In the following notes, certain documents obtained under the Freedom of Information Act are referenced using the followng titles: Factual Chronology, Hayflick Rebuttal to Schriver Report, Riseberg Memo, Schriver Report, and Schriver Rebuttal to Hayflick Rebuttal. Full citations for these documents are in the Selected Bibliography.
1. Helen Keller, The Open Door (Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1957), 31.
1. Quoted in William A. Clark and Dorothy H. Geary, “The Story of the American Type Culture Collection: Its History and Development (1899–1973),” Advances in Applied Microbiology 17 (1974): 295.
2. Pathological Laboratory Autopsy Report, Philadelphia General Hospital, autopsy no. 74681, February 21, 1966, Post Mortem Records, vol. 465 (January 18–April 8, 1966), Collection 80-101.24, City Archives, City of Philadelphia Department of Records.
3. Leonard B. Seeff et al., “A Serologic Follow-up of the 1942 Epidemic of Post-vaccination Hepatitis in the United States Army,” New England Journal of Medicine 316 (1987): 965–70.
4. Neal Nathanson and Alexander Langmuir, “The Cutter Incident: Poliomyelitis Following Formaldehyde-Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccination in the United States During the Spring of 1955 II: The Relationship of Poliomyelitis to Cutter Vaccine,” American Journal of Hygiene 78 (1963): 39; Paul A. Offit, “The Cutter Incident, 50 Years Later,” New England Journal of Medicine 352 (2005): 1411.
5. David M. Oshinsky, Polio: An American Story (New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 2005), 238.
6. The description of the launch of WI-38 is taken from personal interviews with Leonard Hayflick listed in the bibliography including, especially, a telephone interview on July 1, 2013.
7. The number of U.S. recruits vaccinated from October 2011 through November 2015 (826,317) was provided by the Defense Press Office in the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense; for the number vaccinated between 1971 and 1999, some 8.5 million, see: CNA Analysis and Solutions, Population Representation in the Military Services: Fiscal Year 2014 Summary Report, Appendix D, Table D–4 (Washington, DC: Office of the Undersecretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness, 2014), https://www.cna.org/pop-rep/2014/appendixd/d_04.html; several hundred thousand U.S. recruits also received adenovirus vaccine made in WI-38 cells during testing of the vaccine in the mid- and late-1960s: see: “Conference on Cell Cultures for Virus Vaccine Production Nov. 6–8 1967, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland,” NCI Monographs, no. 29 (1968), 499.
8. Nicholas Wade, “Hayflick’s Tragedy: The Rise and Fall of a Human Cell Line,” Science 194, no. 4235 (1976): 125.
9. For an illuminating analysis of this era, see David J. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside: A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making (New York: Al-dine de Gruyter, 1991, 2003), 30–50.
10. See for example Marcia Angell, “Medical Research: The Dangers to the Human Subjects,” New York Review of Books 62, no. 18 (November 19, 2015): 50.
11. Henry K. Beecher, “Ethics and Clinical Research,” New England Journal of Medicine 274, no. 24 (1966): 1354–60.
12. William H. Stewart, “Surgeon General’s Directives on Human Experimentation,” PPO #129 (Bethesda, MD: US Public Health Service, revised July 1, 1966), https://history.nih.gov/research/downloads/Surgeongeneraldirective1966.pdf.
13. See, for instance, Angell, “Medical Research,” 48–51; and Marcia Angell, “Medical Research on Humans: Making It Ethical,” New York Review of Books 62, no. 19 (December 3, 2015): 30–32.
14. World Health Organization, “Situation Report: Zika Virus Microcephaly Guillain-Barré Syndrome, July 7, 2016,” 7.
1. Nicole Krauss, The History of Love (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), 11.
2. Maxwell Whiteman, “Philadelphia’s Jewish Neighborhoods,” in The Peoples of Philadelphia: A History of Ethnic Groups and Lower-Class Life, 1790–1940, Allen F. Davis and Mark H. Haller, eds. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1973), 250; Richard A. Varbero, “Philadelphia’s South Italians in the 1920s,” in Peoples of Philadelphia, Davis and Haller, eds., 260–61.
3. “13th US Federal Census (1910) ED 71, Sh. 3B, line 4: Res. 411 Lombard St., Phila. PA,” cited at http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~jhayflick/ps08/ps08_281.htm; Mark H. Haller, “Recurring Themes,” in Peoples of Philadelphia, Davis and Haller, eds., 283–84.
4. John F. Sutherland, “Housing the Poor,” in Peoples of Philadelphia, Davis and Haller, eds., 184–85.
5. Dennis J. Clark, “The Philadelphia Irish: Persistant Presence,” in Peoples of Philadelphia, Davis and Haller, eds.; Whiteman “Jewish Neighborhoods,” in ibid, 242.
6. John M. Barry, The Great Influenza: The Story of the Deadliest Pandemic in History (New York: Viking Penguin, 2004), 326.
7. Roger D. Simon, “Great Depression,” The Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia, http://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/archive/great-depression/ (reprinted and adapted from Roger D. Simon, “Philadelphia During the Great Depression, 1929–1941,” Historical Society of Pennsylvania, “Closed for Business: The Story of Bankers Trust During the Great Depression” http://www.hsp.org/bankers-trust).
8. Philadelphia County Relief Board, Office Manual of the Philadelphia County Relief Board, August 1934, section V, page 1, Temple University Urban Archive, Jewish Family Service, series 4, box 7, volume 16.
9. Simon, “Great Depression.”
10. Leonard Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, March 23, 2014.
11. Vincent J. Cristofalo, “Profile in Gerontology: Leonard Hayflick, PhD,” Contemporary Gerontology 9, no. 3 (2003): 86.
12. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, October 3, 2012.
13. Leonard Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, March 31, 2014.
14. Ibid.
1. D. Ivanovsky, 1892. “Concerning the Mosaic Disease of the Tobacco Plant,” St. Petsb. Acad. Imp. Sci. Bul. 35 (1892): 67–70. Cited in Alice Lustig and Arnold J. Levine, “One Hundred Years of Virology,” Journal of Virology 66, no. 8 (August 1992): 4629–31.
2. M. W. Beijerinck, “Concerning a Contagium Vivum Fluidum as a Cause of the Spot-Disease of Tobacco Leaves,” Verh. Akad. Wet. Amsterdam 2, no. 6 (1898): 3–21. This is the third reference in Lustig and Levine, “One Hundred Years of Virology.”
3. F. Loeffler and P. Frosch, Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Parasitenkd. Infektionskr. Hyg. Abt. 1 Orig. 28 (1898): 371. Cited as reference 13 in Lustig and Levine, “One Hundred Years of Virology.”
4. Edward Rybicki, A Short History of the Discovery of Viruses (Buglet Press e-book, 2015), 6. This book is available for purchase at https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/short-history-discovery-viruses/id1001627125?mt=13. Part one is also freely available here: https://rybicki.wordpress.com/2012/02/06/a-short-history-of-the-discovery-of-viruses-part-1/. And part 2 is here: https://rybicki.wordpress.com/2012/02/07/a-short-history-of-the-discovery-of-viruses-part-2/
5. F. Loeffler and P. Frosch, “Summarischer Bericht über die Ergebnisse der Untersuchungen der Kommission zur Erforschung der Maul- und Klauenseuche bei dem Institut fu$ r Infektionskrankheiten in Berlin,” Centralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde und Infektionskrankheiten, Abt. I 22 (1897): 257–59. Loeffler and Frosch’s achievement is also described in Rudolf Rott and Stuart Siddell, “One Hundred Years of Animal Virology,” Journal of General Virology 79 (1998): 2871–72, http://jgv.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/0022-1317-79-11-2871?crawler=true&mimetype=application/pdf.
6. Thomas M. Rivers, “Filterable Viruses: A Critical Review,” Journal of Bacteriology xiv, no. 4 (1927): 228.
7. Thomas M. Rivers, ed., Filterable Viruses (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1928), 1–418.
8. Albert B. Sabin and Peter K. Olitsky, “Cultivation of Poliomyelitis Virus in Vitro in Human Embryonic Nervous Tissue,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 34 (1936): 357–59.
9. Rachel Benson Gold, “Lessons from Before Roe: Will Past Be Prologue?” Guttmacher Report on Public Policy 6 (2003): 8–11, www.guttmacher.org/about/gpr/2003/03/lessons-roe-will-past-be-prologue; Rosemary Nossif, Before Roe: Abortion Policy in the States (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001), 33–35.
10. Carole R. McCann, “Abortion,” in The Oxford Companion to United States History, ed. Paul S. Boyer (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 3; Henry J. Sangmeister, “A Survey of Abortion Deaths in Philadelphia from 1931 to 1940 Inclusive,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 46 (1943): 757–58.
11. John F. Enders, Thomas H. Weller, and Frederick C. Robbins, “Cultivation of the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus in Cultures of Various Human Embryonic Tissues,” Science 109 (1949): 85–87.
12. Saul Benison, Tom Rivers: Reflections on a Life in Medicine and Science: An Oral History Memoir Prepared by Saul Benison (Cambridge, MA, and London: MIT Press, 1967), 446.
13. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, October 3, 2012.
14. Leonard Hayflick, “Early Days at Merck,” Web of Stories, July, 2011, www.webofstories.com/play/leonard.hayflick/13.
15. Ruth Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, September 29, 2014.
16. Wistar Institute, “Our History,” www.wistar.org/the-institute/our-history (accessed June 7, 2016).
17. Leonard Warren, “A History of the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology” (unpublished manuscript, March 25, 2014), 25, 40, 60; Erik Larson, The Devil in the White City: Murder, Magic, and Madness at the Fair That Changed America (New York: Random House, 2003).
18. Warren, “A History of the Wistar Institute” 2, 47, 61, 78, 79; Paul Offit, Vaccinated: One Man’s Quest to Defeat the World’s Deadliest Diseases (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 79–80.
19. Warren, “History of the Wistar Institute,” 106–12.
20. Ibid., 111.
21. Ibid., 101.
22. Leonard Hayflick, interview.
23. Leonard Hayflick, “The Growth of Human and Poultry Pleuropneumonia-like Organisms in Tissue Cultures and in Ovo and the Characterization of an Infectious Agent Causing Tendovaginitis with Arthritis in Chickens” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1956).
24. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, March 3, 2013.
1. Maurice Hilleman, interview with Paul Offit, Nov. 30, 2004, audio file courtesy of Paul Offit.
2. Barbara Cohen, interview with the author, November 20, 2014.
3. John Rowan Wilson, Margin of Safety (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1963), 140.
4. Ursula Roth, eighty-fifth-birthday tribute to Hilary Koprowski, 2001. Courtesy of Sue Jones.
5. The Belgian virologist Lise Thiry related this tale in a written tribute for a book of memories compiled to celebrate Hilary Koprowski’s eighty-fifth birthday in 2001. Thiry’s recollections were provided courtesy of Sue Jones, Koprowski’s former assistant.
6. Minutes of Wistar Institute Board of Managers Meeting, February 24, 1967, page 4, UPT 50 R252, box 68, file folder 12 (Wistar Institute 1966–67), Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; Trustee Minutes, vol. 26, page 313, collection no. UPA 1.1, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; Vittorio Defendi, interview with the author, March 18, 2014.
7. Peter Doherty, telephone interview with the author, January 20, 2015.
8. Michael Katz, “A Devotion to ‘Real Science,’” in “Symposium in Honor of Hilary Koprowski’s Achievements,” Journal of Infectious Diseases 212, Supplement 1 (2015): S6.
9. Stacey Burling, “Hilary Koprowski, Polio Vaccine Pioneer, Dead at 96,” Philadelphia Inquirer, April 14, 2013, http://articles.philly.com/2013-04-15/news/38559037_1_poliovaccine-hilary-koprowski-rabies-vaccine.
10. Roger Vaughan, Listen to the Music: The Life of Hilary Koprowski (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2000), 5.
11. Bob Gallo, “Lessons from a World Trip,” in “Symposium in Honor of Hilary Koprowski’s Achievements,” S6.
12. Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 111.
13. I. S. Ravdin to Jonathan Rhoads, January 27, 1960, UPT 50 R252, box 65, file folder 56 (Wistar Institute, 1959–1961), Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
14. “Draft of Minutes of Meeting of the Executive Committee of the Board of Managers of the Wistar Institute,” September 21 1960, and I. S. Ravdin, “Memo,” December 15, 1960, both in UPC 1.4, box 6, file folder “Wistar Institute Board of Managers,” Vice President for Medical Affairs Correspondence and Records, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; I. S. Ravdin to Francis Boyer, July 1, 1960, UPT 50 R252, box 65, file folder 56 (Wistar Institute, 1959–1961), Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; Committee on the Wistar Institute to President Gaylord P. Harnwell, November 17, 1959, p. 3, UPA4, box 114, file folder 24 (Goddard Report: Committee on the Wistar Institute 1955–1960), Office of the President, Gaylord Probasco Harnwell Administration, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; “Tentative Minutes, Wistar Executive Committee, 11/18/59,” pp. 2–3, UPA4, box 114, file folder 17 (Wistar Institute IV: 1955–1960), Office of the President, Gaylord Probasco Harnwell Administration, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; correspondence among Joseph Stokes Jr., Hilary Koprowski, Jonathan E. Rhoads, Albert Linton, and I. S. Ravdin, January 20, 1960, through February 22, 1960, call no. B.St65p, file folder “Koprowski, Hilary #2,” Joseph Stokes Papers Series I, American Philosophical Society Archives.
15. “Resolution by the Senior Members of the Scientific Staff of the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, to Be Forwarded to the President and Board of Managers,” December 30, 1959, UPA4, box 114, file folder 17 (Wistar Institute IV: 1955–1960), Office of the President, Gaylord Probasco Harnwell Administration, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
16. Much of the biographical information in this section is rendered in lively detail in Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 17–40; this section also draws on this engaging memoir by Hilary Koprowski’s wife: Irena Koprowska, A Woman Wanders Through Life and Science (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997), 38–122; Christopher Koprowski, e-mail to the author, October 15, 2013.
17. Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 42, 67.
18. Ibid., 44.
19. David M. Oshinsky, Polio: An American Story (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 138–42.
20. Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 1–2.
21. Hilary Koprowski, Thomas W. Norton, and Walsh McDermott, “Isolation of Poliomyelitis Virus from Human Serum by Direct Inoculation into a Laboratory Mouse,” Public Health Reports 62, no. 41 (1947): 1467–76.
22. Hilary Koprowski, George A. Jervis, and Thomas W. Norton, “Immune Responses in Human Volunteers upon Oral Administration of a Rodent-Adapted Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus,” American Journal of Hygiene 55 (1952): 109.
23. Oshinsky, Polio, 135.
24. Hilary Koprowski, “A Condensed Version of an Unpublished Lecture, ‘Frontiers of Virology: Development of Vaccines Against Polio Virus,’ at the Medical School of the Hershey Medical Center, June 18, 1980,” in Koprowska, A Woman Wanders, 298.
25. James W. Trent Jr., Inventing the Feeble Mind: A History of Mental Retardation in the United States (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1994), Kindle e-book, location 3312 of 5061.
26. Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Committee on Medical Research, Contractor Records, C 450, R L2, Bimonthly Progress Report, PI Alf S. Alving (University of Chicago), August 1, 1944, cited in David J. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside: A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1991, 2003), 36.
27. Ibid., 38; Werner Henle et al., “Experiments on Vaccination of Human Beings Against Epidemic Influenza,” Journal of Immunology 53 (1946): 75–93.
28. Thomas Francis Jr. et al., “Protective Effect of Vaccination Against Induced Influenza A,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 24, no. 4 (1945): 536–46; Jonas E. Salk et al., “Protective Effect of Vaccination Against Induced Influenza B,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 24, no. 4 (1945): 547–53.
29. Koprowski, “Condensed Version of an Unpublished Lecture,” 298.
30. Koprowski, Jervis, and Norton, “Immune Responses in Human Volunteers,” 109.
31. Oshinsky, Polio, 136.
32. Koprowski, “Condensed Version of an Unpublished Lecture,” 299.
33. Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 15–16.
34. Koprowski, Jervis and Norton, “Immune Responses in Human Volunteers,” 125.
35. Norman Topping (with Gordon Cohn), Recollections (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990), 139–41.
36. Leonard Warren, “A History of the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology” (unpublished manuscript, March 25, 2014), 121–22.
37. Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 77–78; Warren, “History of the Wistar Institute,” 122.
38. William DuBarry, president of the Wistar Institute board of managers, to Hilary Koprowski, January 24, 1957, UPA4 (Office of the President Records), box 114, folder 19 (Wistar Institute: Administrative Appointments, 1955–1960), University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
39. Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 77.
40. Ibid., 81.
41. Ibid., 63–64.
42. Ibid., 79.
43. Warren, “History of the Wistar Institute,” 127.
44. Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Biennial Report, 1958–1959, 9–11, Wistar Institute Archives, Philadelphia, PA.
45. Ibid., 24.
46. Elsa M. Zitcer, Jørgen Fogh, and Thelma H. Dunnebacke, “Human Amnion Cells for Large-Scale Production of Poliovirus,” Science 122, no. 3157 (1955): 30; Jørgen Fogh and R. O. Lund, “Continuous Cultivation of Epithelial Cell Strain (FL) from Human Amniotic Membrane,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 94, no. 3 (1957): 532–37; Thelma H. Dunnebacke and Elsa M. Zitcer, “Transformation of Cells from the Normal Human Amnion into Established Strains,” Cancer Research 17 (1957): 1047–53.
47. Leonard Hayflick, “The Establishment of a Line (WISH) of Human Amnion Cells in Continuous Cultivation,” Experimental Cell Research 23, no. 1 (1961): 14–20.
48. Stanley M. Gartler, National Cancer Institute Monograph 26, no. 167 (1967); Stanley M. Gartler, “Apparent HeLa Cell Contamination of Human Heteroploid Cell Lines,” Nature 217 (1968): 750–51.
49. Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Biennial Report, 1958–1959, 24; Leonard Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, June 9, 2014.
1. Robert E. Hall, “Abortion in American Hospitals,” American Journal of Public Health 57, no. 11 (1967): 1933.
2. Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Biennial Report: 1958–1959, 25, Wistar Institute Archives, Philadelphia, PA.
3. D. A. Rigoni-Stern, “Fatti Statistici Relativi alle Malattie Cancerose Che Servirono di Base Alle Poche Cose Dette dal Dott.,” G Servire Progr Path Tera 2 (1842): 507–17, Daniel DiMaio, “Nuns, Warts, Viruses and Cancer,” Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 88, no. 2 (2015): 127.
4. V. Ellerman and O. Bang, “Experimentelle Leukämie bei Hühnern,” Zentralbl Bakteriol Parasitenkd Infectionskr Hyg Abt I 46 (1908): 595–609. For an English-language description of Ellerman and Bang’s paper, see Robin A. Weiss and Peter K. Vogt, “One Hundred Years of Rous Sarcoma Virus,” Journal of Experimental Medicine 208, no. 12 (2011): 2352, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3256973/#bib12.
5. Peyton Rous, “A Sarcoma of the Fowl Transmissible by an Agent Separable from the Tumor Cells,” Journal of Experimental Medicine 13, no. 4 (1911): 397–411, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2124874/pdf/397.pdf.
6. George Klein, “The Strange Road to the Tumor-Specific Transplantation Antigens,” Cancer Immunity 1 (2001): 6, http://cancerimmunolres.aacrjournals.org/content/canimmarch/1/1/6.full.
7. “Medicine: Cornering the Killer,” Time, July 27, 1959, http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864777,00.html.
8. Hilary Koprowski, “The Viral Concept of the Etiology of Cancer,” undated article from unidentified journal, c. 1960, p. 57, UPT 50 R252, box 22, file folder 24, “Professional Correspondence, Kop-Kos,” Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Biennial Report: 1958–1959, 25, Wistar Institute Archives, Philadelphia, PA.
