the fruit: a medley of grape, raspberry, and blackberry. Just be sure you have plenty of room for these large, spreading plants; they’re not for small gardens!

Types: Sambucus nigra, European elder, reaches 10 to 30 feet tall. It bears large clusters of yellowish white flowers in June, followed by shiny black berries in September. Some cultivars, such as ‘Black Beauty’, are quite ornamental, but don’t produce as much fruit as American elder does. Zones 5–8.

S. canadensis, American or sweet elder, grows 6 to 12 feet tall. It produces similar clusters of flowers in late June and, later, purple-black berries. ‘Adams’ is a heavy-bearing, early-ripening variety, ‘Johns’ has large fruits and ripens late. Northern gardeners often raise elderberries as substitutes for grapes where the latter are not hardy or fail to ripen before frost. Zones 3–9.

Planting: Elderberries like a sunny location with lots of room to spread. They thrive in a deep, moist soil well supplied with organic matter. Set young plants 5 feet apart in rows at least 8 feet apart, and keep them 10 feet from other plantings. Elderberry flowers are self-pollinating, but the plants are more productive if two or more cultivars are planted near each other.

Care: Apply a thick layer of organic mulch to conserve moisture. If plants aren’t growing well, apply an organic plant food containing nitrogen under the mulch; otherwise, fertilization usually isn’t needed. Water in dry seasons.

Pruning: Prune away dead canes in spring, and cut out all the old canes whenever bushes become crowded. Vigorous elderberries produce an abundance of suckers, so keep plants in neat rows by frequent clipping or mowing. Dig and transplant suckers if you want new plants.

Problems: Elderberries are remarkably free from disease and insect pests, but birds love the fruit, and it is not easy to cover the tall bushes with netting at harvest time. If birds aren’t too numerous and you have the space, plant extra bushes. When berries are abundant, birds tend to tire of them after a few days and leave the ones that ripen later. Or pick berries a day or two before they are ripe, and set them in a warm room, where they’ll continue to ripen.

Winter damage can be a problem some years. The plant’s roots are very hardy, but extreme cold sometimes injures the canes. Fortunately, the fruit forms on new growth, so even when damage is severe, it seldom affects the crop. Since blooms don’t appear until summer, late spring frosts never hurt them. If, however, you live where fall frosts come early, plant early-ripening cultivars for the best results.

Harvesting: The clusters of tiny white flowers in summer are good for tea. Pick them as soon as they open, and dip them in a batter and fry them. To make a tasty “tea,” add a few flower clusters to a gallon glass jar filled with water and a bit of lemon juice and sugar. Set it in the sun for a day, then strain out the flowers.

Soon after blooming, green fruits form and ripen to a rich dark color. Pick the whole fruit cluster and strip off the berries later when you’re ready to use them. Most people do not eat elderberries out of the hand (the raw berries, and other plant parts, are somewhat toxic), but instead make them into tarts, pies, and other desserts or process them into jelly, juice, or wine. They’re a great substitute for blueberries in many recipes.

ELM

See Ulmus

ENDIVE

Cichorium endivia

Asteraceae

The loose, lacy-edged leaves of curly endive are slightly bitter, as are the broad leaves of its close relative, escarole. Both crops have the same growing requirements, and although you can plant them as spring crops, they are ideal for fall harvesting; frost improves the plants’ flavor and makes them less bitter.

Planting: Both curly endive and escarole prefer humus-rich soil in full sun.

For an early-summer harvest, sow seeds indoors in flats 2 months before the last frost date; thin to 6 inches apart. Four weeks after sowing, plant the 4- to 5-inch seedlings 1 foot apart, slightly deeper in the soil than they were in flats. Provide shade if the weather turns hot.

Belgian endive: Enjoy a special addition to salads by growing Belgian endive in containers indoors during the winter.

For fall crops, seed in July, about 90 days before the date of the first frost; stagger plantings every 2 weeks to extend the harvest. Water the ground thoroughly before sowing three seeds per inch; cover the seeds with ⅓ inch of sand, soil, or compost. Thin the seedlings to at least 1 foot apart in all directions. Overlapping leaves can cause the plants to rot.

Growing guidelines: Water regularly, because leaves will be tough and bitter if the soil dries out. Endive needs about 1 inch of water per week. Wet plants tend to rot, though, so soak the soil, not the foliage.

Blanching keeps light out of the plant’s interior and turns the heart a creamy yellow color. To blanch endive during the last 2 to 3 weeks of growth, tie the leaf tops together with rubber bands or twine, or cover the plant with an upturned ceramic plate. Make sure the leaves are dry when you do this, or the head may rot. Blanching produces a milder, less bitter taste, but it also reduces endive’s vitamin content.

Forcing Belgian endive: Belgian endive (Cichorium intybus) is a different species from curly endive and escarole. Under normal growing conditions, Belgian endive produces bitter greens, but when grown indoors out of season, it makes a delicious winter salad crop.

Start by sowing seeds outdoors in late spring in a bed with deep, loose soil. Dig up the roots in fall, and cut off the tops 2 inches above the crown. Trim the roots and set them upright in boxes, deep pots, or a plastic 5-gallon bucket. Fill the containers with potting mix to the tops of the roots; add 6 to 8 inches of sand on top of that. Set the pots in a spot where the temperature stays between 60° and 70°F, and keep the sand moist. Harvest the heads when their tips peek up through the sand.

Problems: Endive is usually problem free. To avoid rot while plants are being blanched, untie plants after a rainstorm, and let the leaves dry before retying. For details on controlling the few aphids or cutworms that may attack, see the chart on page 458.

Harvesting: Harvest individual leaves or an entire plant when needed. Cut the plants with a knife at ground level. If you leave undamaged roots and 1 inch of stem, new growth may occur in warm weather.

EPIMEDIUM

Epimedium, bishop’s hat. Deciduous, evergreen, or semi-evergreen perennial groundcovers.

Description: Epimedium grandiflorum, long-spurred epimedium, grows 1 foot tall. Leaves are divided into leathery, heart-shaped leaflets to 3 inches long. New leaves are tinged with pink, maturing to green, then turning bronze in autumn. In spring, plants bear loose sprays of small, spurred flowers in white, pink, or violet. Zones 3–8.

How to grow: Epimediums thrive in humus-rich, well-drained soil in shade; they will also do well in sun with evenly moist soil. Mulch plants with leaf mold to retain moisture. Divide after flowering, setting plants 8 to 10 inches apart. Cut off old leaves in late winter before flowering. Plants are evergreen in the South with protection, deciduous or semi-evergreen in the North.

Landscape use: Epimediums are grown primarily for their striking foliage. Use them in the shade garden, including in dry shade, under trees, and among shrubs.

EROSION

See Soil

ESPALIER

See Pruning and Training

EUCALYPTUS

Eucalyptus, gum tree. Evergreen or deciduous flowering trees or shrubs.

Description: Eucalyptus cinerea, silver-dollar tree, grows 20 to 30 feet in the landscape with an open, irregular form. The aromatic juvenile foliage is round, gray-green, and arranged in pairs on the branch. Reddish brown fibrous bark is typical of the group of eucalyptus Australians call “stringybarks.” Zones 8–10.

E. gunnii, cider gum, has a mature height of 15 to 40 feet. Cider gum has shedding, green and white mottled bark and yellow fall flowers. The evergreen leaves are opposite, round, and blue-green when young, maturing to a darker green, lance shape. Zones 8–10.

How to grow: Native to Australia, eucalyptus trees are invasive in some parts of California and in Hawaii. They produce a chemical that inhibits the growth of plants around them. In addition, their bark litter is extremely flammable, making them poor landscape choices in fire-prone areas. Eucalyptus are grown primarily on the West Coast of the United States where conditions are similar to those of their native habitat. The Southeast’s warm autumns cause late-season growth, which leads to cold injury. If you do grow eucalyptus, give them full sun and dry, extremely well-drained soil. High fertility and excess moisture cause root rot and rank top growth. Provide support, such as stakes, when necessary. Bees make excellent honey from the flowers of most eucalyptus.

Landscape uses: Eucalyptus trees are used on dry, infertile sites where screening or bank stabilization might be necessary, but native trees are better choices. Some gardeners grow eucalyptus strictly for the juvenile foliage, which is used in floral arrangements, or as houseplants. In this case, the plants are cut back close to the ground each year (a practice called coppicing) to prevent the development of adult foliage.

EUONYMUS

Euonymus, spindle tree. Evergreen or deciduous shrubs or small trees; evergreen groundcovers or vines.

Description: Euonymus alata, burning bush or winged spindle tree, is a popular 12- to 15-foot, deciduous shrub grown for its scarlet fall foliage. It invades wild areas, forming dense thickets, because birds carry its seeds from bushes planted in backyards and public landscapes. Whenever possible, avoid making new plantings of burning bush. Consider native alternatives such as spicebush (Lindera benzoin), strawberry bush (Euonymus americanus), maple-leaf viburnum (Viburnum acerifolium), wild hydrangea (Hydrangea arborescens), or native red chokeberry (Aronia arbutifolia ‘Brilliantissima’). Zones 4–8.