9. Joe Hin Tjio and Albert Levan, “The Chromosome Number of Man,” Hereditas 42 (1956): 1–6, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1601-5223.1956.tb03010.x/epdf.
10. T. C. Tsu, Charles S. Pomerat, and Paul S. Moorhead, “Mammalian Chromosomes in Vitro VIII: Heteroploid Transformation in the Human Cell Strain Mayes,” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 19 (1957): 867–73; R. S. Chang, “Continuous Subcultivation of Epithelial-like Cells from Normal Human Tissues,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 87, no. 2 (1954): 440–43; J. Leighton et al., “Transformation of Normal Human Fibroblasts into Histologically Malignant Tissue in Vitro,” Science 123, no. 3195 (1956): 502–3; L. Hayflick and P. S. Moorhead, “Cell Lines from Non-neoplastic Tissue,” in P. L. Altman and D. S. Dittmer, eds., Growth (Bethesda, MD: Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 1962), 156–60.
11. D. von Hansemann, “Ueber asymmetrische Zellteilung in Epithelkrebsen und deren biologische Bedeutung,” Virchows Arch Path Anat Physiol Klin Med 119 (1890): 299–326.
12. Henry Harris, trans. and ann., “‘Concerning the Origin of Malignant Tumours’ by Theodor Boveri,” Journal of Cell Science 121 (2008): S1–S84. This is a translation of Boveri’s original paper.
13. Peter C. Nowell and David A. Hungerford, “A Minute Chromosome in Human Chronic Granulocytic Leukemia,” Science 132 (1960): 1497.
14. J. H. Tjio and Theodore T. Puck, “Genetics of Somatic Mammalian Cells II: Chromosomal Constitution of Cells in Tissue Culture,” Journal of Experimental Medicine 108 (1958): 261.
15. Rachel Benson Gold, “Lessons from Before Roe: Will Past Be Prologue?” Guttmacher Report on Public Policy 6, no. 1 (2003): 9.
16. Purdon’s Pennsylvania Statutes and Consolidated Statutes, Title 18, Crimes and Offenses, Chapter 2: The Penal Code of 1939, Article VII: Offenses Against the Person, Section 718: Abortion.
17. Ibid., Section 719: Abortion Causing Death.
18. Commonwealth v. Zimmerman, 214 Pa. Super. 61, 251 A.2d 819 (1969); Commonwealth v. King, No. 37, March Term 1968, Pa. Court of Common Pleas (Allegheny County, Criminal Division); Janet M. LaRue, “Is Kate Michelman Telling the Truth About Her Own Abortion Story,” Human Events, January 24, 2006, http://humanevents.com/2006/01/24/is-kate-michelman-telling-the-truth-about-her-own-abortion-story/.
19. Leslie J. Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine and Law in the United States, 1867–1973 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1997): 13, 61–70.
20. Ibid., 15, 132, 135.
21. Henry J. Sangmeister, “A Survey of Abortion Deaths in Philadelphia from 1931 to 1940 Inclusive,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 46 (1943): 756–57.
22. Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime, 15.
23. R. K. Denworth (Drinker, Biddle and Reath) to I. S. Ravdin, September 28, 1962, page 1, series UPC 1.4, box 14, file folder “Dept. of Ob/Gyn,” University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
24. Name withheld, telephone interview with the author, June 30, 2014.
25. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, “Rules Governing Requests for Therapeutic Abortion and/or Sterilization,” January 21, 1963, series UPC 1.4, box 14, file folder “Dept. of Ob/Gyn,” University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
26. Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime, 204–7.
27. Hall, “Abortion in American Hospitals,” 1933.
28. Betsy Meredith, telephone interview with the author, July 16, 2014.
29. Photograph of I. S. Ravdin and Dwight D. Eisenhower, UPT 50 R252, box 182, file folder 13, Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
30. John M. Mitchell to I. S. Ravdin, October 29, 1952, series UPC 1.4, box 1, file folder “1952–Marriage Council of Philadelphia, Contract with University of Pennsylvania,” University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
31. “The Roman Catholic Church and the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania,” undated, series UPC 1.4, box 2, file folder “Department of Ob-Gyn,” University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
32. I. S. Ravdin to Franklin Payne, July 15, 1960, series UPC 1.4, box 2, file folder “Department of Ob-Gyn,” University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
33. Photograph of I. S. Ravdin and Pope Pius XII, UPT 50 R252, box 182, file folder 56, Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
34. I. S. Ravdin to Mrs. Roland T. Addis, December 24, 1964, series UPC 1.4, box 15, file folder “VPMA,” University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
35. I. S. Ravdin’s growing distrust of Hilary Koprowski is on display in his correspondence from the period. “Dr. Koprowski may be a distinguished person, but I have previously questioned his ethics and I am questioning them again,” Ravdin wrote to University of Pennsylvania president Gaylord P. Harnwell on April 8, 1960, after Koprowski reneged on funding he had told the Wistar’s board of managers that he would use to support a scientist that he had recruited to the Wistar from England. (See I. S. Ravdin to Gaylord Harnwell, April 8, 1960, UPA 4, box 114, file folder 17, “Wistar Institute IV 1955–1960,” Office of the President Records, Gaylord Probasco Harnwell Administration, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.)
36. I. S. Ravdin to Margaret Reed Lewis, January 11, 1947, UPT 50 R252, box 68, file folder 15, Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
37. I. S. Ravdin to William F. McLimans, March 21, 1956, UPT 50 R252, box 68, file folder 15, Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
38. Hilary Koprowski, “The Viral Concept of the Etiology of Cancer” (publication title unknown), page 57, UPT 50 R252, box 22, file folder 24, Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; Betsy Meredith, telephone interview.
39. Leonard Hayflick, e-mail to the author, July 18, 2014.
40. Hugo Lagercrantz and Jean-Pierre Changeux, “The Emergence of Human Consciousness: From Fetal to Neonatal Life,” Pediatric Research 65 (2009): 255–60, www.nature.com/pr/journal/v65/n3/full/pr200950a.html.
41. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, October 3, 2012.
42. Leonard Hayflick and Paul S. Moorhead, “The Serial Cultivation of Human Diploid Cell Strains,” Experimental Cell Research 25, no. 3 (1961): 587.
43. Ibid., 588.
44. Ibid.
45. Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Biennial Report: 1958–1959, cover and “Contents” page.
46. Ibid., 26.
1. Jules Verne, Journey to the Centre of the Earth (1864; New York: Bantam/Dell, Bantam Classic Reissue, May 2006), 143.
2. Alexis Carrel, “On the Permanent Life of Cells Outside the Organism,” Journal of Experimental Medicine 15 (1912): 516–30, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2124948/pdf/516.pdf.
3. “Dr. Carrel’s Miracles in Surgery Win the Nobel Prize,” New York Times, October 13, 1912, pp. 78–79. http://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1912/10/13/100594519.html?pageNumber=78.
4. “Isolated Tissue Holds Life 12 Years in Test,” New York Tribune, January 6, 1924.
5. “Medicine: Carrel’s Man,” Time, September 16, 1935; Alexis Carrel, Man, the Unknown (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1935).
6. Wilton R. Earle et al., “Production of Malignancy in Vitro IV: The Mouse Fibroblast Cultures and Changes Seen in the Living Cells,” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 4 (1943): 165–69.
7. Leonard Hayflick and Paul S. Moorhead, “The Serial Cultivation of Human Diploid Cell Strains,” Experimental Cell Research 25, no. 3 (1961): 591.
8. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, November 19, 2014.
9. John F. Kennedy to American Association of Newspaper Editors, Washington, DC, April 21, 1960, Papers of John F. Kennedy. Prepresidential Papers. Senate Files. Series 12.1. Speech Files, 1953–1960. Box 908, Folder “American Society of Newspaper Editors, Washington, DC, www.jfklibrary.org/Research/Research-Aids/JFK-Speeches/American-Society-of-Newspaper-Editors_19600421.aspx.
10. Paul Moorhead, interview with the author, November 14, 2012.
11. Hayflick and Moorhead, “Serial Cultivation,” 601.
12. Ibid.; Leonard Hayflick, “Citation Classics,” Current Contents 26 (1978): 144.
13. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, October 4, 2012.
14. Leonard Hayflick, How and Why We Age (New York: Ballantine Books, 1994), 127–29.
15. Associated Press, “Pneumonia Study Points to Vaccine: U.S. Scientists Isolate Agent That Causes a Prevalent Form of the Disease,” New York Times, January 23, 1962, p. 1.
16. Hayflick and Moorhead, “Serial Cultivation,” 619.
17. Ibid., 616–19.
18. Ibid., 605.
19. Ibid., 600–601.
20. Ibid., 589.
21. Ibid., 607–8.
22. Chester M. Southam, Alice E. Moore, and Cornelius P. Rhoads, “Homotransplantation of Human Cell Lines,” Science 125 (1957): 158.
23. Elinor Langer, “Human Experimentation: Cancer Studies at Sloan-Kettering Stir Public Debate on Medical Ethics,” Science 143 (1964): 552; Robert D. Mulford, “Experimentation on Human Beings,” Stanford Law Review 20 (1967): 110.
24. Mulford, “Experimentation on Human Beings,” 100; Rebecca Skloot, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (New York: Crown, 2010), 135.
25. Southam, Moore, and Rhoads, “Homotransplantation of Human Cell Lines,” 158.
26. Hayflick and Moorhead, “Serial Cultivation,” 608–9.
27. Steve Hale, “Noted Cancer Researcher Urges ‘Imaginative’ Tests on Human,” Deseret News and Salt Lake Telegram, March 23, 1964, p. B1.
28. William Elkins, interview with the author, June 25, 2014.
29. Leonard Hayflick et al., “Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines in a Human Fetal Diploid Cell Strain,” American Journal of Hygiene 75 (1962): 250.
30. Ibid.
31. Hayflick and Moorhead, “Serial Cultivation,” 609.
32. World Health Organization Scientific Working Group on the Human Diploid Cell, “Report to the Director-General,” Geneva, July 16–18, 1962, 14.
33. Leonard Hayflick, “The Limited in Vitro Lifetime of Human Diploid Cell Strains,” Experimental Cell Research 37 (1965): 628–29.
34. Ibid., 631.
35. Peyton Rous, “A Sarcoma of the Fowl Transmissible by an Agent Separable from the Tumor Cells,” Journal of Experimental Medicine 13, no. 4 (1911): 397–411.
36. Paul Moorhead, interview.
37. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, November 19, 2014.
38. J. H. Tjio and Theodore T. Puck, “Genetics of Somatic Mammalian Cells II: Chromosomal Constitution of Cells in Tissue Culture,” Journal of Experimental Medicine 108 (1958): 260–62.
39. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, October 4, 2012.
40. Peyton Rous to Hilary Koprowski, April 24, 1961. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
1. David Maraniss, Barack Obama: The Story (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012), xxiii.
2. Leonard Hayflick and Paul S. Moorhead, “The Serial Cultivation of Human Diploid Cell Strains,” Experimental Cell Research 25, no. 3 (1961): 585–621.
3. A. M. Rosenthal, “Red Tape Tangles India’s Monkeys: Policy Shift Strands 5,000 Animals at Airport on Way Abroad for Medical Use,” New York Times, March 2, 1958, p. 26.
4. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, October 3, 2012.
5. Erling Norrby, Nobel Prizes and Life Sciences (Singapore: World Scientific, 2010), 70, and 123.
6. Per Axelsson, “The Cutter Incident and the Development of a Swedish Polio Vaccine, 1952–1957,” Dynamis 32, no. 2 (2012): 312.
7. Erik Lycke, telephone interview with the author, October 24, 2013; Erling Norrby, interview with the author, September 20, 2013.
8. World Health Organization, “Report to the Director-General,” July 24, 1962, MHO/PA/140.62 (World Health Organization Scientific Group on the Human Diploid Cell, Geneva, July 16–18, 1962); Erik Lycke, telephone interview.
9. Erik Lycke, telephone interview.
10. Hayflick and Moorhead, “Serial Cultivation,” 588.
11. Eva Herrström, interview with the author, September 26, 2013.
12. Eva Herrström, diary, April 24, 1961. Courtesy of Eva Herrström.
13. Ibid., May 2, 1961.
14. Leonard Hayflick et al., “Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines in a Human Fetal Diploid Cell Strain,” American Journal of Hygiene 75 (1962): 245.
15. Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Biennial Research Report 1962–1963, 22, Wistar Institute Archives, Philadelphia, PA.
16. Department of Health Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, NIH, Contract No: PH43-62-157, Feb., 6, 1962, 1. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
17. Ibid., 1; “Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheets as of 4/30/66,” p. 4, UPT 50 R252, box 68, file folder 14, “Wistar Institute, 1966,” Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; “Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheets as of 10/31/67,” pages 2 and 4, UPT 50 R252, box 68, file folder 12, “Wistar Institute, 1966–1967,” Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
18. “The Wistar Institute Board of Managers Meeting, June 19, 1962,” page 1, series UPC 4.1 VPMA, box 14, file folder “Wistar Institute,” University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
19. National Institutes of Health, Contract no: PH43-62-157, Section 30: “Termination for the Convenience of Government,” part (g), p. HEW-315-6.
20. This and other personal information about Eva Ernholm is from interviews with Elisabeth, Håkan, and Lars Ernholm and with Osborne Carlson on September 21 and 22, 2013, and from documents provided by Elisabeth Ernholm.
21. “Eva Ernholm: Bättre Upplysning—Färre Aborter Hävdar Ung Kristinehamnsgynekolog” (“Eva Ernholm: Better Education—Fewer Abortions, Claims Young Kristinehamn Gynecologist”), Nya Wermlandstidningens (Karlstad, Sweden), October 5, 1963. Original article in Swedish; translation by Lisa Tallroth.
22. Per Gunnar Cassel, “Induced Legal Abortion in Sweden During 1939–1974: Change in Practice and Legal Reform,” Working Paper 2009:1 (Stockholm: Stockholm University Demography Unit Department of Sociology, 2009), 4–5.
23. “Swedish Medical Association: Rules for Physicians (Codex Ethicus Medicorum Svecorum),” Swedish Medical Journal 49, no. 1 (1951): 1–3.
24. Lena Lennerhed, Historier om ett brott (Stockholm: Bokförlaget Atlas, 2008), cited in English in Cassel, “Induced Legal Abortion in Sweden,” 5.
25. Hayflick and Moorhead, “Serial Cultivation,” 604.
26. This calculation is based on Merck’s annual use of WI-38 cells for making rubella vaccine. The company begins making the vaccine with about 120 million cells with population-doubling levels in the low 20s.
27. Hayflick and Moorhead, “Serial Cultivation,” 604.
28. “Phoenix Abortion Ruling Delayed,” New York Times, July 28, 1962.
29. Eero Saksela and Paul S. Moorhead, “Aneuploidy in the Degenerative Phase of Serial Cultivation of Human Cell Strains,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 50 (1963): 390.
30. J. P. Jacobs, C. M. Jones, and J. P. Baille, “Characteristics of a Human Diploid Cell Designated MRC-5,” Nature 227 (1970): 169.
31. Riseberg Memo; Factual Chronology, 5–6.
32. Factual Chronology, 5–6; Hilary Koprowski to Dr. W. C. Cockburn, World Health Organization, October 6, 1962, 1, investigations 9, folder 4, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
33. Factual Chronology, 5–6.
34. D. G. Evans to Ronald Lamont-Havers, August 20, 1975, attachment, 1–2, investigations 9, folder 1, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
35. Schriver Report, 3.
36. Leonard Hayflick letter to the author, October 27, 2015.
1. Edward Shorter, “The Health Century Oral History Collection,” interviewee: Dr. Bernice Eddy, December 4, 1986, page 1, transcript at the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.
2. Ibid., 12–15.
3. J. A. Morris et al., Memo to Robert Q. Marston (director of the National Institutes of Health), September 27, 1971. This memo is reprinted in Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research of the Committee on Government Operations, Consumer Safety Act of 1972: Hearings on Titles I and II of S. 3419, 92nd Cong., 2nd sess., April 20 and 21 and May 3 and 4, 1972, 519, 779.
4. Shorter, “Health Century,” Bernice Eddy interview, 3–4.
5. Neal Nathanson and Alexander Langmuir, “The Cutter Incident: Poliomyelitis Following Formaldehyde-Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccination in the United States During the Spring of 1955 II: The Relationship of Poliomyelitis to Cutter Vaccine,” American Journal of Hygiene 78 (1963): 39.
6. Paul A. Offit, “The Cutter Incident, 50 Years Later,” New England Journal of Medicine 352 (2005): 1411.
7. David M. Oshinsky, Polio: An American Story (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 237–238.
8. Ibid., 519.
9. Bernice E. Eddy and Sarah E. Stewart, “Characteristics of the SE Polyoma Virus,” American Journal of Public Health 49, no. 11 (1959): 1492.
10. Hilary Koprowski, “Live Poliomyelitis Virus Vaccines: Present Status and Problems for the Future,” Journal of the American Medical Association 178, no. 12 (1961): 1153–54.
11. Robert N. Hull, James R. Minner, and Carmine C. Mascoli, “New Viral Agents Recovered from Tissue Cultures of Monkey Kidney Cells III: Recovery of Additional Agents Both from Cultures of Monkey Tissues and Directly from Tissues and Excreta,” American Journal of Hygiene 68 (1958): 40.
12. Bernice E. Eddy et al., “Tumors Induced in Hamsters by Injection of Rhesus Monkey Kidney Cell Extracts,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 107, no. 1 (1961): 191–97.
13. Ibid., 193.
14. Leo Morris et al., “Surveillance of Poliomyelitis in the United States, 1962–65,” Public Health Reports 82, no. 5 (1967): 418.
15. Debbie Bookchin and Jim Schumacher, The Virus and the Vaccine: Contaminated Vaccine, Deadly Cancers and Government Neglect (New York: St. Martin’s, 2004), 71–73. This book renders the SV40 story in far greater detail and is recommended for interested readers.
16. B. H. Sweet and M. R. Hilleman, “The Vacuolating Virus SV40,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 105 (1960): 420–27, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13774265. This paper is accessible at pages 561–68 of Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research of the Committee on Government Operations, Consumer Safety Act of 1972: Hearings.
17. Bernice E. Eddy, memo to Joseph Smadel, “The Presence of an Oncogenic Substance or Virus in Monkey Kidney Cell Cultures,” July 6, 1960, Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research of the Committee on Government Operations, Consumer Safety Act of 1972: Hearings, 551.
18. Joseph E. Smadel, memo to Bernice Eddy, “Requirements for Outside Lectures,” October 24, 1960, Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research of the Committee on Government Operations, Consumer Safety Act of 1972: Hearings, 549–50.
19. Shorter, “Health Century,” Bernice Eddy interview, 9.
20. Sweet and Hilleman, “Vacuolating Virus SV40,” 425–26.
21. Ibid.
22. H. Koprowski, “Tin Anniversary of the Development of Live Virus Vaccine,” Journal of the American Medical Association 174 (1960): 975.
23. Hilary Koprowski and Stanley A. Plotkin, “Notes on Acceptance Criteria and Requirements for Live Poliovirus Vaccines” (World Health Organization Study Group on Requirements for Poliomyelitis Vaccine [Live, Attenuated Poliovirus], Geneva, November 7–12, 1960), 8–9. WHO/BS/IR/85/1 November 1960.
24. Ibid., 10.
25. Leonard Hayflick et al., “Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines in a Human Fetal Diploid Cell Strain,” American Journal of Hygiene 75 (1962): 240–58.