E. bungeana, winterberry euonymus, is a tree-form euonymus that grows to a mature height of about 18 feet. As the tree ages, interesting striations appear on its trunk. This tree has yellow fall color and pink fruits, which open to expose bright, red-orange seed coats that persist into the winter. Zones 4–7.

E. fortunei, wintercreeper, is an evergreen species with countless cultivars that have green or variegated leaves and range from groundcovers to vines to tall shrubs. It, too, is an aggressive invasive that is best avoided because it spreads rapidly, can climb and weaken trees, and out-compete native species. It is subject to serious infestation by scale insects. Zones 4–9.

E. japonica, Japanese euonymus, is an evergreen shrub that grows to a mature height of 6 to 12 feet with an upright form. The dark green, serrated, leathery leaves often display dramatic variegated patterns. Zones 8–9.

How to grow: Site deciduous species in full sun to promote robust growth and fully developed fall color. Plant evergreen euonymus in a spot protected from sun and wind. North of Zone 8, plant in fall or spring; in Zones 8–9, plant in fall or winter. Euonymus thrives in humus-rich soil with even moisture and good drainage. The deciduous species appear to be less susceptible to scale than the evergreens, but they do sometimes get it—usually on the branches rather than the leaves. Control scale with oil sprays. Deer with few other food sources will eat deciduous euonymous; where deer are a problem, choose another shrub.

Landscape uses: Use euonymus in informal hedges or massed planting. Use winterberry euonymus and Japanese euonymus as eye-catching focal points.

EVENING PRIMROSE

See Oenothera

EVERGREENS

Gardeners know that there’s far more to evergreens than just Christmas trees. All plants that retain their green color throughout the year can properly be called evergreens, from trees and woody shrubs to perennials, so there is a broad range of shapes and sizes to choose from. Woody evergreens are divided into two groups according to the general shape of their leaves. Narrow-leaved or needle-leaved evergreens include plants such as junipers ( Juniperus spp.), pines (Pinus spp.), spruces (Picea spp.), and yews (Taxus spp.).

Broadleaved evergreens, which usually have showy flowers or fruit, have leaves in a variety of shapes and sizes that usually are somewhat thickened or leathery. In general, broadleaved evergreens are not as cold hardy as needle-leaved evergreens, but some types, such as evergreen azaleas and rhododendrons (Rhododendron spp.) and hollies (Ilex spp.) are widely adaptable. Tender evergreens, such as gardenias (Gardenia spp.), are grown only in the warmest regions of the country. Some species—sweet bay magnolia (Magnolia virginiana), for example—are evergreen in warm climates, semi-evergreen in moderate climates, and deciduous in the coldest part of their range.

There are evergreens suitable for growing throughout the United States. For the best choices for your garden, consult your local Cooperative Extension office or a botanical garden or nursery in your area. You’ll also find more information on specific evergreens throughout this book. For listings of specific evergreens, check the Quick Reference Guide on page 676.

Landscaping with Evergreens

Low maintenance and moderate water use are two important advantages of evergreens, and there are many reasons to incorporate them into your landscape plan. Evergreens add color and form to the winter landscape in areas where deciduous plants predominate. Use them to screen unattractive views year-round and also to create secluded, private sitting areas. In summer, depend on them to provide a backdrop for deciduous shrubs and flowering perennials.

KEY WORDS Evergreens

Evergreen. A plant that retains its leaves year-round.

Deciduous. A plant that drops all of its leaves in fall.

Semi-evergreen. A plant that keeps some of its leaves year-round. Many semi-evergreen plants, including many perennials, are evergreen in mild climates and semi-evergreen to deciduous in colder regions.

Candles. New shoots that grow from the branch tips of needle-leaved evergreens in a flush of spring growth.

To reduce the lawn area in your yard, replace lawn grass with low-growing evergreens such as creeping juniper ( Juniperus horizontalis), bearberry cotoneaster (Cotoneaster dammeri), bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), or dwarf, spreading forms of Japanese holly (Ilex crenata). Evergreen perennials such as moss phlox (Phlox subulata), sedums (Sedum spp.), and hens-and-chicks (Sempervivum spp.) also make excellent evergreen lawn substitutes.

Since popular evergreens like pines and junipers require at least 8 hours of sun per day to perform well, when choosing shrubs or groundcovers, be sure to use shade-tolerant species on sites that are in partial shade. Evergreens that thrive in partial to full shade include rhododendrons and azaleas, American holly (Ilex opaca), and hemlocks (Tsuga spp.).

Evergreens are always a popular choice for foundation plantings. To avoid a spotty appearance, select species with similar form for a foundation planting or an evergreen shrub border. For example, try grouping spreading junipers with cotoneasters, dwarf forms of false cypress (Chamaecyparis spp.), Japanese pieris or lily-of-the-valley bush (Pieris japonica), yews (Taxus spp.), and hollies. Evergreens are most attractive when they are left to retain their natural shape and allowed to blend together. Shearing them into regimented gumdrop-shaped mounds not only prevents this, but it also increases maintenance for the life of the plant, since you’ll have to shear them at least annually to maintain the shape.

Whether you are planning a foundation planting or a shrub border, or just selecting evergreens to accent your landscape, be sure to learn the mature height and spread of the plants you are considering. In most cases, named cultivars are the best choice, since they have been selected for outstanding characteristics like dwarf size, unusual form, outstanding foliage or flower color, and reliable hardiness or performance. It pays to shop for just the right evergreens instead of picking up inexpensive, unnamed plants at big box stores. For example, American arborvitaes (Thuja occidentalis) look very cute and well-behaved growing in nursery pots, but plant one under a window, and you are going to be forever hacking that plant back, since the species matures at 30 to 60 feet. At a better nursery, you may pay a little more, but you can find a cultivar that is exactly the size you need, so you’ll save time and money in the long run. American arborvitae ‘Boothii’ matures at 6 to 10 feet, while ‘Little Gem’ reaches only 3 feet. It’s also important to be patient. Give your new small plants time to mature and fill the space you have planned.

Which Is Which?

Sorting out the needle-leaved evergreens takes close-up detective work. Here are some clues to help you identify them:

Arborvitaes (Thuja spp.) and false cypresses (Chamaecyparisus spp.): Scalelike needles in fan-shaped sprays; soft to the touch.
Firs (Abies spp.): Needles are flat, soft, two-sided, 1 to 2½ inches long.
Hemlocks (Tsuga spp.): Needles are flat, ¼ to 1 inch long, with two white-band markings on the underside.
Junipers (Juniperus spp.): Sharp awl-shaped needles, as well as fans of scalelike needles; both types harsh to the touch.
Pines (Pinus spp.): Needles are thin, 2 to 5 inches long, in bundles of two, three, or five.
Spruces (Picea spp.): Needles are thin, ½ to 1¼ inch long, with four sides and sharp points. Feel the edges by rolling between thumb and finger
Yews (Taxus spp.): Needles are flat, lustrous, dark green, ½ to 1½ inches long. Young twigs have green bark.

Yews (Taxus spp.)

Pines (Pinus spp.)

Arborvitaes (Thuja spp.)

Spruces (Picea spp.)

Junipers (Juniperus spp.)

Hemlocks (Tsuga spp.)

Firs (Abies spp.)

Consider using evergreens to create a backdrop to provide contrast and to showcase other flowering shrubs and perennials. Plant a living privacy fence to screen the deck, pool, or lawn. For an accent plant, choose a weeping white pine such as Pinus strobus ‘Pendula’, or a blue Atlas cedar such as Cedrus atlantica ‘Glauca’. Evergreens can even help save money on fuel bills, too: Plant them as a hedge to break the force of winter winds.

Planting and Care

Most evergreens like rich, humusy, moist but well-drained soil. Cypress (Cupressus spp.), junipers, and pines tolerate dry soil once their roots are established. Some evergreens, such as lily-of-the-valley bush, heaths and heathers (Erica spp. and Caluna spp.), laurels (Kalmias spp.), and azaleas and rhododendrons, prefer acid soil. See the pH entry for information on how to alter soil pH in the planting area for these plants.

Carry an evergreen by its root ball or container, never by the trunk or branches. For planting and staking instructions, see the Planting entry. If your evergreens develop pest or disease problems, consult the Pests and Plant Diseases and Disorders entries.

Pruning

Evergreens that are the proper size for their location need very little pruning. Their natural growth habit is interesting and attractive. To remove unhealthy or errant growth, use a thinning cut, pruning off branches nearly flush against the branch from which they originate. For information on how to make pruning cuts correctly, see the Pruning and Training entry.

Unlike broadleaved evergreens, needle-leaved evergreens aren’t quick to resprout after pruning. Take care to prune them properly. Follow these steps when pruning evergreens:

Thin evergreens by removing branches any time of the year. Cut stray branches far enough to the inside of the plant to hide the stub. Branches cut back beyond the green needles generally will not sprout new growth.

Don’t cut the central leader at the top of the tree—an evergreen without its central leader will have a drastically different shape.

Prune arborvitae, hemlocks, junipers, and yews throughout the growing season.

Cut back firs, pines, and spruces only in spring when “candles” of new growth appear at the tips of the branches. To encourage denseness or shape the tree, cut off about half or two-thirds of the candle.

Trim your evergreens gradually. If you cut off more than a third of the total green on the plant, it may die.