26. Alan P. Goffe, James Hale, and P. S. Gardner, “Letter to the Editor,” Lancet 277, no. 7177 (1961): 612.
27. D. I. Magrath, Kate Russell, and J. O. Tobin, “Preliminary Communications: Vacuolating Agent,” British Medical Journal 2, no. 5247 (1961): 287, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1969653/.
28. Hilary Koprowski letter to Representative Kenneth Roberts, Chairman, House Health and Safety Subcommittee, House Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee, April 14, 1961, in Polio Vaccines: Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce of the House of Representatives, Eighty-Seventh Congress, First Session, on Developments with Respect to the Manufacture of Live Virus Polio Vaccine and Results of Utilization of Killed Virus Polio Vaccine, March 16–17, 1961, 311–12.
29. S. A. Plotkin, H. Koprowski, and J. Stokes Jr., “Clinical Trials in Infants of Orally Administered Attenuated Poliomyelitis Viruses,” Pediatrics 23, no. 6 (1959): 1060.
30. Keerti Shah and Neal Nathanson, “Human Exposure to SV40: Review and Comment,” American Journal of Epidemiology 103, no. 1 (1976): 5.
31. Eleanor Roosevelt, “My Day,” June 25, 1956. Reprinted by The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers Project, erpapers.columbian.gwu.edu.
32. Roger Vaughan, Listen to the Music: The Life of Hilary Koprowski (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2000), 52; Edward Hooper, The River: A Journey to the Source of HIV and AIDS (Boston, New York, and London: Little, Brown, 1999), 406.
33. Clinton Farms birth records for 1960, courtesy of Edward Hooper.
34. Mary Q. Hawkes, Excellent Effect: The Edna Mahan Story (Arlington, VA: American Correctional Association, 1994), 109–10.
35. Plotkin, Koprowski, and Stokes, “Clinical Trials in Infants,” 1061.
36. Ibid., 1041.
37. Hooper, The River, 424.
38. Hayflick et al., “Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines,” 251, 257.
39. Ibid., 253.
40. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, November 19, 2014.
41. Koprowski, “Live Poliomyelitis Virus Vaccines,” 1154–55.
42. Associated Press, “2 Companies Halt Salk-Shot Output, Seek to Eliminate a Monkey Virus, Believed Harmless, Found in Some Vaccine,” New York Times, July 26, 1961.
43. Bookchin and Schumacher, Virus and the Vaccine, 103–4.
44. “The Great Polio Vaccine Cancer Cover-up: Polio Shots May Kill You,” National Enquirer, August 20, 1961, 1, 14–15, 25.
45. Hayflick et al., “Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines,” 253.
46. Ibid., 240–58.
47. June 19, 1961, draft of Hayflick et al., “Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines,” page 24, file folder “CHAT-WIHL,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
48. Hayflick et al., “Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines,” 256.
49. Shorter, “Health Century,” Bernice Eddy interview, 10.
50. Roderick Murray (director, Division of Biologics Standards), memo to Dr. Bernice Eddy through Dr. J. E. Smadel, February 16, 1961, in Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research of the Committee on Government Operations, Consumer Safety Act of 1972: Hearings, 592.
51. Smadel to Eddy, “Requirements for Outside Lectures,” 549.
52. Shorter, “Health Century,” Bernice Eddy interview, 7.
53. Ruth Kirschstein, oral history, part 2, interview by Victoria Harden and Caroline Hannaway, October 29, 1998, page 31, Office of NIH History, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland.
54. Edward Shorter, “The Health Century Oral History Collection,” interviewee: Maurice Hilleman, February 6, 1987, page 8, transcript available at the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.
55. Bernice Eddy et al., “Identification of the Oncogenic Substance in Rhesus Monkey Kidney Cell Cultures as Simian Virus 40,” Virology 17 (1962): 65–75.
56. Hilary Koprowski et al., “Transformation of Cultures of Human Tissue Infected with Simian Virus SV40,” Journal of Cellular and Comparative Physiology 59, no. 3 (1962): 281–92, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jcp.1030590308/abstract.
57. Harvey M. Shein and John F. Enders, “Transformation Induced by Simian Virus 40 in Human Renal Cell Cultures I: Morphology and Growth Characteristics,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 48 (1962): 1164–72; Harvey M. Shein, John F. Enders, and Jeana D. Levinthal, “Transformation Induced by Simian Virus 40 in Human Renal Cell Cultures II: Cell-Virus Relationships,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 48 (1962): 1350–57.
58. Shah and Nathanson, “Human Exposure to SV40,” 3.
1. John Cardinal O’Hara (archbishop of Philadelphia) to Sister M. Jacob, June 26, 1959, Accession R1990.004, Chancery Files, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
2. James A. Poupard, interviews with the author, March 20 and November 19, 2014.
3. Lisa Levenstein, A Movement Without Marches: African American Women and the Politics of Poverty in Postwar Philadelphia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 157–80.
4. Ibid., 167; Donna Gentile O’Donnell, Provider of Last Resort: The Story of the Closure of the Philadelphia General Hospital (Philadelphia: Camino Books, 2005): 96.
5. Levenstein, A Movement Without Marches, 166, 169, 175–76.
6. Ibid., 165; “Ten Year Report: Philadelphia General Hospital,” October 1961, pages 1–10, collection 80-101.2 (“Philadelphia General Hospital, Ten Year Report, 1952–1962”), Philadelphia City Archive.
7. Ibid., 1.
8. Ibid., 4.
9. Joseph S. Pagano et al., “The Response of Premature Infants to Infection with Attenuated Poliovirus,” Journal of Pediatrics 29, no. 5 (1962): 794–807; Joseph S. Pagano, Stanley A. Plotkin, and Donald Cornely, “The Response of Premature Infants to Infection with Type 3 Attenuated Poliovirus,” Journal of Pediatrics 65, no. 2 (1964): 165–75.
10. Stanley Plotkin, e-mail to the author, July 20, 2016.
11. Pagano, Plotkin, and Cornely, “Response of Premature Infants,” 174.
12. Ibid., 807.
13. Ibid., 806.
14. Stanley Plotkin, interview with the author, May 25, 2015.
15. Pagano, Plotkin, and Cornely, “Response of Premature Infants,” 794.
16. Leo Morris et al., “Surveillance of Poliomyelitis in the United States, 1962–65,” Public Health Reports 82, no. 5 (1967): 419.
17. James A. Poupard, interview with the author, March 20, 2014.
18. Katherine Auchy, St. Vincent’s Hospital for Women and Children: Report of Inspection and Evaluation, Department of Public Welfare of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, March 1963, p. 2, Cardinal Krol Papers, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center; Ruth McClain, St. Vincent’s Hospital for Women and Children: Report of Inspection and Evaluation, Department of Public Welfare of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, April 1966, p. 3, Cardinal Krol Papers, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
19. Auchy, St. Vincent’s Hospital for Women and Children: Report of Inspection and Evaluation.
20. The material on life for the girls and women at St. Vincent’s Hospital for Women and Children was drawn from: Dee Krewson, telephone interview with the author, May 5, 2014; name withheld, telephone interview with the author, April 12, 2014; Fran Scalise, telephone interviews with the author, April 14 and 15, 2014.
21. McClain, Report of Inspection and Evaluation, Department of Public Welfare of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, April 1966, p. 5.
22. Sister Mary Jacob (administrator) to Joseph Stokes, June 18, 1959, accession R1990.004, Chancery Files, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
23. Sister Mary Jacob to John Cardinal O’Hara, July 1, 1959, accession R1990.004, Chancery Files, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
24. “Milestones, Sep. 5, 1960,” Time, September 5, 1960, http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,826583,00.html.
25. O’Hara to Jacob, June 26, 1959.
26. Hilary Koprowski to John Cardinal O’Hara, March 7, 1960, accession R1990.004, Chancery Files, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
27. Sister Mary Jacob to John Francis Cardinal O’Hara, March 17, 1960, accession R1990.004, Chancery Files, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
28. John Cardinal O’Hara to Sister Mary Jacob, March 22, 1960, accession R1990.004, Chancery Files, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
29. James Poupard, interview with the author, March 20, 2014.
30. T. W. Norton, Richard Carp, and Stanley A. Plotkin, “Summary of Feeding Results with Attenuated Polioviruses Grown in Human Diploid Cell Strains,” Virus Diseases/WP/6, July 5, 1962, 1–2 (World Health Organization Scientific Group on the Human Diploid Cell, Geneva, July 16–18, 1962).
31. “Ruth L. Kirschstein oral history interview, part 2,” Victoria Harden and Caroline Hannaway, October 29, 1998, p. 5, Office of NIH History, Oral History Archive, Bethesda, MD, https://history.nih.gov/archives/oral_histories.html; Nicholas Wade, “Division of Biologics Standards: The Boat That Never Rocked,” Science 175 (1972): 1226.
32. Leonard B. Seeff et al., “A Serologic Follow-up of the 1942 Epidemic of Post-vaccination Hepatitis in the United States Army,” New England Journal of Medicine 316 (1987): 966.
33. John Farley, “To Cast Out Disease: A History of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation (1913–1951) (New York: Oxford University Press USA, 2004)173, 176.
34. Roderick Murray et al., “Hepatitis Carrier State II: Confirmation of Carrier State by Transmission Experiments in Volunteers,” Journal of the American Medical Association 154, no. 13 (1954): 1072–74.
35. David J. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside: A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1991, 2003), 30–69.
36. William L. Laurence, “Drugs to Combat Malaria Are Tested in Prisons for Army,” New York Times, March 5, 1945, 1, 30.
37. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside, 33–34.
38. Ibid., 38.
39. Ibid., 51–60.
40. Murray et al., “Hepatitis Carrier State II,” 1072,
41. “Kirschstein oral history interview, part 2,” October 29, 1998, p. 4.
42. John Finlayson, telephone interview with the author, June 24, 2016.
43. Kirschstein oral history interview, part 2,” p. 4.
44. “Continuously Cultured Tissue Cells and Viral Vaccines: Potential Advantages May Be Realized and Potential Hazards Obviated by Careful Planning and Monitoring: Report of a Committee on Tissue Culture Viruses and Vaccines,” Science 139 (1963): 15–20.
45. Ibid., 17.
46. L. Hayflick et al., “Choice of a Cell System for Vaccine Production,” Science 140 (1963): 766–68.
47. World Health Organization, “Report to the Director-General,” MOH/PA/140.62, July 24, 1962, p. 5 (World Health Organization Scientific Group on the Human Diploid Cell, Geneva, July 16–18 1962).
48. Ibid., 18, 24.
49. Hayflick et al., “Choice of a Cell System,” 768.
50. World Health Organization, “Report to the Director-General,” 19, 24.
51. Ibid., 24.
52. Joseph S. Pagano et al., “The Response and the Lack of Spread in Swedish School Children Given an Attenuated Poliovirus Vaccine Prepared in a Human Diploid Cell Strain,” American Journal of Hygiene 79 (1964): 83.
53. F. Buser et al., “Immunization with Live Attenuated Polio Virus Prepared in Human Diploid Cell Strains, with Special Reference to the WM-3 Strain,” in Proceedings, Symposium on the Characterization and Uses of Human Diploid Cell Strains (Opatija: International Association of Microbiological Societies, 1963), 386.
54. Drago Ikić et al., “Postvaccinal Reactions After Application of Poliovaccine Live, Oral Prepared in Human Diploid Cell Strains Wi-38,” Proceedings, Symposium on the Characterization and Uses of Human Diploid Cell Strains (Opatija: International Association of Microbiological Societies, 1963), 405, 406, 413.
55. Hilary Koprowski to Vre C. Mackowiak, December 11, 1963, folder “Outgoing Correspondence,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
1. Norman McAlister Gregg, “Congenital Cataract Following German Measles in the Mother,” Transactions of the Ophthalmological Society of Australia 3 (1941): 40.
2. P. M. Dunn, “Perinatal Lessons from the Past: Sir Norman Gregg, ChM, MC, of Sydney (1892–1966) and Rubella Embryopathy,” Archives of Disease in Childhood, Fetal and Neonatal Edition 92, no. 6 (2007): F513–14, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2675410/.
3. Margaret Burgess, e-mail to the author, February 23, 2015; Margaret Burgess, “Gregg’s Rubella Legacy 1941–1991,” Medical Journal of Australia 155 (1991): 355.
4. Erwin Heinz Ackerknecht, A Short History of Medicine, rev. ed. (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 129. This was originally published in English by the Ronald Press Company, New York, 1955.
5. William George Maton, “Some Account of a Rash Liable to Be Mistaken for Scarlatina,” Medical Transactions Published by the College of Physicians of London 5 (1815): 149–65.
6. Henry Veale, “History of an Epidemic of Rötheln, with Observations on Its Pathology,” Edinburgh Medical Journal 12 (1866): 404–14.
7. Dorothy Horstmann, “Maxwell Finland Lecture: Viral Vaccines and Their Ways,” Reviews of Infectious Diseases 1, no. 3 (1979): 510.
8. Alfred D. Heggie and Frederick C. Robbins, “Natural Rubella Acquired After Birth: Clinical Features and Complications,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118 (1969): 15.
9. Gregg, “Congenital Cataract,” 42.
10. Burgess, “Gregg’s Rubella Legacy,” 355.
11. Gregg, “Congenital Cataract,” 42.
12. Ibid., 35–46.
13. C. Swan et al., “Congenital Defects in Infants Following Infectious Diseases During Pregnancy: With Special Attention to the Relationship Between German Measles and Cataract, Deaf-Mutism, Heart Disease and Microcephaly, and to the Period of Pregnancy in Which Occurrence of Rubella Is Followed by Congenital Abnormalities,” Medical Journal of Australia 2 (1943): 201–10.
14. “Rubella and Congenital Malformations,” Lancet 1 (1944): 316.
15. “Congenital Defects Following Maternal Rubella,” Journal of the American Medical Association 130 (1946): 574–75.
16. Morris Greenberg, Ottavio Pellitteri, and Jerome Barton, “Frequency of Defects in Infants Whose Mothers Had Rubella During Pregnancy,” Journal of the American Medical Association 165, no. 6 (1957): 675–76.
17. Stella Chess, “Autism in Children with Congenital Rubella,” Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia 1, no. 1 (1971): 33–47; Brynn E. Berger, Ann Marie Navar-Boggan, and Saad B. Omer, “Congenital Rubella Syndrome and Autism Spectrum Disorder Prevented by Rubella Vaccination: United States, 2001–2010,” BMC Public Health 11 (2011): 340, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3123590/#B7.
18. John Fry, J. B. Dillane, and Lionel Fry, “Rubella, 1962,” British Medical Journal 2, no. 5308 (1962): 833–34.
19. Elizabeth Miller, “Rubella in the United Kingdom,” Epidemiology and Infection 107 (1991): 34; C. S. Peckham, “Congenital Rubella in the United Kingdom Before 1970: The Prevaccine Era,” Reviews of Infectious Diseases 7 (supp. 1) (1985): S11–21.
20. “News in Brief,” Times (London), Thursday, March 15, 1962, 6.
21. “German Measles at Eton,” Times (London), Tuesday, March 27, 1962, 16.
22. Eric Todd, “Shackleton’s Old Tricks Serve Him Well Against Yorkshire: Wilson Consoles the Partisans,” Guardian, June 28, 1962, 10.
23. A Mother, “Difficult Duty,” Guardian, August 9, 1963, 6.
24. Thomas H. Weller and Franklin A. Neva, “Propagation in Tissue Culture of Cytopathic Agents from Patients with Rubella-Like Illness,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 111 (October 1962): 216–25.
25. Paul D. Parkman, Edward L. Buescher, and Malcolm S. Artenstein, “Recovery of Rubella Virus from Army Recruits,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 111 (1962): 225–30.
26. Lee Plotkin, Anecdotes of My Life, a self-published memoir (Lee Plotkin, Stanley Plotkin, and Brenda Magalaner, 1986), 1986, 38–45, 57–61, 66–71.
27. The biographical material on Stanley Plotkin comes from interviews I conducted with Plotkin from 2013 to 2015, dates of which are detailed in the selected bibliography; from Anecdotes of My Life, a 1986 memoir by Stanley Plotkin’s mother, Lee Plotkin; and from Stanley A. Plotkin, “The Late Sequelae of Arrowsmith,” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 21 (2002): 807–8.
28. Ibid., 808.
29. “Memorandum to Editors Concerning Press, Radio and Television Conference,” June 15, 1959, UPA 4, box 114, file folder “Lederle Laboratories National Drug Company (1955–1960),” Office of the President Records, Gaylord P. Harnwell Admin. 1955–1960, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
30. Stanley A. Plotkin, John A. Dudgeon, and A. Melvin Ramsay, “Laboratory Studies on Rubella and the Rubella Syndrome,” British Medical Journal 2, no. 5368 (1963): 1299.
31. Ibid.
32. J. A. Dudgeon, N. R. Butler, and Stanley A. Plotkin, “Further Serological Studies on the Rubella Syndrome,” British Medical Journal 2, no. 5402 (1964): 159–60.
33. L. S. Oshiro, N. J. Schmidt, and E. H. Lennette, “Electron Microscopic Studies of Rubella Virus,” Journal of General Virology 5 (1969): 205.
34. Robert S. Duszak, “Congenital Rubella Syndrome—Major Review,” Optometry 80 (2009): 38–39; Van Hung Pham et al., “Rubella Epidemic in Vietnam: Characteristic of Rubella Virus Genes from Pregnant Women and Their Fetuses/Newborns with Congenital Rubella Syndrome,” Journal of Clinical Virology 57 (2013): 152.
35. William S. Webster, “Teratogen Update: Congenital Rubella,” Teratology 58 (1998): 16, http://teratology.org/updates/58pg13.pdf; J. E. Banatvala and D.W.G. Brown, “Seminar: Rubella,” Lancet 363 (2004): 1129.
36. Joseph A. Bellanti et al., “Congenital Rubella: Clinicopathologic, Virologic, and Immunologic Studies,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 110 (1965): 465, 470; Thong Van Nguyen, Van Hung Pham, and Kenji Abe, “Pathogenesis of Congenital Rubella Infection in Human Fetuses: Viral Infection in the Ciliary Body Could Play an Important Role in Cataractogenesis,” EBioMedicine 2 (2015): 59–60.
37. Webster, “Teratogen Update,” 17–20.
38. Stanley A. Plotkin and Antti Vaheri, “Human Fibroblasts Infected with Rubella Produce a Growth Inhibitor,” Science 156 (1967): 659–61.
39. W. E. Rawls, J. Desmyter, and J. L. Melnick, “Virus Carrier Cells and Virus Free Cells in Fetal Rubella,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 129 (1968): 477–83; Webster, “Teratogen Update,” 21.
40. W. Dimech et al., “Evaluation of Three Immunoassays Used for Detection of Anti-Rubella Virus Immunoglobulin M Antibodies,” Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology 12, no. 9 (September 2005): 1104–8, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1235794/.
41. Gisella Enders et al., “Outcome of Confirmed Periconceptual Maternal Rubella,” Lancet 331, no. 8600 (1988): 1445–47 (originally published as vol. 1, no. 8600).
42. M. M. Desmond, “Congenital Rubella Encephalitis, Course and Early Sequelae,” Journal of Pediatrics 71, no. 3 (1967): 311–31.
43. Jill M. Forrest, Margaret A. Menser, and J. A. Burgess, “High Frequency of Diabetes Mellitus in Young Adults with Congenital Rubella,” Lancet 297, no. 7720 (1971): 332–34.
44. John F. O’Neill, “The Ocular Manifestations of Congenital Infection: A Study of the Early Effect and Long-Term Outcome of Maternally Transmitted Rubella and Toxoplasmosis,” Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society 96 (1998): 858–68.
45. Stephen A. Winchester et al., “Persistent Intraocular Rubella Infection in a Patient with Fuchs’ Uveitis and Congenital Rubella Syndrome,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology 51, no. 5 (2013): 1622–24, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3647901/.
46. Margaret A. Menser, Lorimer Dods, and J. D. Harley, “A Twenty-five-Year Follow-up of Congenital Rubella,” Lancet 290, no. 7530 (1967): 1347–50.
47. Miller, “Rubella in the United Kingdom,” 32; John J. Witte et al., “Epidemiology of Rubella,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118 (1969): 107.
48. Stanley Plotkin to Alistair Dudgeon, November 4, 1963, folder, “Correspondence-out, October 1963–December 1964,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
1. William S. Webster, “Teratogen Update: Congenital Rubella,” Teratology 58 (1998): 13, http://teratology.org/updates/58pg13.pdf.
2. Stanley A. Plotkin memo to Hilary Koprowski, “Reference: Christmas Party,” December 11, 1963, folder “Correspondence-out, October 1963–December 1964,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
3. Vincent Cristofalo, “Profile in Gerontology: Leonard Hayflick, PhD,” Contemporary Gerontology 9, no. 3(2003): 83.
4. Eugene B. Buynak et al., “Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccines Prepared in Duck Embryo Cell Culture, I: Development and Clinical Testing, Journal of the American Medical Association 204, no. 3 (1968): 195.
5. David J. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside: A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1991, 2003), 40, 51–59.
6. “Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheets as of 4/30/66,” p. 4, UPT 50 R252, box 68, file folder 14, “Wistar Institute, 1966,” Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; “Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheets as of 10/31/67,” p. 4, UPT 50 R252, box 68, file folder 12, “Wistar Institute, 1966–1967,” Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; Robert Dechert, “Memorandum of RD’s Discussion with Dr. Thomas Norton and Dr. Stanley Plotkin About the Work of the Latter,” p. 2, January 12, 1968, folder “DBS,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
7. Alan D. Lourie to Thomas Norton, “Discoveries or Inventions Developed Under Public Health Service Research Grants and Awards,” March 13, 1968, p. 3, folder “SKF Correspondence 1968,” Stanley Plotkin Private papers, Doylestown, PA.
8. Stanley Plotkin to Alistair Dudgeon, November 4, 1963, folder “Correspondence-Out,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
9. Wolfgang Saxon, “Harry Martin Meyer Jr., 72; Helped Create Rubella Vaccine,” New York Times, August 25, 2001, www.nytimes.com/2001/08/25/us/harry-martin-meyer-jr-72-helped-create-rubella-vaccine.html.
10. Paul D. Parkman et al., “Attenuated Rubella Virus I.: Development and Laboratory Characterization,” New England Journal of Medicine 275 (1966): 569–74; Harry M. Meyer Jr, Paul D. Parkman, and Theodore C. Panos, “Attenuated Rubella Virus II: Production of an Experimental Live-Virus Vaccine and Clinical Trial,” New England Journal of Medicine 275, no. 11 (1966): 575.
11. Stanley A. Plotkin, Andre Boué and Joelle G. Boué, “The In Vitro Growth of Rubella Virus in Human Embryo Cells,” American Journal of Epidemiology 81, no. 1 (1965): 71–85; Stanley A. Plotkin and Antti Vaheri, “Human Fibroblasts Infected with Rubella Produce a Growth Inhibitor,” Science 156 (1967): 659–61.
12. Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Managers, the Wistar Institute, June 22, 1964. These minutes are found on page 195 of a bound volume of Board of Managers’ minutes housed at the Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA.
13. Communicable Disease Center, “Rubella,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 13, no. 12 (1964): 93–101.
14. “Surveillance Summary: Rubella—United States,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 19, no. 34 (1970): 335; J. J. Witte et al., “Epidemiology of Rubella,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118, no. 1 (July 1969): 107–11.
15. Stanley Plotkin, index cards cataloging infants born with congenital rubella syndrome, Stanley Plotkin private papers.
16. Stanley Plotkin, “List of Patients,” file folder “Rubella Patients,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
17. J. M. Lindquist et al., “Congenital Rubella Syndrome as a Systemic Infection: Studies of Affected Infants Born in Philadelphia, USA,” British Medical Journal 2 (1965): 1402.
18. Stanley A. Plotkin, “Virologic Assistance in the Management of German Measles in Pregnancy,” Journal of the American Medical Association 190 (1964): 268.
19. Name withheld, letter to Stanley Plotkin, April 2, 1964, folder “Correspondence-in,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
20. Plotkin, “Virologic Assistance,” 266–67.
21. Ibid., 267.
22. R. Beaver, letter to the editor, and J. D. Pryce, letter to the editor (both under the heading “Rubella and Termination of Pregnancy”), British Medical Journal 2, no. 5416 (October 24, 1964): 1075–76.
23. Pryce, letter to the editor, 1076.
24. Stanley A. Plotkin, “Rubella and Termination of Pregnancy” (unpublished letter to the editor of the British Medical Journal), November 20, 1964, folder “Correspondence-out,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
25. Stanley Plotkin, interview with the author, December 18, 2012.
26. Minutes, “Meeting of the Committee on Congenital Malformations, American Academy of Pediatrics,” May 8, 1965, Philadelphia, file folder “Correspondence-in,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
27. Robert E. Hall, “Abortion in American Hospitals,” American Journal of Public Health 57, no. 11 (1967): 1934.
28. Robert E. Hall, “Therapeutic Abortion, Sterilization, and Contraception,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 91, no. 4 (1965): 523.
29. Leslie J. Reagan, Dangerous Pregnancies: Mothers, Disabilities, and Abortion in Modern America (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2010), 73–74.
30. Ibid., 74–75.
31. Ibid., 73.
32. Stanley Plotkin to Dr. Henry Fetterman, February 5, 1965, folder “Correspondence-out,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
33. Stanley Plotkin to Dr. Leonard M. Popowich, October 13, 1964, folder “Correspondence-out,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
34. Alfred D. Heggie and Frederick C. Robbins, “Natural Rubella Acquired After Birth: Clinical Features and Complications,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118 (1969): 15.
35. National Communicable Disease Center, “Estimated Morbidity Associated with the 1964–1965 U.S. Rubella Epidemic,” in Rubella Surveillance Report No. 1 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, June 1969), 12.
36. Ibid., “Preface,” 1.
37. Stanley Plotkin to Franklin Payne (head, Department of Pediatrics, Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania), January 23, 1964, folder “Correspondence-out,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
38. Stanley Plotkin to Dr. Lester Eisenberg (Department of Obstetrics, Cherry Hill Hospital), November 24, 1964, folder “Correspondence-out,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
39. Ibid.
40. Stanley A. Plotkin, David Cornfeld, and Theodore H. Ingalls, “Studies of Immunization with Living Rubella Virus: Trials in Children of a Strain Cultured from an Aborted Fetus,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 110 (1965): 382.
1. H. Koprowski, “Vaccines Against Rabies: Present and Future,” First International Conference on Vaccines Against Viral and Rickettsial Diseases of Man: Papers Presented and Discussions Held in Washington, D.C., November 7–11, 1966 (Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization Scientific Publication No. 147, May 1967), 488.
2. Roger Vaughan, Listen to the Music: The Life of Hilary Koprowski (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2000), 67.
3. Deborah J. Briggs, “Human Rabies Vaccines,” in Rabies, 2nd ed., ed. Alan C. Jackson and William H. Wunner (London: Academic Press, 2007), 506.
4. World Health Organization, WHO Expert Consultation on Rabies: Second Report, WHO Technical Report Series, No. 982 (Geneva: World Health Organization 2013), 8.
5. W. Suraweera et al., “Deaths from Symptomatically Identifiable Furious Rabies in India: A Nationally Representative Mortality Survey,” PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6, no. 10 (2012): e1847; M. K. Sudarshan, “Assessing Burden of Rabies in India: WHO-Sponsored National Multi-Centric Rabies Survey,” Association for the Prevention and Control of Rabies in India Journal 6 (May 2004): 44–45.
6. George M. Baer, ed., The Natural History of Rabies, 2nd ed. (Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 1991): 523.
7. Ibid., 524.
8. Ibid.
9. Elisabeth Emerson, Public Health Is People: A History of the Minnesota Department of Health from 1949 to 1999 (St. Paul: Minnesota Department of Health, 2002), 35, and 61–62, www.health.state.mn.us/library/publichealthispeople19491999.html.
10. Communicable Disease Center, “Annual Supplement: Summary 1965,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 14, no. 53 (1966): 48.
11. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, National Office of Vital Statistics, “Annual Supplement: Reported Incidence of Notifiable Diseases in the United States, 1952,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 1, no. 54 (1953): 7.
12. Louis Pasteur, “Méthode pour Prévenir la Rage Après Morsure,” Comptes Rendus de l’Academie des Sciences 101: 765–74. For a concise English rendition of Pasteur’s advance, see Hervé Bazin, “Pasteur and the Birth of Vaccines Made in the Laboratory,” in History of Vaccine Development, ed. Stanley A. Plotkin (New York: Springer Science + Business Media, 2011), 39–41.
13. Madureira Pará, “An Outbreak of Post-vaccinal Rabies (Rage de Laboratoire) in Fortaleza, Brazil, in 1960: Residual Fixed Virus as the Etiological Agent,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 33 (1965): 177–82, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5294589.
14. Ibid., 181.
15. “Franklin B. Peck Jr., Horace M. Powell, and Clyde G. Culbertson, “Duck Embryo Rabies Vaccine: Study of Fixed Virus Vaccine Grown in Embryonated Duck Eggs and Killed with Beta-Propiolactone (BPL),” Journal of the American Medical Association 162, no. 15 (1956): 1373; Hervé Bourhy, Annick Perrot, and Jean-Marc Cavaillon, “Rabies,” in: Andrew W. Artenstein, ed., Vaccines: A Biography (New York: Springer Science + Business Media, 2010), 84.
16. Franklin B. Peck Jr., Horace M. Powell, and Clyde G. Culbertson, “New Antirabies Vaccine for Human Use,” Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine 45, no. 5 (1955): 679–83.
17. Peck, Powell, and Culbertson, “Duck Embryo Rabies Vaccine,” 1373.
18. Koprowski, “Vaccines Against Rabies,” 489.
19. Baer, Natural History of Rabies, 418.
20. Communicable Disease Center, “Annual Supplement: Summary 1965,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 14, no. 53 (1966): 5.
21. Ibid., 49.
22. R. E. Kissling, “Growth of Rabies Virus in Non-nervous Tissue Culture,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 98, no. 2 (June 1958): 223–25.
23. Tadeusz J. Wiktor, Stanley A. Plotkin, and Hilary Koprowski, “Development and Clinical Trials of the New Human Rabies Vaccine of Tissue Culture (Human Diploid Cell) Origin,” Developments in Biological Standardization 40 (1978): 4.
24. Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 121.
25. T. J. Wiktor, M. V. Fernandes, and H. Koprowski, “Cultivation of Rabies Virus in Human Diploid Cell Strain WI-38,” Journal of Immunology 93 (September 1964): 354–55.
26. T. J. Wiktor, M. V. Fernandes, and H. Koprowski, “Potential Use of Human Diploid Cell Strains for Rabies Vaccine,” Proceedings: Symposium on the Characterization and Uses of Human Diploid Cell Strains: Opatija 1963 (no location given: Permanent Section on Microbiological Standardization, International Association of Microbiological Societies, 1963): 354–56.
27. John A. Anderson, Frank T. Daly Jr., and Jack C. Kidd, “Human Rabies After Antiserum and Vaccine Postexposure Treatment: Case Report and Review,” Annals of Internal Medicine 64, no. 6 (1966): 1297–1302.
28. Basil Rice, “Rabies Threat Worsens,” Kingsport (TN) Times-News, May 9, 1964, 2.
29. Ibid.
30. Richard R. Leger, “Alarm over Rabies: Disease Infects Wildlife in More Areas, Posing Threat to Vacationers; Rabid Foxes Terrorize County in Tennessee; Convicts May Test New Type of Vaccine; Skunks and Bats Are Carriers,” Wall Street Journal, May 19, 1965, 1.
31. Communicable Disease Center, “Rabies in Animals and Man—1964: Annual Surveillance Summary,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 14, no. 31 (1965): 266.
32. Leger, “Alarm over Rabies.”
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid.
35. Anderson, Daly, and Kidd, “Human Rabies After Antiserum,” 1300–1301.
36. Communicable Disease Center, “Human Rabies: Minnesota,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 13, no. 38 (1964): 330; Gary Sprick obituary, Rochester (MN) Post-Bulletin, September 2, 1964, www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=114649224.
37. Communicable Disease Center, “Rabies in Animals and Man,” 269.
38. Communicable Disease Center, “Epidemiologic Notes and Reports: Human Rabies Death—South Dakota,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 15, no. 38 (1966): 3225–26.
39. Leger, “Alarm over Rabies”; Centers for Disease Control, “Recommendation of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee (ACIP): Rabies Prevention,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 29, no. 3 (1980): 267.
40. Communicable Disease Center, “Human Rabies Death: West Virginia,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 14, no. 23 (1965): 195.
41. Wiktor, Fernandes, and Koprowski, “Cultivation of Rabies Virus,” 353–60.
42. Wiktor, Plotkin, and Koprowski, “Development and Clinical Trials,” 5.
43. T. J. Wiktor and H. Koprowski, “Successful Immunization of Primates with Rabies Vaccine Prepared in Human Diploid Cell Strain WI-38,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 118 (1965): 1069–73.
44. Mario V. Fernandes, Hilary Koprowski, and Tadeusz J. Wiktor, “Method of Producing Rabies Vaccine,” U.S. Patent 3,397,267, filed September 21, 1964, and issued August 13, 1968, http://www.google.com/patents/US3397267.
45. David Lansing, director of product acquisition and licensing, Research Corporation, to Thomas W. Norton, May 3, 1966, folder “SKF Correspondence 1968,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
1. Claude Bernard, An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, trans. Henry Copley Greene (New York: Dover, 1957), 101 (originally published in 1865).
2. Stanley Plotkin, “Protocol for Rubella Study,” November 1, 1963, folder “St. Vincent’s,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA. Rosa Hoflacher, interview with the author, October 21, 2014; Jim Butler, “For Dependent Children, a ‘Home’ Is Not a Home,” Catholic Standard and Times (Philadelphia), January 19, 1968, 8.
3. Mary Thérèse Hasson, telephone interview with the author, October 24, 2014; Hoflacher, interview with the author; Butler, “For Dependent Children,” 8.
4. Ruth McClain, “St. Vincent’s Hospital for Women and Children: Report of Inspection and Evaluation,” Department of Public Welfare of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, April 1966, p. 5, Cardinal Krol Papers, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
5. Butler, “For Dependent Children,” 8.
6. Hoflacher, interview with the author, October 21, 2014.
7. Mary Thérèse Hasson, telephone interview with the author, October 24, 2014.
8. Stanley Plotkin, interview with the author, December 18, 2012.
9. “Court’s Abortion Rulings Termed ‘Tragic’ by Cardinal, Bishops, Pro-life Spokesmen,” Catholic Standard and Times (Philadelphia), January 25, 1973, 1. See also John Cardinal Krol, “Statement on Abortion: A Statement Issued by the President of the National Conference of Catholic Bishops,” January 22, 1973, www.priestsforlife.org/magisterium/bishops/73-01-22statementonabortionnccb.htm (accessed February 1, 2016).
10. Stanley A. Plotkin, David Cornfeld, and Theodore H. Ingalls, “Studies of Immunization with Living Rubella Virus: Trials in Children of a Strain Cultured from an Aborted Fetus,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 110 (1965): 382.
11. Stanley A. Plotkin to Dr. Tepper (Division of Biologics Standards, National Institutes of Health), May 15, 1964, folder “DBS,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
12. Roderick Murray (director, Division of Biologics Standards) to Stanley Plotkin, May 21, 1964, p. 1, folder “DBS,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
13. Ibid., p. 2; “Continuously Cultured Tissue Cells and Viral Vaccines: Potential Advantages May Be Realized and Potential Hazards Obviated by Careful Planning and Monitoring: Report of a Committee on Tissue Culture Viruses and Vaccines,” Science 139 (1963): 15–20.
14. Murray to Plotkin, May 21, 1964.
15. Stanley Plotkin, e-mail to the author, February 24, 2016.
16. Stanley Plotkin, interview with the author, May 25, 2015.
17. Stanley A. Plotkin to Theodore Ingalls, May 8, 1964, file folder “St. Vincent’s,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
18. Y. Hiro and S. Tasaka, “Die röetheln sind eine Viruskrankheit,” Mschr Kinderheilk 76 (1938): 328–32. (The article’s title translates to “Rubella Is a Viral Disease.”)
19. S. Krugman et al., “Studies on Rubella Immunization I: Demonstration of Rubella Without Rash,” Journal of the American Medical Association 151, no. 4 (1953): 285–88.
20. John L. Sever et al., “Rubella Virus,” Journal of the American Medical Association 162, no. 6 (1962): 663–71.
21. Stanley Plotkin, interview with the author, May 25, 2015.
22. Plotkin, Cornfeld, and Ingalls, “Studies of Immunization,” 382.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.; Stanley A. Plotkin to George A. Jervis, November 6, 1964, file folder “Correspondence-out,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
26. Plotkin, Cornfeld, and Ingalls, “Studies of Immunization,” 383–84.
27. Ibid., 387–88.
28. All of the information about the Wenzler family and their story was obtained from in-person and telephone interviews with Mary and Steve Wenzler on March 19, March 23, April 16, April 18, and May 22, 2015, and from follow-up e-mails.
29. J. C. McDonald, “Gamma-Globulin for Prevention of Rubella in Pregnancy,” British Medical Journal 2, no. 5354 (1963): 416.
30. Ibid., 418.
31. Mary Wenzler, interview with the author, March 23, 2015.
32. Harold G. Scheie et al., “Congenital Rubella Cataracts: Surgical Results and Virus Recovery from Intraocular Tissue,” Archives of Ophthalmology 77 (1967): 444.
33. John F. O’Neill, interview with the author, June 1, 2015.
34. John F. O’Neill, “The Ocular Manifestations of Congenital Infection: A Study of the Early Effect and Long-Term Outcome of Maternally Transmitted Rubella and Toxoplasmosis,” Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society 96 (1998): 839, 867.
35. Ibid., 867.
36. John F. O’Neill, interview with the author, June 1, 2015.
37. O’Neill, “Ocular Manifestations,” 834; Scheie et al., “Congenital Rubella Cataracts,” 442.
38. Norman McAlister Gregg, “Congenital Cataract Following German Measles in the Mother,” Transactions of the Ophthalmological Society of Australia 3 (1941): 39.
39. M. E. Oster, T. Riehle-Colarusso, and A. Correa, “An Update on Cardiovascular Malformations in Congenital Rubella Syndrome,” Birth Defects Research Part A: Clinical and Molecular Teratology 88, no. 1 (2010): 1–8.
40. S. Chess, P. Fernandez, and S. Korn, “Behavioral Consequences of Congenital Rubella,” Journal of Pediatrics 93, no. 4 (1978): 699–703; William S. Webster, “Teratogen Update: Congenital Rubella,” Teratology 58 (1998): 20; Stella Chess, “Autism in Children with Congenital Rubella,” Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia 1, no. 1 (1971): 33.
41. C. J. Priebe Jr., J. A. Holahan, and P. R. Ziring, “Abnormalities of the Vas Deferens and Epidiymis in Cryptorchid Boys with Congenital Rubella,” Journal of Pediatric Surgery 14, no. 6 (1979): 834–38.
1. Stanley A. Plotkin, “History of Rubella Vaccines and the Recent History of Cell Culture,” in Vaccinia, Vaccination and Vaccinology: Jenner, Pasteur and Their Successors, S. Plotkin and B. Fantini, eds. (Paris: Elsevier, 1996), 275.
2. Eugene Buynak et al., “Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccines Prepared in Duck Embryo Cell Culture,” Journal of the American Medical Association 204, no. 3 (1968): 196.
3. David J. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside: A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making (New York: de Gruyter, 1991, 2003), 64.
4. Leslie J. Reagan, Dangerous Pregnancies: Mothers, Disabilities, and Abortion in Modern America (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2010), 63–64.
5. Paul Parkman, interview with the author, April 7, 2015.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.; Reagan, Dangerous Pregnancies, 181.
8. Parkman, interview with the author.
9. Sarah Leavitt, “Dr. Paul Parkman Interview,” June 7, 2005, p. 20, Office of NIH Oral History Program, National Institutes of Health.
10. Harry M. Meyer Jr., Paul D. Parkman, and Theodore C. Panos, “Attenuated Rubella Virus II: Production of an Experimental Live-Virus Vaccine and Clinical Trial,” New England Journal of Medicine 275, no. 11 (1966): 575.
11. Leavitt, “Dr. Paul Parkman Interview,” 19.
12. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside, 56.
13. Leavitt, “Dr. Paul Parkman Interview,” 21–22.
14. Meyer, Parkman, and Panos, “Attenuated Rubella Virus II,” 575–80.
15. Mary Thérèse Hasson, telephone interview with the author, October 24, 2014.
16. “New Patients Arrive Monday,” Hamburg Item, January 7, 1960; “Local T-B Hospital Changed by Law to Child Welfare,” Hamburg Item, December 3, 1959, p. 1.
17. Francis Muller, interview with the author, May 21, 2015.
18. Jasper G. Chen See to Benjamin P. Clark, February 1, 1967, folder “Hamburg-I,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
19. Jasper G. Chen See to Benjamin P. Clark, October 30, 1967, folder “Hamburg-I,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
20. “Patients Move Around Like Robots: Retarded at Hamburg State School Are Kept Heavily Drugged According to Superintendent,” Observer-Reporter (Washington, PA), April 20, 1973, p. A13.
21. Stanley Plotkin to Benjamin Clark, March 25, 1968, folder “Hamburg IX,” Stanley Plotkin private papers; Francis Muller interview with the author, May 21, 2015.
22. Stanley A. Plotkin et al., “A New Attenuated Rubella Virus Grown In Human Fibroblasts: Evidence For Reduced Nasopharyngeal Excretion,” American Journal of Epidemiology 86 (1967): 469.
23. Henry K. Beecher, “Ethics and Clinical Research,” New England Journal of Medicine 274, no. 24 (1966): 1354–60, www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJM196606162742405.
24. Ibid., 1355.
25. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside, 273.
26. Captain Robert Chamovitz et al., “Prevention of Rheumatic Fever by Treatment of Previous Streptococcal Infections I: Evaluation of Benzathine Penicillin G,” New England Journal of Medicine 251, no. 12 (1954): 466–71.
27. Saul Krugman et al., “Infectious Hepatitis: Detection of Virus During the Incubation Period and in Clinically Inapparent Infection,” New England Journal of Medicine 261 (1959): 729–34.
28. Elinor Langer, “Human Experimentation: Cancer Studies at Sloan-Kettering Stir Public Debate on Medical Ethics,” Science 143 (1964): 552.
29. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside, 87–90.
30. William H. Stewart, “Surgeon General’s Directives on Human Experimentation,” PPO #129 (Bethesda, MD: U.S. Public Health Service Division of Research Grants, revised July l, 1966).
31. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside, 38; Dr. Ross, memo to Mr. Zernik, October 6, 1967, file folder “Vaccine Development Board,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
32. Stanley Plotkin to Benjamin Clark, July 25, 1966, folder “Hamburg-I,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
33. Benjamin Clark to Stanley Plotkin, July 27, 1966, folder “Hamburg-I;” single sheet titled “1st group: 8–1 to 9–13,” folder “Hamburg-I,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
34. Stanley Plotkin e-mail to the author, February 24, 2016.
35. Benjamin Clark to Stanley Plotkin, May 29, 1968, folder “Hamburg-I,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
36. Stanley A. Plotkin et al., “A New Attenuated Rubella Virus,” 468–77.
37. James L. Bittle et al., “Results of Testing Production Lots of Oral Poliovirus Vaccine,” Journal of Infectious Diseases 116, no. 2 (1966): 215–20.
38. Plotkin et al., “New Attenuated Rubella Virus,” 473.
39. Werner Slenczka and Hans Dieter Klenk, “Forty Years of Marburg Virus,” Journal of Infectious Diseases 196, supp. 2 (2007): S133.
40. Ibid.
41. Ibid., S131.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
44. K. Todorovitch, M. Mocitch, and R. Klašnja, “Clinical Picture of Two Patients Infected by the Marburg Vervet Virus,” in Marburg Virus Disease, Gustav Adolf Martini and Rudolf Siegert, eds. (Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 1971), 19.
45. G. A. Martini, “Marburg Virus Disease: Clinical Syndrome,” in Martini and Siegert, Marburg Virus Disease, 1.
46. Ibid., 2.
47. Ibid.
48. P. Gedigk, H. Bechtelsheimer, and G. Korb, “Pathologic Anatomy of Marburg Virus Disease,” in Martini and Siegert, Marburg Virus Disease, 50.
49. Richard Preston, The Hot Zone (New York: Anchor Books, 1994), 38.
50. Slenczka and Klenk, “Forty Years of Marburg Virus,” S131–32; Lawrence Corey, “Marburg Virus Disease,” in chapter 207, “Rabies and Other Rhabdoviruses,” in Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine Tenth Edition (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983), 1139.
51. C. E. Gordon Smith et al., “Fatal Human Disease from Vervet Monkeys,” Lancet 290, no. 7526 (1967): 1119.
52. Richard Lyons, “Diseases Carried by Pets Increase,” New York Times, October 26, 1967, p. 24; U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare Public Health Service, National Cancer Institute Monograph December 29, 1968, Cell Cultures for Virus Vaccine Production, 474; Leonard Hayflick, “Human Virus Vaccines: Why Monkey Cells?,” Science 176 (1972): 813.
53. Preston, Hot Zone, 40–42.
54. Slenczka and Klenk, “Forty Years of Marburg Virus,” S134.
55. Conference on Cell Cultures for Virus Vaccine Production, 474.
56. Ibid., 474–75.
1. Jacob Bronowski, “The Disestablishment of Science,” Encounter, July 1971, 15.
2. “Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheets as of October 31, 1967,” p. 4, UPT 50 R252, box 68, file folder 12, Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Collection, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
3. Stanley Plotkin to Benjamin Clark, December 5, 1966, folder “Hamburg-I,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
4. Earl Beck (scientist-administrator, Vaccine Development Branch, NIAID) to Stanley Plotkin, November 21, 1967, folder “DBS,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
5. Daniel Mullally to Hilary Koprowski, November 27, 1967, folder “Vaccine Development Board,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
6. Robert J. Ferlauto (director, Research-Microbiology, Smith, Kline & French Laboratories) to Stanley Plotkin, December 1, 1967, folder “SKF-Rubella,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
7. Plotkin to Clark.
8. Benjamin Clark to Stanley Plotkin, December 13, 1966, folder “Hamburg-I,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
9. Lois Colley, R.N. (director of nursing), memo to Dr. Clark (superintendent, Hamburg State School and Hospital), “Dr. Plotkin’s Letter of June 15, 1967, Received Yesterday,” June 16, 1967, folder “Rubella,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
10. Benjamin Clark to Stanley Plotkin, June 21, 1967, folder “Hamburg-VI,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
11. Stanley Plotkin to Miss Lois Colley, July 10, 1967, folder “Hamburg-VI,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
12. Bernard Frankel to Roderick Murray, January 10, 1968, folder “DBS,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
13. Stanley Plotkin to Theodore Ingalls (Epidemiologic Study Center, Framingham, Mass.), January 10, 1968, folder “DBS,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
14. Stanley Plotkin to Robert Dechert (Dechert, Price & Rhoads), January 17, 1968, folder “DBS,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
15. Paul D. Parkman et al., “Attenuated Rubella Virus I: Development and Laboratory Characterization,” New England Journal of Medicine 275, no. 11 (1966): 569–74; Harry M. Meyer Jr., Paul D. Parkman, and Theodore C. Panos, “Attenuated Rubella Virus II: Production of an Experimental Live-Virus Vaccine and Clinical Trial,” New England Journal of Medicine 275, no. 11 (1966): 575–80.
16. Harry M. Meyer Jr. et al., “Clinical Studies with Experimental Live Rubella Virus Vaccine (Strain HPV-77): Evaluation of Vaccine-Induced Immunity,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 117 (1968): 648–54.
17. “Drs. Meyer, Parkman Win Joint Recognition for Rubella Research,” NIH Record XIX, no. 22 (November 14, 1967): 3.
18. George L. Stewart et al., “Rubella-Virus Hemagglutination-Inhibition Test,” New England Journal of Medicine 276, no. 10 (1967): 554–57; Sarah Leavitt, “Dr. Paul Parkman Interview,” June 7, 2005, pp. 26–28, Office of NIH History Oral History Program, National Institutes of Health.
19. “Dr. Paul D. Parkman Named One of Ten Outstanding Young Men of the Year,” NIH Record XX, no. 2 (January 23, 1968): 1 and 7.
20. Lyndon Baines Johnson to Paul D. Parkman, May 5, 1966, Name File P, file folder “Parkman, I–P,” box 56, White House Central File, LBJ Presidential Library, Austin, TX.
21. Samuel J. Musser and Larry J. Hilsabeck, “Production of Rubella Virus Vaccine: Live, Attenuated, in Canine Renal Cell Cultures,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118 (1969): 356–57, 361.
22. Paul Offit, Vaccinated: One Man’s Quest to Defeat the World’s Deadliest Diseases (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 76–78; Maurice Hilleman interview with Paul Offit, November 30, 2004. Audio file courtesy of Paul Offit.
23. Hilleman, interview with Offit.
24. Ibid.
25. Maurice R. Hilleman et al., “Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccines: Experiences with Duck Embryo Cell Preparations,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118, no. 2 (1969): 166.
26. Eugene Buynak et al., “Live Attenuated Rubella Virus, Vaccines prepared in Duck Embryo Cell Culture,” Journal of the American Medical Association 204, no. 3 (1968): 197 (table 2).
27. Hilleman, interview with Offit, 2004.
28. Robert E. Weibel et al., “Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccines Prepared in Duck Embryo Cell Culture II: Clinical Tests in Families and in an Institution,” Journal of the American Medical Association 205, no. 8 (1969): 558.
29. Ibid.
30. Hilleman, interview with Offit.
31. Ibid.
1. John F. Morrison and William T. Keough, “Ex-Phila. Scientist Battles U.S. over Frozen Cells,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, April 4, 1976.
2. International Association of Microbiological Societies, Permanent Section of Microbiological Standardization, “Minutes of the Fifth Meeting of the Committee on Cell Cultures,” November 27, 1968, 21.
3. J. P. Jacobs and F. T. Perkins, “Supplying Cell Cultures Regularly to Distant Laboratories,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 40 (1969): 476–78.
4. J. P. Jacobs, C. M. Jones, and J. P. Baille, “Characteristics of a Human Diploid Cell Designated MRC-5,” Nature 227 (1970): 168–70.
5. Harold M. Schmeck Jr., “Human Cells Given Role in Vaccines,” New York Times, November 12, 1966, 36.
6. Jane Brody, “Cell Bank Is Suggested for Every Person at Birth,” New York Times, April 3, 1967, 25.
7. “Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheet as of 4/30/66,” fourth page: “Percentage Report as of 4/30/66—Grants,” account number 60188, UPT 50 R252, box 68, folder 13 “Wistar Institute 1966”, Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; “Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheets as of 10/31/67,” fourth page: “Percentage Report as of 10/31/67—Grants,” account number 188, UPT 50 R252, box 68, folder 12 (“Wistar Institute 1966–67”), Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
8. Albert Sabin to Sidney Raffel, August 4, 1967, Correspondence, Individual (Graetz–Hayflick), series 1, box 11, folder “Hayflick, Leonard, 1964–81,” Albert B. Sabin Collection, Henry R. Winkler Center for the History of the Health Professions, University of Cincinnati Libraries, Cincinnati, Ohio.
9. Nancy Pleibel, interview with the author, March 6, 2013.
10. Minutes, Wistar Institute Board of Managers, June 19, 1962; June 22, 1964; and June 15, 1965. All minutes were accessed in a bound volume of minutes of The Wistar Institute Board of Managers meetings, pp. 193, 152, and 213, respectively. Courtesy of The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadelphia, PA.
11. Minutes, Wistar Institute Board of Managers, December 14, 1965. Accessed in a bound volume of minutes of the Wistar Institute Board of Managers meetings, p. 222. Courtesy of The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadelphia, PA.
12. “Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheets as of 10/31/67,” fourth page: “Percentage Report as of 10/31/67–Grants,” box 68, file folder 12 (“Wistar Institute 1966–67”), Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, UPT 50 R252, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania, “Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheet as of 4/30/66,” fourth page, Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, UPT 50 R252, box 68, file folder 13 (“Wistar Institute 1966”); “Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheet as of 12/31/65,” fourth page, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania, Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, UPT 50 R252, box 68, file folder 14 (“Wistar Institute 1966”).
13. Factual Chronology, 7.
14. “Minutes of the Wistar Institute Board of Managers Meeting,” December 16, 1966, p. 1, UPT 50 R252, box 68, folder 12 (“Wistar Institute 1966”), Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
15. Ibid., exhibit A; “Minutes of the Wistar Institute Board of Managers Meeting,” February 24, 1967, p. 2, UPT 50 R252, box 68, folder 12 (“Wistar Institute, 1966–1967”), Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
16. Factual Chronology, 7.
17. John D. Ross, “Memorandum on Diploid Contract Conference, Minutes of Meeting,” January 18, 1968, attachment B to Schriver Report, p 1.
18. Ibid.
19. Charles W. Boone to Hilary Koprowski, February 16, 1968, attachment C to Schriver Report, 2.
20. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, March 3, 2013.
21. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, “Contract Number: PH43-62-157,” February 6, 1962, Section 30: “Termination for the Convenience of the Government,” part (g), p. HEW-315-6. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
22. “Chronicle Burroughs Wellcome Proposed Agreement,” folder “SKF Correspondence 1968,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
23. Roger C. Egeberg (assistant secretary for health and scientific affairs) to Hilary Koprowski, August 13, 1970, Stanley Plotkin private papers.
24. A.C.C. Newman to Hilary Koprowski, October 16, 1968, file folder “Smith Kline French,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
25. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author.
26. Hayflick Rebuttal to Schriver Report, 19; John Shannon to Leon Jacobs, May 7, 1976, investigations 9, file folder 1, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
27. Schriver Report, 4.
1. Émile Roux is quoted in Stanley A. Plotkin, “Sang Froid in a Time of Trouble: Is a Vaccine Against HIV Possible?” Journal of the International AIDS Society 12, no. 2 (2009), http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2647531/.
2. Maurice R. Hilleman et al., “Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccines: Experiences with Duck Embryo Cell Preparations,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118 (1969): 171.
3. Samuel J. Musser and Larry J. Hilsabeck, “Production of Rubella Virus Vaccine: Live, Attenuated, in Canine Renal Cell Cultures,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118 (1969): 361.
4. George R. Thompson et al., “Intermittent Arthritis Following Rubella Vaccination,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 125 (1973): 526.
5. Stanley A. Plotkin et al., “An Attenuated Rubella Virus Strain Adapted to Primary Rabbit Kidney,” American Journal of Epidemiology 88 (1968): 97.
6. “Rubella: Vaccines May Be Licensed by Fall,” Science News 95 (March 1, 1969): 209.
7. Stanley Plotkin to Sister Agape, April 4, 1968, folder “St. Vincent’s,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
8. Stanley Plotkin to John Cardinal Krol (archbishop of Philadelphia), April 5, 1968, folder “St. Vincent’s,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
9. Archbishop of Philadelphia to Stanley Plotkin, April 11, 1968, Cardinal Krol papers, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
10. S. A. Plotkin et al., “Further Studies of an Attenuated Rubella Strain Grown in WI-38 Cells,” American Journal of Epidemiology 39, no. 2 (1969): 236.
11. Stanley Plotkin, interview with the author, June 1, 2015.
12. Plotkin et al., “Further Studies,” 232.
13. Ibid., 237.
14. Stanley Plotkin, “Status of Negotiations with SKF, Merieux and Wellcome,” undated, file folder “SKF Correspondence 1968,” Plotkin private papers. This paper is physically placed among papers dated autumn 1968.
15. Constant Huygelen, telegram to Robert Ferlauto, April 9, 1968, folder “SKF Correspondence 1968,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
16. Alan D. Lourie, memo to Ed Clay, January 8, 1968, file folder “SKF-Rubella,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
17. Stanley A. Plotkin et al., “A New Attenuated Rubella Virus Grown in Human Fibroblasts: Evidence for Reduced Nasopharyngeal Excretion,” American Journal of Epidemiology 86, no. 2 (1967): 468–77.
18. Robert Ferlauto to Stanley Plotkin, August 28, 1968, folder “SKF Correspondence 1968,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
19. Robert Ferlauto to Hilary Koprowski, August 12, 1968, folder “SKF Correspondence 1968,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
20. R. Palmer Beasley et al., “Prevention of Rubella During an Epidemic on Taiwan,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118 (1969): 304.
21. Harold M. Schmeck Jr., “Test Finds Rubella Vaccine Effective,” New York Times, October 17, 1968, 1, 27.
22. “Tests on Vaccines to Prevent Rubella Highly Effective,” NIH Record 20, no. 22 (October 29, 1968): 1, 8, https://nihrecord.nih.gov/PDF_Archive/1968%20PDFs/19681029.pdf (accessed February 8, 2016).
23. Beasley et al., “Prevention of Rubella,” 304.
24. Roderick Murray and Dorland J. Davis to Stanley Plotkin, September 30, 1968, folder “Washington, D.C.-1968,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
25. Plotkin et al., “Attenuated Rubella Virus Strain,” 97–102.
26. Howard A. Rusk, “Rubella Vaccine Near: Likely to Be Available in 2 Months, After Production Guides Take Effect,” New York Times, April 13, 1969.
27. Stanley A. Plotkin et al., “Attenuation of RA 27/3 Rubella Virus in WI-38 Human Diploid Cells,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118 (1969): 184.
28. Hilleman et al., “Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccines,” 167.
29. R. E. Weibel et al., “Live Rubella Vaccines in Adults and Children,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118, no. 2 (1969): 226–29.
30. Ibid.
31. Louis Z. Cooper et al., “Transient Arthritis After Rubella Vaccination,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118, no. 2 (1969): 218–25.
32. Weibel et al., “Live Rubella Vaccines,” 229.
33. “Recommendation of the Public Health Service Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices: Prelicensing Statement on Rubella Virus Vaccine,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 18, no. 15 (1969): 124–25.
34. “Leads from the MMWR: Rubella Vaccination During Pregnancy—United States, 1971–1988,” Journal of the American Medical Association 261, no. 23 (1989): 3375.
35. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Control and Prevention of Rubella: Evaluation and Management of Suspected Outbreaks, Rubella in Pregnant Women, and Surveillance for Congenital Rubella Syndrome,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 50, no. RR-12 (2001): 16.
36. Ibid., 33.
37. J. E. Banatvala and D. W. G. Brown, “Seminar: Rubella,” Lancet 363 (2004): 1128.
38. Plotkin et al., “Attenuation of RA 27/3 Rubella Virus,” 184.
39. Roderick Murray, “Biologics Control of Virus Vaccines,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118 (1969): 336.
40. “Gamma Globulin Prophylaxis; Inactivated Rubella Virus; Production and Biologics Control of Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccines: Discussion on Session V,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118 (1969): 377.
41. Ibid., 378.
42. Roger Vaughan, Listen to the Music: The Life of Hilary Koprowski (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2000), 54.
43. Edward Shorter, “The Health Century Oral History Collection,” Bernice Eddy interview, December 4, 1986, p. 25, transcript at the National Library of Medicine, NIH.
44. “Gamma Globulin Prophylaxis,” 378.
45. Ibid., 379.
46. Ibid., 379–80.
47. Stanley A. Plotkin, ed., History of Vaccine Development (New York: Springer Science + Business Media, 2011), 226.
48. Robert Q. Marston, director, National Institutes of Health, “Additional Standards; Rubella Virus Vaccine, Live,” Federal Register 34, no. 109 (1969): 9072–75.
49. Louis Galambos with Jane Eliot Sewell, Networks of Innovation: Vaccine Development at Merck, Sharp & Dohme, and Mulford, 1985–1995 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 112.
50. Stanley A. Plotkin, “Rubella Vaccination,” Journal of the American Medical Association 215, no. 9 (1971): 1492–93.
51. Thompson et al., “Intermittent Arthritis,” 526.
52. William Schaffner et al., “Polyneuropathy Following Rubella Immunization: A Follow-up Study and Review of the Problem,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 127 (1974): 684–88.
53. General Accounting Office, “Bid Protest-Negotiation-Specification Compliance Denial of Protest Against Rejection of Offer for Furnishing Live Rubella Vaccine to Veterans Administration on Basis That Vaccine Did Not Comply with the Requirements of the Amended Specifications,” B-170817, September 25, 1970, www.gao.gov/products/429478#mt=e-report (accessed February 15, 2016).
54. Harold M. Schmeck Jr., “One of 3 Rubella Vaccine Producers Barred from Bidding for US Contract,” New York Times, September 15, 1970, 13.
55. T. Norton, memo to Hilary Koprowski and Stanley Plotkin, January 15, 1970, folder “SKF-Rubella,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
56. Memorandum of a meeting held at Smith, Kline & French on September 22, 1970, folder “SKF-Rubella,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
57. Stanley Plotkin to Leonard Hayflick, October 2, 1970, folder “Correspondence-H,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
1. Leonard Hayflick, “The Coming of Age of WI-38,” Advances in Cell Culture 3 (1984): 303.
2. Robert Roosa, interview with the author, December 19, 2013.
3. Leonard Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, October 17, 2012.
4. Roger Vaughan, Listen to the Music: The Life of Hilary Koprowski (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2000), 112.
5. Stanley Plotkin, interview with the author, August 29, 2014.
6. Stanley Plotkin to Leonard Hayflick, July 9, 1968, file folder “Correspondence-H,” Stanley Plotkin Rubella Papers.
7. International Association of Microbiological Societies, Permanent Section of Microbiological Standardization, “Minutes of the Fourth Meeting of the Committee on Cell Cultures,” September 16, 1967, p. 63.
8. Factual Chronology, 7.
9. Schriver Report, 8–9.
10. Ibid., 9.
11. Hayflick Rebuttal to Schriver Report, 40–41.
12. International Association of Microbiological Societies, Permanent Section of Microbiological Standardization, “Minutes of the Fifth Meeting of the Committee on Cell Cultures,” November 27, 1968, p. 20; Schriver Report, 8.
13. Schriver Report, 8.
14. Factual Chronology, 20.
15. Ibid.
16. Stanley Plotkin to Leonard Hayflick, December 8, 1969, file folder “Correspondence-H,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
17. Factual Chronology, 32–33.
18. Stanley A. Plotkin to Leonard Hayflick, March 17, 1969, file folder “Correspondence-H,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
19. Stanley Plotkin to Leonard Hayflick, August 1, 1969, file folder “Correspondence-H,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
20. Leonard Hayflick to Stanley Plotkin, August 11, 1969, file folder “Correspondence-H,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
1. Testimony of Dr. Leonard Hayflick, Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research of the Committee on Government Operations, Consumer Safety Act of 1972: Hearings on Titles I and II of S. 3419, 92nd Cong., 2nd sess., April 20 and 21 and May 3 and 4, 1972, p. 34.
2. Debbie Bookchin and Jim Schumacher, The Virus and the Vaccine: Contaminated Vaccine, Deadly Cancers and Government Neglect (New York: St. Martin’s, 2004), 127.
3. Jane E. Brody, “Vaccine Produced in Human Cells,” New York Times, March 8, 1972, 18.
4. Nicholas Wade, “Division of Biologics Standards: The Boat That Never Rocked,” Science 175 (1972): 1228.
5. Abraham Ribicoff, “Exhibit 55: Vaccine Safety,” Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research, Consumer Safety Act of 1972: Hearings, 512–32.
6. Nicholas Wade, “DBS: Agency Contravenes Its Own Regulations,” Science 175 (1972): 34.
7. Ribicoff, “Exhibit 55: Vaccine Safety,” 527.
8. Testimony of Dr. Leonard Hayflick, 29–38.
9. Wade, “DBS: Agency Contravenes,” 35.
10. Consumer Safety Act of 1972: Hearings, 36.
11. P. Stessel, memo to R. A. Schoellhorn, H. Perlmutter, J. Rose, G. J. Sella Jr., R. J. Vallan-court, P. J. Vasington (Lederle Laboratories), April 26, 1972, cited in Bookchin and Schumacher, Virus and the Vaccine, 127, 306.
12. Leonard Hayflick, “Human Virus Vaccines: Why Monkey Cells?” Science 176 (1972): 813–14.
13. Stanley A. Plotkin to Senator Abraham Ribicoff, Consumer Safety Act of 1972: Hearings, 419–20.
14. “Dr. Roderick Murray Named Special Assistant to the Director of NIAID,” NIH Record, June 7, 1972, 5.
15. Bookchin and Schumacher, Virus and the Vaccine, 127.
16. S. Kops, “Oral Polio Vaccine and Human Cancer: A Reassessment of SV40 as a Contaminant, Based upon Legal Documents,” Anticancer Research 20 (2000): 4746.
17. Bookchin and Schumacher, Virus and the Vaccine, 124.
18. David Oshinksy, “Polio,” in: Andrew W. Artenstein, ed., Vaccines: A Biography (New York: Springer Science + Business Media, 2010), 219.
19. Nicoletta Previsani et al., “World Health Organization Guidelines for Containment of Poliovirus Following Type-Specific Polio Eradication: Worldwide, 2015,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 64, no. 33 (2015): 913, www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6433a5.htm?s_cid=mm6433a5_w (accessed February 18, 2016).
20. World Health Organization Media Centre: “Government of Nigeria Reports 2 Wild Polio Cases, First Since July 2014: New Cases Come on the Two-Year Anniversary Since the Last Confirmed Case of Polio Was Reported in Africa” (news release), August 11, 2016, http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2016/nigeria-polio/en/ (accessed September 8, 2016); Leslie Roberts, “Nigeria Outbreak Forces Rethink of Polio Strategies,” Science Insider (online), September 6, 2016, http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/09/nigeria-outbreak-forces-rethink-polio-strategies (accessed September 8, 2016).
1. Rebecca Sheir, “Ebola Researcher Says Vaccinology Isn’t Rocket Science—It’s Harder,” Metro Connection, WAMU Radio, October 23 2014. Transcript available here: http://wamu.org/programs/metro_connection/14/10/23/ebola_researcher_says_vaccinology_isnt_rocket_science_its_harder_transcript (accessed September 1, 2016).
2. “Dr. Dorothy Horstmann dies—key in development of polio vaccine,” Yale Bulletin & Calendar 29, no. 16 (2001), http://www.yale.edu/opa/arc-ybc/v29.n16/story18.html; David M. Oshinsky, “Breaking the Back of Polio,” Yale Medicine 40, no. 1 (2005), http://yalemedicine.yale.edu/autumn2005/features/feature/52012/; Daniel Wilson, unpublished interview with Dorothy Horstmann, 1990, Dorothy M. Horstmann Papers (MS 1700), box 12, Folder 257, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
3. Jane E. Brody, “New Research on Rubella Challenges Effectiveness of Vaccination Program,” New York Times, September 29, 1970, 8.
4. Dorothy M. Horstmann et al., “Rubella: Reinfection of Vaccinated and Naturally Immune Persons Exposed in an Epidemic,” New England Journal of Medicine 283, no. 15 (1970): 771–78.
5. Scott B. Halstead et al., “Susceptibility to Rubella Among Adolescents and Adults in Hawaii,” Journal of the American Medical Association 210 (10): 1881–83.
6. Te-Wen Chang, Suzanne DesRosiers, and Louis Weinstein, “Clinical and Serological Studies of an Outbreak of Rubella in a Vaccinated Population,” New England Journal of Medicine 283, no. 5 (1970): 246–48; J. M. Forrest, M. A. Menser, and M. C. Honeyman, “Clinical Rubella Eleven Months After Vaccination,” Lancet 300, no. 7774 (1972): 399–400.
7. Dorothy M. Horstmann et al., “Rubella: Reinfection of Vaccinated and Naturally Immune Persons Exposed in an Epidemic,” New England Journal of Medicine 283, no. 15 (1970): 771–78.
8. Ibid., 775.
9. Chang, DesRosiers, and Weinstein, “Clinical and Serological Studies of an Outbreak of Rubella in a Vaccinated Population,” New England Journal of Medicine 283, no. 5 (1970): 246–48.
10. Elias Abrutyn et al., “Rubella Vaccine Comparative Study: Nine-Month Follow-Up and Serologic Response to Natural Challenge,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 120 (1970): 129–33; William J. Davis et al., “A Study of Rubella Immunity and Resistance to Infection,” Journal of the American Medical Association 215, no. 4 (1971): 600–608; Jeanette Wilkins et al., “Reinfection with Rubella Virus Despite Live Vaccine-Induced Immunity,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118: (1969): 275–94; Harvey Liebhaber et al., “Vaccination with RA27/3 Rubella Vaccine: Persistence of Immunity and Resistance to Challenge After Two Years,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 123 (1972): 134.
11. Horstmann et al., “Rubella: Reinfection,” 777.
12. Dorothy Horstmann to Stanley Plotkin, January 30 1970.
13. Stanley Plotkin to Dorothy Horstmann, November 30, 1970, and April 16, 1971, folder “Horstmann,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
14. Dorothy Horstmann to Stanley Plotkin, March 12, 1970, file folder “Horstmann,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
15. Ann Schluederberg et al., “Neutralizing and Hemagglutination-Inhibiting Antibodies to Rubella Virus as Indicators of Protective Immunity in Vaccinees and Naturally Immune Individuals,” Journal of Infectious Diseases 138, no. 6 (1978): 877–83.
16. Liebhaber et al., “Vaccination with RA 27/3,” 133–36.
17. Chang, DesRosiers, and Weinstein, “Clinical and Serological Studies,” 247; Wilkins et al., “Reinfection with Rubella Virus,” 291; Horstmann et al., “Rubella: Reinfection,” 775; Stanley A. Plotkin, John D. Farquhar, and Ogra L. Pearay, “Immunologic Properties of RA27/3 Rubella Virus Vaccine: A Comparison with Strains Presently Licensed in the United States,” Journal of the American Medical Association 225, no. 6 (1973): 588.
18. Liebhaber et al., “Vaccination with RA 27/3,” 134–35.
19. Ibid., 136.
20. Maurice Hilleman, interview with Paul Offit November 30, 2004. Audio file courtesy of Paul Offit.
21. Plotkin, Farquhar, and Pearay, “Immunologic Properties of RA 27/3,” 585 and 589.
22. Stanley Plotkin to Leonard Hayflick, October 3, 1973, file folder “Correspondence-H,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
23. Hilleman, interview with Paul Offit.
24. Robert E. Weibel et al., “Clinical and Laboratory Studies of Live Attenuated RA 27/3 and HPV 77-DE Rubella Virus Vaccines,” Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine 165, no. 1 (1980): 44–49.
25. Ibid., 44.
26. Schluederberg et al., “Neutralizing and Hemagglutination-Inhibiting Antibodies,” 877–83.
27. Pamela Eisele (Merck spokesperson), e-mail to the author, August 31, 2015.
1. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, October 3, 2012.
2. Forrest Stevenson Jr., “Women, the Bible and Abortion,” (Brighton, MI: Forrest Stevenson, 1972). Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
3. State of Michigan, Department of State, “Initiatives and Referendums Under the Constitution of the State of Michigan, 1963,” December 5, 2008, 14.
4. James V. Siena to Forrest Stevenson, November 30, 1972. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
5. Arthur F. Barkey to James V. Siena, December 7, 1972. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
6. Forrest Stevenson to Dr. Hayflick, in “Letters to the Editor,” Gazette Times (Heppner, OR), July 4, 1974.
7. Leonard Hayflick to Life Line (Passaic County Right to Life newsletter), July 20, 1973. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
8. United Press International, “Human Cells to Be Orbited in Outer Space,” Los Angeles Times, May 2, 1973.
9. James J. Ambrose to Joseph T. McGucken (archbishop of San Francisco), May 2, 1973. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
10. Leonard Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, October 17, 2012.
11. P. O. Montgomery et al., “The Response of Single Human Cells to Zero Gravity,” in Richard S. Johnston and Lawrence F. Dietlein, Biomedical Results from Skylab, NASA SP-377 (Washington, DC: Scientific and Technical Information Office, National Aeronautical and Space Administration, 1977), 221–33.
12. Mrs. Raymond Somerville to Leonard Hayflick, June 14, 1973.
1. Leonard Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, October 16, 2012.
2. Hayflick Rebuttal to Schriver Report, 34.
3. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, “Contract Number: PH43-62-157,” February 6, 1962, Section 30: “Termination for the Convenience of the Government,” part (g), p. HEW-315-6. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
4. Schriver Report, attachment B.
5. Schriver Report, 9.
6. Leonard Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, October 11, 2012.
7. Schriver Report, 9; John E. Shannon and Marvin L. Macy, eds., The American Type Culture Collection Registry of Animal Cell Lines, 2nd ed. (Rockville, MD: American Type Culture Collection, 1972), 17; Robert Hay et al., eds., The American Type Culture Collection: Catalogue of Strains II, 2nd ed. (Rockville, MD: American Type Culture Collection, 1979), viii.
8. Schriver Report, 10.
9. Louis Rosenfeld, “Insulin: Discovery and Controversy,” Clinical Chemistry 48, no. 12 (2002): 2280.
10. Jonas Salk, interview with Edward R. Murrow on See It Now, CBS, April 12, 1955. Quoted in Elizabeth Popp Berman, Creating the Market University: How Academic Science Became an Economic Engine (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 5; and in Jane S. Smith, Patenting the Sun: Polio and the Salk Vaccine (New York: Morrow, 1990), 13.
11. Frederick J. Hammett, “Uncommitted Researchers,” Science 117 (1953): 64.
12. Leonard Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, October 17, 2012.
13. Schriver Report, 9.
14. Ibid., 11; Schriver Rebuttal to Hayflick Rebuttal, 106.
15. Schriver Report, attachment A.
16. Ibid., 12.
17. Ibid., 6–7.
18. Ibid.; Schriver Rebuttal to Hayflick Rebuttal, 58–59.
19. Schriver Report, 12; Schriver Rebuttal to Hayflick Rebuttal, 106.
20. Factual Chronology, 38–39.
21. Ibid., 38.
22. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, March 4, 2013.
23. Schriver Report, 12.
24. Hayflick Rebuttal to Schriver Report, 14.
25. Stanley N. Cohen et al., “Construction of Biologically Functional Bacterial Plasmids in Vitro,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 70, no. 11 (1973): 3240–44.
26. Niels Reimers, “Stanford’s Office of Technology Licensing and the Cohen/Boyer Cloning Patents,” oral history conducted in 1997 by Sally Smith Hughes, p. 3, Regional Oral History Office, Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley, 1998.
27. Sally Smith Hughes, “Making Dollars Out of DNA: The First Major Patent in Biotechnology and the Commercialization of Molecular Biology, 1974–1980,” Isis 92 (2001): 549; Berman, Creating the Market University, 64.
28. Rajendra K. Bera, “Commentary: The Story of the Cohen-Boyer Patents,” Current Science 96, no. 6 (2009): 760.
29. Herbert W. Boyer, “Recombinant DNA Research at UCSF and Commercial Application at Genentech,” oral history conducted in 1994 by Sally Smith Hughes, p. 98, Regional Oral History Office, Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley, www.oac.cdlib.org/view?docId=kt5d5nb0zs&brand=oac4&doc.view=entire_text (accessed February 26, 2016). Also cited in Berman, Creating the Market University, 66.
30. Stephen S. Hall, Merchants of Immortality: Chasing the Dream of Human Life Extension (Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2003), 37.
31. Ronald W. Lamont-Havers to Leonard Hayflick, October 10, 1974. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
32. Hayflick Rebuttal to Schriver Report, 3–4; Leonard Hayflick, “Hayflick’s Reply,” Science 202 (1978): 129.
33. Schriver Rebuttal to Hayflick Rebuttal, 4–6.
34. Ibid., 6–7; Schriver Report, 1; Factual Chronology, 21.
35. Donald G. Murphy to Leonard Hayflick, January 31, 1975. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
36. “Factual Chronology,” 21.
37. Schriver Rebuttal to Hayflick Rebuttal, 6–7.
38. Leonard Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, October 16, 2012.
39. Schriver Rebuttal to Hayflick Rebuttal, 6.
40. “James Schriver Named Head of Newly Created OAM Audit Branch,” NIH Record 25, no. 3 (February 12, 1963): 5; “James Schriver Retires After 17 Years at NIH,” NIH Record 32, no. 7 (April 1, 1980): 4.
41. “James Schriver Named Head,” 5.
42. Nicholas Wade, “Division of Biologics Standards: Scientific Management Questioned,” Science 175 (1972): 966.
43. Philip M. Boffey, “The Fall and Rise of Leonard Hayflick, Biologist Whose Fight with US Seems Over,” New York Times, January 19, 1982.
44. Richard Dugas, telephone interview with the author, April 27, 2013.
45. Nicholas Wade, telephone interview with the author, April 30, 2013.
46. All of Nancy Pleibel’s recollections are drawn from interviews with the author on March 6 and 7, 2013.
47. Richard Dugas, telephone interview with the author, July 25, 2015.
48. Factual Chronology, 25, 28–29; Schriver Report, 5.
49. Nancy Pleibel, interview with the author, March 6, 2013.
50. Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology and Connaught Laboratories, License Agreement, January 1, 1973, folder “Connaught Correspondence,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
51. Schriver Report, 7.
52. Ibid.
53. Factual Chronology, 26–27.
54. Ibid., 26.
55. Ibid., 27.
56. Ibid., 28.
57. Leonard Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, October 16, 2012.
58. Factual Chronology, 38.
59. Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research of the Committee on Government Operations, Consumer Safety Act of 1972: Hearings on Titles I and II of S. 3419, 92nd Cong., 2nd sess., April 20 and 21 and May 3 and 4, 1972, p. 35.
60. Factual Chronology, 38–39.
61. Ibid.
62. Leon Jacobs, memo to the record, “Re: Telephone Conversation with Mr. Don Brooks (Attorney), Merck and Company,” March 31, 1976, investigations 9, file folder 1, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
63. M. F. Miller (Merck) “Memo for File: WI-38 Human Diploid Cells,” July 11, 1974. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
64. Riseberg Memo, 3.
65. Ibid.
66. Richard Thornburgh to Richard J. Riseberg, August 6, 1975, investigations 9, file folder 1, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
67. Factual Chronology, 33.
68. Donald G. Murphy, memos to the record, “PHS Working Group on WI-38,” July 21 and 25, 1975, investigations 9, folder 1, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
69. J. E. Shannon, memo to Dr. R. Donvick, October 9, 1975, “Reference: Inventory of WI-38 Cells Delivered by NIH.” Courtesy of Frank Simione, American Type Culture Collection, Manassas, VA.
1. Nicholas Wade, “Hayflick’s Tragedy: The Rise and Fall of a Human Cell Line,” Science 192, no. 4235 (1976): 125.
2. Harold M. Schmeck Jr., “Investigator Says Scientist Sold Cell Specimens Owned by U.S.,” New York Times, March 28, 1976, 1, 26.
3. Schriver Report, 1–14 and attachments A–C.
4. Factual Chronology, 51.
5. Hayflick Rebuttal to Schriver Report, 41, 45.
6. Ibid., 53; Nicholas Wade, “Vaccine Cells Found Mostly Contaminated,” Science 194, no. 4260 (1976): 41.
7. Wade, “Vaccine Cells Found Mostly Contaminated,” 41.
8. Leonard Hayflick, “Hayflick’s Reply,” Science 202 (1978): 131.
9. Leonard Hayflick, “Press Statement,” Plotkin Rubella Papers, folder “Correspondence-H,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
10. Wade, “Hayflick’s Tragedy,” 125–27.
11. Nicholas Wade, telephone interview with the author, April 30, 2013.
12. Schmeck, “Investigator Says Scientist Sold,” 26.
13. Schriver Report, 4; Factual Chronology, 13.
14. Factual Chronology, 34.
15. Wade, “Hayflick’s Tragedy,” 127.
16. Pan Demetrakakes, “Prof in Alleged Fund Misuse,” Stanford Daily 169, no. 22 (March 3, 1976).
17. Factual Chronology, 43.
18. Ibid.
19. Clayton Rich, “Dean Rich Speaks on Hayflick Case,” Stanford University Campus Report 8, no. 40 (July 21, 1976), investigations 9, file folder 1, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
20. William Fenwick, interview with the author, October 6, 2012.
21. Zhores A. Medvedev, “Letter: Hayflick’s Tragedy,” Science 192 (1976): 1182–84.
22. Hilleman is quoted in Stephen S. Hall, Merchants of Immortality: Chasing the Dream of Human Life Extension (Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2003), 39.
23. Albert Sabin to Bernard Strehler, December 1, 1981, box 11, file folder “Correspondence, Individual, Hayflick, Leonard, 1964–81,” Correspondence-Individual (Graetz-Hayflick) series 1, Albert B. Sabin Collection, Henry R. Winkler Center for the History of the Health Professions, University of Cincinnati Libraries.
24. Fenwick, interview with the author.
25. Cell Associates, Inc. and Leonard Hayflick v. National Institute [sic] of Health; Department of Health, Education and Welfare; and Donald Fredrickson, Director of National Institute [sic] of Health (U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California, C76 601 RHS), March 25, 1976, p. 7, investigations 9, file folder 4, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
26. Herbert J. Kreitman to Leonard Hayflick, September 30, 1976, investigations 9, folder 2, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, NIH; Richard J. Riseberg, memo to Dr. Fredrickson and Mr. Schriver, “Subject: Cell Associates, Inc. v. NIH,” November 2, 1978, investigations 9, folder 3, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, NIH; Nicholas Wade, “Despite the Length of Hayflick’s Letter,” Science 202 (1978): 136.
27. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, March 3, 2013.
28. Stanley A. Plotkin to Leonard Hayflick, May 27, 1976, file folder “Correspondence-H,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
29. Hayflick Rebuttal to Schriver Report, 1–65.
30. Schriver Rebuttal to Hayflick Rebuttal, 1–121.
31. Wade, “Vaccine Cells Found Mostly Contaminated,” 41.
32. Schriver Report, 1.
33. Cell Associates v. National Institute [sic] of Health, 7.
34. “Human Cancer Cell Reconstruction and Transformation,” 1 R01 CA18456-01, from 01/01/76 through 12/31/80, investigations 9, file folder 1, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health; Donald G. Murphy letter to Leonard Hayflick, July 30, 1976, Office of the Director, NIH, Directors’ Files, investigations 9, folder 3.
35. Peter Libassi, memo to Thomas Morris and Donald Fredrickson, April 23, 1978, p. 2, Office of the Director, NIH, Directors’ Files, investigations 9, folder 2.
36. Richard J. Riseberg, “Chronology,” 4, attachment to Riseberg letter to Donald Fredrickson, January 6, 1978, Office of the Director, NIH, Directors’ Files, investigations 9, folder 2.
37. Leonard Hayflick to Donald Fredrickson, November 8, 1978. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
38. Richard J. Riseberg, memo to Robert N. Butler, “Subject: Application for Research Grant—Dr. Hayflick,” 1–2, August 24, 1977, Office of the Director, NIH, Directors’ Files, investigations 9, folder 2. The full Riseberg sentence reads: “It is my view, therefore, that there is no sound legal basis for rendering Dr. Hayflick categorically ineligible to serve as principal investigator on any NIH research grants.”
39. Betty H. Pickett, memo to Donald Murphy, July 27, 1977. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
40. Ibid.; Office of the Director, NIH, Directors’ Files, investigations 9, folder 2.
41. Leon Jacobs, “Memorandum, Subject: Hayflick,” December 8, 1977, Office of the Director, NIH, Directors’ Files, investigations 9, folder 3.
42. Thomas D. Morris (inspector general), memo to the Hayflick File, “Subject: Meeting of January 9, 1978,” Office of the Director, NIH, Directors’ Files, investigations 9, folder 2.
43. Thomas D. Morris, memo to the Hayflick File, April 11, 1978. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
44. Mary Miers, note to Dr. Malone, July 16, 1981, investigations 9, folder 2, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
45. Richard Riseberg, memo to Special Assistant to the Director, NIH, “Proposed Basis of Settlement in the Cell Associates Case,” November 9, 1979, investigations 9, folder 2, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
1. Marcel Baltazard and Mehdi Ghodssi, “Prevention of Human Rabies: Treatment of Persons Bitten by Rabid Wolves in Iran,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 10, no. 5 (1954): 798.
2. Mahmoud Bahmanyar et al., “Successful Protection of Humans Exposed to Rabies Infection: Postexposure Treatment with the New Human Diploid Cell Rabies Vaccine and Antirabies Serum,” Journal of the American Medical Association 236, no. 24 (1976): 2751–54.
3. T. J. Wiktor, S. A. Plotkin, and H. Koprowski, “Development and Clinical Trials of the New Human Rabies Vaccine of Tissue Culture (Human Diploid Cell) Origin,” Developments in Biological Standardization 40 (1978): 3–9.
4. T. J. Wiktor et al., “Immunogenicity of Concentrated and Purified Rabies Vaccine of Tissue Culture Origin,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 131 (1969): 799–805.
5. H. Koprowski, “In Vitro Production of Antirabies Virus Vaccine,” in International Symposium on Rabies, Talloires 1965, Symposium Series on Immunobiological Standards, vol. 1 (Basel and New York: Karger, 1966), 363–64.
6. Centers for Disease Control, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 34, nos. 2, 5, and 7 (1985), reprinted in Journal of the American Medical Association (March 15, 1985): 1540.
7. Ibid.; Wiktor, Plotkin, and Koprowski, “Development and Clinical Trials,” 4.
8. Mario V. Fernandes, Hilary Koprowski, and Tadeusz J. Wiktor, “Method of Producing Rabies Vaccine,” U.S. Patent 3,397,267, filed September 21, 1964, and issued August 13, 1968, www.google.com/patents/US3397267.
9. Wiktor, Plotkin, and Koprowski, “Development and Clinical Trials,” 5; Tadeusz J. Wiktor, Stanley A. Plotkin, and Doris W. Grella, “Human Cell Culture Rabies Vaccine: Antibody Response in Man,” Journal of the American Medical Association 224, no. 8 (1973): 1170–71.
10. Wiktor, Plotkin, and Grella, “Human Cell Culture Rabies Vaccine,” 1170–71.
11. Wiktor, Plotkin, and Koprowski, “Development and Clinical Trials,” 5, 7.
12. Bahmanyar et al., “Successful Protection of Humans,” 2754.
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid.
15. Center for Disease Control, “Recommendation of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee (ACIP): Rabies Prevention,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 29, no. 3 (1980): 266.
16. Centers for Disease Control, “Rabies Postexposure Prophylaxis with Human Diploid Cell Rabies Vaccine: Lower Neutralizing Antibody Titers with Wyeth Vaccine,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 34, no. 7 (1985): 90–92.
17. Ibid., 90–91.
18. United Press International, “Wyeth Laboratories Tuesday Recalled Its Wyvac Rabies Vaccine,” February 19, 1985, http://www.upi.com/Archives/1985/02/19/Wyeth-Laboratories-Tuesday-recalled-its-Wyvac-rabies-vaccine-effective/5202477637200/.
19. Jeffrey P. Koplan and Stephen R. Preblud, “A Benefit-Cost Analysis of Mumps Vaccine,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 136 (1982): 362; Kenneth B. Robbins, A. David Brandling-Bennett, and Alan R. Hinman, “Low Measles Incidence: Association with Enforcement of School Immunization Laws,” American Journal of Public Health 71, no. 3 (1981): 270.
20. Michiaki Takahashi et al., “Live Vaccine Used to Prevent the Spread of Varicella in Children in Hospital,” Lancet 2, no. 7892 (1974): 1288–90.
21. Michiaki Takahashi et al., “Development of Varicella Vaccine,” Journal of Infectious Diseases 197 (2008): S41–44. See also Robert E. Weibel et al., “Live Attenuated Varicella Virus: Efficacy Trial in Healthy Children,” New England Journal of Medicine 310, no. 22 (1984): 1409.
22. Beverly J. Neff et al., “Clinical and Laboratory Studies of KMcC Strain Live Attenuated Varicella Virus,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 166, no. 3 (1981): 339–47.
23. Alan Shaw, interview with the author, March 16, 2014; Louis Galambos with Jane Eliot Sewell, Networks of Innovation: Vaccine Development at Merck, Sharp & Dohme, and Mulford, 1985–1995 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 231–32.
24. Neff et al., “Clinical and Laboratory Studies,” 344.
25. Nicholas Wade, “Hayflick’s Tragedy: The Rise and Fall of a Human Cell Line,” Science 194, no. 4235 (1976): 125.
26. Philip Provost, interview with the author, December 18, 2012.
27. Weibel et al., “Live Attenuated Varicella Virus,” 1409.
28. Wade, “Hayflick’s Tragedy,” 127.
29. E. L. Buescher, “Respiratory Disease and the Adenoviruses,” Medical Clinics of North America 51 (1967): 773–74.
30. Centers for Disease Control, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report: Recommendations and Reports 39, no. RR-15 (1990): 1–18.
31. “1 Mil. Merck-Hayflick Contract for WI-38 Cells Revealed by NIH: Researcher Denies Wrongdoing, Sues Govt. for Defaming Character,” Blue Sheet: Drug Research Reports 19, no. 13 (March 31, 1976): 3, investigations 9 (Human Diploid Cells Under Gvt. Ownership), file folder 1 (Jan–August 1976), Historical Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
32. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, “WI-38 Cells Pre-tested for Vaccine Manufacture (ATCC 7/19/96),” response to Freedom of Information Act Request from Leonard Hayflick, August 26, 1996. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
33. John E. Shannon and Marvin Macy, eds., The American Type Culture Collection Registry of Animal Cell Lines, 2nd ed. (Rockville, MD: American Type Culture Collection, 1972), 17.
1. William Rutter, “The Department of Biochemistry and the Molecular Approach to Biomedicine at the University of California, San Francisco,” oral history conducted in 1992 by Sally Smith Hughes, p. 58, Regional Oral History Office, Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley, 1998.
2. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, March 5, 2013.
3. Ronald E. Cape, oral history conducted in 2003 by Sally Smith Hughes, Regional Oral History Office, Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley, http://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/roho/ucb/text/cape_ron.pdf.
4. Robert Beyers, “Free Inquiry Must Be Rule in Research,” Campus Report 13, no. 7 (1980): 1, 18. Found in Sally Smith Hughes, “Making Dollars Out of DNA: The First Major Patent in Biotechnology and the Commercialization of Molecular Biology, 1974–1980,” Isis 92 (2001): p. 573.
5. Brook Byers, “Brook Byers: Biotechnology Venture Capitalist, 1970–2006,” oral history conducted by Thomas D. Kiley, 2002–5, Regional Oral History Office, Bancroft Library, University of California, p. 19, http://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/roho/ucb/text/byers_brook.pdf.
6. Wendy H. Schacht, “The Bayh-Dole Act: Selected Issues in Patent Policy and the Commercialization of Technology,” Congressional Research Service, December 3, 2012, p. 2, https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL32076.pdf.
7. Elizabeth Popp Berman, Creating the Market University: How Academic Science Became an Economic Engine (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 106.
8. Ibid., 105. Readers interested in a more detailed history should read Berman’s excellent account.
9. Ibid., 107–8.
10. Patent and Trademark Law Amendments Act, Public Law 96-517, U.S. Statutes at Large 94 (1980): 3015.
11. Berman, Creating the Market University, 108.
12. Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. 303 (1980), https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/447/303/case.html.
13. Ibid., 309.
14. The 2015 figures were provided by the Biotechnology Innovation Organization in Washington, DC.
15. Readers interested in close coverage of these converging forces should read Elizabeth Popp Berman’s account in Creating the Market University, 69–79.
16. Berman, Creating the Market University, 83.
17. Hughes, “Making Dollars Out of DNA,”: 569.
18. Maryann Feldman, Alessandra Colaianni, and Kang Liu, “Commercializing Cohen-Boyer, 1980–1997,” Druid (Toronto: University of Toronto Rotman School of Management, 2005), 1.
19. Floyd Grolle (former licensing officer of the Cohen-Boyer patents), personal communication to Sally Smith Hughes, cited in Hughes, “Making Dollars Out of DNA,” 570.
20. Michael Cleare (former executive director of Columbia’s Science and Technology Ventures Office), personal communication to Richard R. Nelson (Henry R. Luce professor of international political economy at Columbia University) and Bhaven Sampat (assistant professor of health policy and management, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University), August 29, 2006, cited in Alessandra Colaianni and Robert Cook-Deegan, “Columbia University’s Axel Patents: Technology Transfer and Implications for the Bayh-Dole Act,” Milibank Quarterly 87, no. 3 (2009): 700, 711.
21. National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators: 1993 (Washington, DC: National Science Foundation, 1993), 430; Association of University Technology Managers, FY 2014 US Licensing Activity Survey (Oakbrook Terrace, IL: Association of University Technology Managers, 2014), 23.
22. National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2014 (Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation 2014): 5–54.
23. David Blumenthal et al., “University-Industry Research Relationships in Biotechnology: Implications for the University,” Science 232, no. 4756 (1986): 1364.
24. Vincent B. Terlep Jr. to Thomas Malone, February 22, 1980, Directors’ Files, NIH, Office of the Director, investigations 9, folder 2.
25. Richard J. Riseberg, note to Dr. Raub, July 24, 1989, investigations 9 (Human Diploid Cells Under Gvt. Ownership), file folder 2 (September 1976–July 1989), Historical Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health. This letter reads in part: “[Hayflick is] not aware that a principal consideration in causing the government to settle had nothing to do with the merits but just the fact that Jim Schriver had retired and it was proving very expensive to use him as a consultant.” Riseberg was discussing the matter with William Raub, then the NIH’s acting director, because Hayflick had goaded Raub by sending the top NIH official a new paper that Hayflick had written, giving a one-sided account of his conflict with the NIH and describing how some biologists had profited from the legal and policy changes of the previous decade. Hayflick’s paper was titled “A New Technique for Transforming Purloined Human Cells into Acceptable Federal Policy.”
26. Leonard Hayflick, Edmond C. Gregorian, Michael Hughes, and Vincent B. Terlep, “Settlement Agreement,” September 15, 1981, 1–8, investigations 9, folder 1, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
27. Ibid., 2.
28. Bernard L. Strehler et al., “Hayflick-NIH Settlement,” Science 215 (1982): 240, 242.
29. Leonard Hayflick, “Hayflick’s Reply,” Science 202 (1978): 128–36.
1. Leonard Hayflick and Paul S. Moorhead, “The Serial Cultivation of Human Diploid Cell Strains,” Experimental Cell Research 25, no. 3 (1961): 585–621.
2. Leonard Hayflick, “The Limited in Vitro Lifetime of Human Diploid Cell Strains,” Experimental Cell Research 37 (1965): 634.
3. P. L. Krohn, “Aging,” Science 152 (1966): 392.
4. Ibid.; Sir Macfarlane Burnet, Intrinsic Mutagenesis: A Genetic Approach to Ageing (Lancaster, UK: Medical and Technical, 1974): 62; L. M. Franks, “Cellular Aspects of Aging,” Experimental Gerontology 5 (1970): 281–89; R. L. Walford, The Immunologic Theory of Aging (Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1969).
5. Burnet, Intrinsic Mutagenesis, 62.
6. Hayflick, “The Limited in Vitro Lifetime,” 625.
7. Ibid.
8. G. M. Martin, C. A. Sprague, and C. J. Epstein, “Replicative Life-span of Cultivated Human Cells: Effects of Donor’s Age, Tissue, and Genotype,” Laboratory Investigation: A Journal of Technical Methods and Pathology 23, no. 1 (1970): 86–92; Y. Le Guilly et al., “Long-term Culture of Human Adult Liver Cells: Morphological Changes Related to in Vitro Senescence and Effect of Donor’s Age on Growth Potential,” Gerontologia 19, no. 5 (1973): 303–13; E. L. Bierman, “The Effect of Donor Age on the in Vitro Life Span of Cultured Human Arterial Smooth-Muscle Cells,” In Vitro 14, no. 11 (1978): 951–55.
9. J. R. Smith and R. G. Whitney, “Intraclonal Variation in Proliferative Potential of Human Diploid Fibroblasts: Stochastic Mechanism for Cellular Aging,” Science 207 (1980): 82–84.
10. Ibid., 82.
11. W. E. Wright and L. Hayflick, “Formation of Anucleate and Multinucleate Cells in Normal and SV40 Transformed WI-38 by Cytochalasin B,” Experimental Cell Research 74 (1972): 187–94.
12. W. E. Wright and L. Hayflick, “Nuclear Control of Cellular Aging Demonstrated by Hybridization of Anucleate and Whole Cultured Normal Human Fibroblasts,” Experimental Cell Research 96, no. 1 (1975): 113–21.
13. Leonard Hayflick, “Mortality and Immortality at the Cellular Level: A Review,” Biochemistry (Moscow) 62 (1997): 1180–90.
14. Hermann J. Muller, “The Remaking of Chromosomes,” Collecting Net 13 (1938): 181–98.
15. Barbara McClintock, “The Stability of Broken Ends of Chromosomes in Zea mays,” Genetics 126 (1941): 234–82.
16. Alexey M. Olovnikov, “Telomeres, Telomerase, and Aging: Origin of the Theory,” Experimental Gerontology 31, no. 4 (1996): 445.
17. A. M. Olovnikov [“Principles of Marginotomy in Template Synthesis of Polynucleoetides”], Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 201, no. 6 (1971): 1496–99 (in Russian).
18. A. M. Olovnikov, “A Theory of Marginotomy: The Incomplete Copying of Template Margin in Enzymic Synthesis of Polynucleotides and Biological Significance of the Phenomenon,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 41 (1973): 186.
19. Ibid., 188.
20. Ibid., 181–90.
21. James D. Watson, “Origin of Concatameric T7 DNA,” Nature: New Biology 239 (1972): 197–201.
22. Catherine Brady, Elizabeth Blackburn and the Story of Telomeres: Deciphering the Ends of DNA (Cambridge, MA, and London: MIT Press, 2007), 3.
23. Elizabeth H. Blackburn and Joseph G. Gall, “A Tandemly Repeated Sequence at the Termini of the Extrachromosomal Ribosomal RNA Genes in Tetrahymena,” Journal of Molecular Biology (1978): 33–53.
24. Elizabeth H. Blackburn, Carol W. Greider, and Jack W. Szostak, “Telomeres and Telomerase: The Path from Maize, Tetrahymena and Yeast to Human Cancer and Aging,” Nature Medicine 12, no. 10 (2006): 1134; Jack W. Szostak, “Biographical,” Nobelprize.org, www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2009/szostak-bio.html.
25. Jack W. Szostak and Elizabeth H. Blackburn, “Cloning Yeast Telomeres on Linear Plasmid Vectors,” Cell 29, no. 1 (1982): 245–55.
26. Janis Shampay, Jack W. Szostak, and Elizabeth H. Blackburn, “DNA Sequences of Telomeres Maintained in Yeast,” Nature 310, no. 5973 (1984): 154–57.
27. Carol W. Greider, e-mail to the author, May 15, 2016.
28. Carol W. Greider and Elizabeth H. Blackburn, “Identification of a Specific Telomere Terminal Transferase Activity in Tetrahymena Extracts,” Cell 43, no. 2, part 1 (1985): 405–13.
29. Guo-Liang Yu et al., “In Vivo Alteration of Telomere Sequences and Senescence Caused by Mutated Tetrahymena Telomerase RNAs,” Nature 344 (1990): 126–32.
30. Carol W. Greider and Elizabeth H. Blackburn, “A Telomeric Sequence in the RNA of Tetrahymena Telomerase Required for Telomere Repeat Synthesis,” Nature 337 (1989): 331–37.
31. Carol Greider, e-mail to the author.
32. Robert K. Moyzis et al., “A Highly Conserved Repetitive DNA Sequence (TTAGGG)n, Present at the Telomeres of Human Chromosomes,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 85 (1988): 6622–26; Robin C. Allshire et al., “Telomeric Repeats from T. thermophila Cross Hybridize with Human Telomeres,” Nature 332 (1988): 656–59.
33. Calvin B. Harley, A. Bruce Futcher, and Carol W. Greider, “Telomeres Shorten During Ageing of Human Fibroblasts,” Nature 345 (1990): 459.
34. Stephen S. Hall, Merchants of Immortality: Chasing the Dream of Human Life Extension (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 58.
35. Andrea G. Bodnar et al., “Extension of Life-span by Introduction of Telomerase into Normal Human Cells,” Science 279 (1998): 349–52.
36. Nicholas Wade, “Cells’ Life Stretched in Lab,” New York Times, January 14, 1998, p. A1, www.nytimes.com/1998/01/14/us/cells-life-stretched-in-lab.html; Nicholas Wade, “Cells Unlocked, Longevity’s New Lease on Life,” Week in Review, New York Times, January 18, 1998, www.nytimes.com/1998/01/18/weekinreview/ideas-trends-cells-unlocked-longevity-s-new-lease-on-life.html; Nicholas Wade, “Cell Rejuvenation May Yield Rush of Medical Advances,” Science Times, New York Times, January 20, 1998, www.nytimes.com/1998/01/20/science/cell-rejuvenation-may-yield-rush-of-medical-advances.html.
37. Carl T. Hall, “Non-aging Human Cells Created in Lab; Bay Firm’s Stock Soars on Hopes of Medical Advances,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 14, 1998, p. 1.
38. David Stipp, “The Hunt for the Youth Pill: From Cell-Immortalizing Drugs to Cloned Organs, Biotech Finds New Ways to Fight Against Time’s Toll,” Fortune, October 11, 1999, 199, http://archive.fortune.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/1999/10/11/267014/index.htm.
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40. Mary Armanios, “Telomeres and Age-Related Disease: How Telomere Biology Informs Clinical Paradigms,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 123, no. 3 (2013): 996–1002.
41. Gil Atzmon et al., “Genetic Variation in Human Telomerase Is Associated with Telomere Length in Ashkenazi Centenarians,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107, supp. 1 (2010): 1710–17.
42. Nam W. Kim et al., “Specific Association of Human Telomerase Activity with Immortal Cells and Cancer,” Science 266 (1994): 2011–15.
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1. Meredith Wadman, “Cell Division,” Nature 498 (2013): 425.
2. Debi Vinnedge, telephone interview with the author, May 23, 2013.
3. Y. Takeuchi et al., [“Field Trial of Combined Measles and Rubella Live Attenuated Vaccine”], Kansenshogaku Zasshi [Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases] 76, no. 1 (2002): 56–62.
4. The Japanese hepatitis A vaccine, Aimmugen, is made by the firm Kaketsuken using a line of cells from one African green monkey called GL37 cells. See David E. Anderson, “Compositions and Methods for Treating Viral Infections,” U.S. Patent 20,140,356,399 A1, filed January 11, 2013, and issued December 4, 2014, section 0032.
5. Isabelle Claxton to Debra Vinnedge, November 1, 2000. Courtesy of Debi Vinnedge.
6. Bruce Ellis, assistant counsel, Merck & Co., to the Securities and Exchange Commission, December 20, 2002. Courtesy of Debi Vinnedge. Alex Shukhman, attorney adviser, Securities and Exchange Commission, “Response of the Office of Chief Counsel, Division of Corporate Finance, February 26, 2003, Re: Merck & Co., Inc., Incoming Letter Dated December 20, 2002.” Courtesy of Debi Vinnedge.
7. Debi Vinnedge, e-mail to the author, April 17, 2016.
8. Debra L. Vinnedge to Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, June 4, 2003. Courtesy of Debi Vinnedge.
9. Sarah Lueck, “Boot-Camp Bug Returns to the Barracks When Pentagon Pulls the Plug on Vaccine,” Wall Street Journal, July 13, 2001.
10. Centers for Disease Control, “Two Fatal Cases of Adenovirus-Related Illness in Previously Healthy Young Adults—Illinois, 2000,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 50, no. 26 (2001): 553–55.
11. Ibid., 555.
12. Ibid., 553; E. L. Buescher, “Respiratory Disease and the Adenoviruses,” Medical Clinics of North America 51 (1967): 772, 778.
13. Lueck, “Boot-Camp Bug Returns.”
14. Robert N. Potter et al., “Adenovirus-Associated Deaths in US Military During Postvaccination Period, 1999–2010,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 18, no. 3 (2012): 507–9 (doi:10.3201/eid1803.111238); Project Director, “Adenovirus Vaccines Reinstated After Long Absence,” The History of Vaccines Blog, April 17, 2012. www.historyofvaccines.org/content/blog/adenovirus-vaccines-reinstated-after-long-absence (accessed June 18, 2016).
15. Operational Infectious Diseases, Naval Health Research Center, “Febrile Respiratory Illness (FRI) Surveillance Update,” 2015, week 38 (through September 26, 2015), 2, www.med.navy.mil/sites/nhrc/geis/Documents/FRIUpdate.pdf (accessed April 12, 2016).
16. The MacConnells’ story is drawn from in-person interviews with Chip and Betsy MacConnell, June 27 and 28, 2015; from medical records provided by the MacConnells, and by Janet Gilsdorf; from several e-mails from Chip MacConnell to the author in 2014 and 2015; and from http://www.angelsforanna.com/.
17. Pontifical Academy for Life, “Moral Reflections on Vaccines Prepared from Cells Derived from Aborted Human Foetuses,” Zenit, July 26, 2005, https://zenit.org/articles/on-vaccines-made-from-cells-of-aborted-fetuses/ (accessed April 17, 2016).
18. David Mitchell, “Merck Focusing on Combination Vaccine: Manufacturer Stops Sales of Monovalents for Measles, Mumps, Rubella,” American Academy of Family Physicians News (online), December 24, 2008.
19. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Measles, Mumps, and Rubella: Vaccine Use and Strategies for Elimination of Measles, Rubella, and Congenital Rubella Syndrome and Control of Mumps: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP),” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 47, no. RR-8 (1998): 1–57, www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00053391.htm.
20. Mona Marin et al., “Use of Combination Measles, Mumps, Rubella, and Varicella Vaccine: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP),” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Recommendations and Reports 59, no. RR-3 (2010): 1–12, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20448530.
21. Merck & Co., Inc. to [name redacted], July 1, 2009, https://cogforlife.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/merck2009Response.pdf (accessed April 18, 2016).
22. Children of God for Life, “Measles Outbreaks: Blame Merck—Not the Parents!” (press release), January 25, 2015, https://cogforlife.org/measlesPress.pdf (accessed April 16, 2016).
1. Alan Shaw, interview with the author, March 16, 2014.
2. Goberdhan P. Dimri et al., “A Biomarker That Identifies Senescent Human Cells in Culture and in Aging Skin in Vivo,” Science 92 (1995): 9363–67.
3. Takeshi Shimi et al., “The Role of Nuclear Lamin B1 in Cell Proliferation and Senescence,” Genes and Development 25, no. 24 (December 15, 2011): 2579–93.
4. Tal Ilani et al., “A Secreted Disulfide Catalyst Controls Extracellular Matrix Composition and Function,” Science 341 (2013): 75–76.
5. Jessica Leung, Stephanie R. Bialek, and Mona Marin, “Trends in Varicella Mortality in the United States: Data from Vital Statistics and the National Surveillance System,” Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics 11, no. 3 (2015): 662; M. Marin, J. X. Zhanag, and J. F. Seward, “Near Elimination of Varicella Deaths in the US After Implementation of the Vaccination Program,” Pediatrics 128, no. 2 (2011): 214–20.
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Notifiable Infectious Diseases and Conditions: United States, 2013,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 62, no. 53 (2015): 27.
7. Ibid., 108; Leung, Bialek, and Marin, “Trends in Varicella Mortality,” 663.
8. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Prevention of Hepatitis A Through Active or Passive Immunization,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 55, no. RR-7 (2006), www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/rr/rr5507.pdf.
9. Division of Viral Hepatitis, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Viral Hepatitis Surveillance: United States, 2013,” 16, fig. 2.1, www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/statistics/2013surveillance/pdfs/2013hepsurveillancerpt.pdf.
10. Alexia Harrist et al. “Human Rabies—Wyoming and Utah, 2015,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 65, no. 21 (2016): 529–33. Available here: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/wr/mm6521a1.htm.
11. L. Dyer et al., “Rabies Surveillance in the United States During 2013,” Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 245, no. 10 (2014): 1111, http://avmajournals.avma.org/doi/pdf/10.2460/javma.245.10.1111.
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Human Rabies: Human Rabies Surveillance,” CDC.gov, September 21, 2015, www.cdc.gov/rabies/location/usa/surveillance/human_rabies.html.
13. Harrist et al., “Human Rabies—Wyoming and Utah, 2015,” 529–33.
14. P. D. Pratt et al., “Human Rabies: Missouri, 2014,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 65, no. 10 (2016): 253–56, www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/wr/mm6510a1.htm.
15. R. E. Willoughby et al., “Survival After Treatment of Rabies with Induction of Coma,” New England Journal of Medicine 352, no. 24 (June 2005): 2508–14.
16. Ahmad Fayaz et al., “Antibody Persistence, 32 Years After Post-Exposure Prophylaxis with Human Diploid Cell Rabies Vaccine (HDCV),” Vaccine 29 (2011): 3742–45.
17. Centers for Disease Control, “Surveillance Summary: Rubella—United States,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 19, no. 34 (1970): 336.
18. Dorothy M. Horstmann, “Maxwell Finland Lecture: Viral Vaccines and Their Ways,” Reviews of Infectious Diseases 1, no. 3 (1979): 509.
19. Centers for Disease Control, “Rubella, United States, 1977–80,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 29 (1980): 378.
20. Horstmann, “Maxwell Finland Lecture,” 510.
21. Centers for Disease Control, “Annual Summary 1980: Reported Morbidity and Mortality in the United States,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 29, no. 54 (1981): 12.
22. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Summary of Notifiable Diseases: United States, 2001,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 50, no. 53 (2003): 93.
23. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Control and Prevention of Rubella: Evaluation and Management of Suspected Outbreaks, Rubella in Pregnant Women, and Surveillance for Congenital Rubella Syndrome,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 50, no. RR-12 (2001): 1.
24. Pamela Eisele (Merck), e-mail to the author, August 31, 2015.
25. G. B. Grant et al., “Global Progress Toward Rubella and Congenital Rubella Syndrome Control and Elimination: 2000–2014,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 64, no. 37 (2015): 1052–55.
26. Ryo Kinoshita and Hiroshi Nishiura, “Assessing Herd Immunity Against Rubella in Japan: A Retrospective Seroepidemiological Analysis of Age-Dependent Transmission Dynamics,” BMJ Open 6, no. 1 (2016): 1.
27. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Nationwide Rubella Epidemic: Japan, 2013,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 62, no. 23 (2013): 457–62.
28. Kinoshita and Nishiura, “Assessing Herd Immunity,” 1.
29. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Three Cases of Congenital Rubella Syndrome in the Postelimination Era: Maryland, Alabama, and Illinois, 2012,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 62, no. 12 2013): 226–29.
30. Nathaniel Lambert et al., “Seminar: Rubella,” Lancet 385 (2015): 2297, 2300–2301.
31. Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Guidance for Industry: Characterization and Qualification of Cell Substrates and Other Biological Materials Used in the Production of Viral Vaccines for Infectious Disease Indications (Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2007), 36.
32. World Health Organization Expert Committee on Biological Standardization, Fifty-sixth Report, WHO Technical Report Series 941 (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2007), 103.
33. Alan Shaw, interview with the author, March 16, 2014.
34. Jean Wallace, “Turmoil Besets Wistar in Wake of Koprowski’s Ouster,” Scientist 6, no. 5 (March 2, 1992), www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/12194/title/Turmoil-Besets-Wistar-In-Wake-Of-Koprowski-s-Ouster/; Maurice Hilleman, interview with Paul Offit, November 30, 2004. Hilleman said that the figure was $3.5 million.
35. Nancy Leone (communications director, Global Specialty Medicines, Teva), e-mail to the author, February 20, 2014.
36. Robert D. Truog, Aaron S. Kesselheim, and Steven Joffe, “Paying Patients for Their Tissue: The Legacy of Henrietta Lacks,” Science 337 (2012): 37–38.
37. Meredith Wadman, “Cell Division,” Nature 498 (2013): 426.
38. Steven Joffe, telephone interview with the author, February 23, 2013. In 2016 Joffe is a pediatric oncologist and bioethicist at the University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine.
39. Scott D. Kominers and Gary S. Becker, “Paying for Tissue: Net Benefits,” Science 337 (2012): 1292–93.
40. E. Eiseman and S. B. Haga, Handbook of Human Tissue Resources: A National Resource of Human Tissue Samples (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, MR-954-OSTP, 1999).
41. “Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects: Proposed Rules,” Federal Register 80, no. 173 (September 8, 2015): 53936.
42. Jocelyn Kaiser, “Researchers Decry Consent Proposal,” Science 352, no. 6288 (2016): 878–79; David Malakoff, “Panel Slams Plan for Human Research Rules,” Science 353, no. 6295 (2016): 106–7; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Optimizing the Nation’s Investment in Academic Research: A New Regulatory Framework for the 21st Century (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2016): 97–103.
43. Code of Federal Regulations, title 45, part 46, section 206: “Research Involving, After Delivery, the Placenta, the Dead Fetus or Fetal Material,” October 1, 2014.
44. The following are the states that have not used an organ-donor law called the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act to require a woman’s consent for the use of tissue from her aborted fetus in research: Florida, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New Mexico, Nebraska, South Carolina, South Dakota, Washington, and Wisconsin. Michigan in 1978 enacted a separate law requiring such consent, Michigan Compiled Laws Annotated, section 333.2688.
45. Henry K. Beecher, “Ethics and Clinical Research,” New England Journal of Medicine 274, no. 24 (1966): 1354–60, www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJM196606162742405; William H. Stewart, “Surgeon General’s Directives on Human Experimentation,” PPO #129 (Bethesda, MD: U.S. Public Health Service Division of Research Grants, revised July 1, 1966).
46. Jean Heller, “Syphilis Victims in US Study Went Untreated for Forty Years,” Associated Press, July 24, 1972.
47. Allan M. Brandt, “Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study,” Hastings Center Report 8, no. 6 (1978): 21–29.
48. Public Law 93-348, section 212, July 12, 1974.
49. W. J. Curran, “Government Regulation of the Use of Human Subjects in Medical Research: The Approaches of Two Federal Agencies,” in Experimentation with Human Subjects, ed. P. A. Freund (New York: George Braziller, 1970), 443.
50. Code of Federal Regulations, title 45, part 46.
51. Meredith Wadman, “The Truth About Fetal Tissue Research,” Nature 578 (2015): 178–81.
52. Molly Redden, “Vital Fetal Tissue Research Threatened by House of Representatives Subpoenas,” the Guardian, April 1, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/apr/01/congress-subpoenas-fetal-tissue-research-abortion.
53. Denise Grady and Nicholas St. Fleur, “Fetal Tissue from Abortions for Research Is Traded in a Gray Zone,” New York Times, July 27, 2015.
54. Redden, “Vital Fetal Tissue Research Threatened.”
55. Bo Ma et al., “Characteristics and Viral Propagation Properties of a New Human Diploid Cell Line, Walvax-2, and Its Suitability as a Candidate Cell Substrate for Vaccine Production,” Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics 11, no. 4 (2015): 998–1009.
56. Debi Vinnedge, “Scientists in China Create New Vaccines Using Body Parts from Nine Aborted Babies,” LifeNews.com, September 9, 2015.
57. Pamela Eisele, e-mail to the author, July 1, 2016.
58. Leonard Hayflick, “Chain of Custody of Original Ampules of 8th Population Doubling Level WI-38 From June, 1962 Until July, 1996,” undated. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
59. Meredith Wadman, “Cell Division,” Nature 498 (2013): 426, www.nature.com/news/medical-research-cell-division-1.13273.
1. Hermann Hesse, The Glass Bead Game, translated from the German by Richard and Clara Winston (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969, 1990), 169.
2. K. Stratton, D. A. Almario, and M. C. McCormick, eds., Immunization Safety Review: SV40 Contamination of Polio Vaccine and Cancer (Washington, DC: National Academies, 2002).
3. An archived version of the CDC fact sheet is available here: http://web.archive.org/web/20130522091608/ http://www.cdc.gov/vaccinesafety/updates/archive/polio_and_cancer_factsheet.htm.
4. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, March 5, 2013.
5. Lara Marks, “The Lock and Key of Medicine”: Monoclonal Antibodies and the Transformation of Healthcare (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 2015), chapter 2.
6. Jean Wallace, “Turmoil Besets Wistar in Wake of Koprowski’s Ouster,” Scientist, March 2, 1992, www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/12194/title/Turmoil-Besets-Wistar-In-Wake-Of-Koprowski-s-Ouster/.
7. “Age Discrimination—Hilary Koprowski—Wistar Institute: Update: Koprowski, Wistar Settle Age Discrimination Suit—Pioneer in Immunotherapy Honored by Cancer Scientists,” Biotechnology Law Report 12, no. 3 (1993): 261–62.
8. Silvana Regina Favoretto et al., “Experimental Infection of the Bat Tick Carios fonsecai (Acari: Ixodidae) with the Rabies Virus,” Revista da Socieda de Brasileira de Medicina Tropical 46, no. 6 (2013): 788–90.