NOTES
INTRODUCTION
1. All names and identifying details of people and places are changed.
2. Du Bois 1998, 700.
3. Bonilla-Silva 1997, 474.
4. Cornell and Hartmann 2006; Haney López 1996.
5. Bonilla-Silva 2018, 2; Krysan and Lewis 2006.
6. Delpit 2006; Frankenberg and Orfield 2012; Kozol 2012; Lewis and Diamond 2015; Lewis and Manno 2011; Noguera 2009; Oakes 2005; Posey-Maddox 2014.
7. Fenning and Rose 2007; Flavin 2008; Gregory, Skiba, and Noguera 2010; Kupchik 2007; Meiners 2007; Nicholson-Crotty, Birchmeier, and Valentine 2009; Skiba et al. 2011; Winn 2011.
8. Alexander 2010; Poehlmann et al. 2010; D. Roberts 2002; Travis and Waul 2004; Wakefield and Wildeman 2016.
9. Billingsley 1972; D. Roberts 2002.
10. Bridges 2011; Flavin 2008.
11. Goyal et al. 2015.
12. Garcia 2012; Solinger 2002.
13. Oliver and Shapiro 2006; Turner and Wienk 1993.
14. Quadagno 1996; D. Roberts 2002.
15. Johnson 2014; Oliver and Shapiro 2006.
16. Zinn 1993.
17. M. Anderson 2003.
18. Roediger 2007; Kimmel 2015. Referring to the 19th century, Roediger (2007) writes, “Whiteness was a way in which white workers responded to a fear of dependency on wage labor and to the necessities of capitalist work discipline.… The white working class constructed an image of the black population as other—as embodying the preindustrial, erotic, careless style of life the white worker hated and longed for” (13–14).
19. Kefalas 2003, 8. Both Kefalas and the sociologist Monica McDermott (2006) have shown that these working-class white understandings of race are often locally situated and context dependent.
20. Bonilla-Silva 2018, 143.
21. Van Ausdale and Feagin 2001.
22. L. Hughes 2001; Meece 2002.
23. For examples of research that does examine socialization processes along the lines of gender, sexuality, and race, see Bettie 2014; Garcia 2012; Kenny 2000; and Pascoe 2011.
24. Bonilla-Silva 2018, 9.
25. Goff et al. 2014.
26. See Alexander 2010, 261, for a long list of national reports on drug use, race, and youth, documenting lower drug-usage rates by black kids than white kids.
27. Barber and Torney-Purta 2008; Carman 2011; Lewis and Manno 2011.
28. Du Bois 1998, 700; Lipsitz 2009; McIntosh 1989; Roediger 2007.
CHAPTER 1. “RACE REALLY DOESN’T MATTER ANYMORE”
1. Best 2007; Corsaro 2014; Frønes 1994; Hagerman 2010; Handel 2006; Johnson 2001; Parsons and Bales 1956.
2. Corsaro 2014, 4.
3. Winkler 2012, 4.
4. Hughes and Johnson 2001, 981.
5. Rollins and Hunter 2013, 141.
6. Winkler 2012.
7. Winkler 2012, 7.
8. Bonilla-Silva 1997; Du Bois 1994.
9. Bonilla-Silva 1997, 469
10. Bonilla-Silva 1997, 469.
11. D. Roberts 2011, 4.
12. D. Roberts 2011, 5.
13. Omi and Winant 2014.
14. Haney López 1996.
15. Cornell and Hartmann 2006.
16. Bonilla-Silva 1997; Haney López 1996.
17. Almaguer 2008; Takaki 1998; R. Thornton 1990.
18. D. Roberts 2011, 25.
19. Johnson 2014, 4.
20. Lewis 2004, 632.
21. Hall 1996, 444.
22. Forman 2004, 58.
23. For further elaboration on the theoretical nuances of this point, see Hagerman 2016.
24. Constantine and Blackmon 2002, 324. See also Bowman and Howard 1985; Peters 2002; Knight et al. 1993; Phinney and Chavira 1995; Brega and Coleman 1999.
25. Thomas and Blackmon 2015.
26. Brown et al. 2007; D. Hughes 2003; Hughes et al. 2006; Hughes and Chen 1997; Ou and McAdoo 1993; Winkler 2010.
27. Lacy 2007; Peters 2002; Scottham and Smalls 2009; M. Thornton 1997; Winkler 2008.
28. Brown et al. 2007; Coles and Green 2009; D. Hughes 2003; Lacy and Harris 2010; McAdoo 2006; M. Thornton 1997; Winkler 2008, 2012.
29. Lacy 2007; Lacy and Harris 2010.
30. Hughes et al. 2006; Peters 2002; Scottham and Smalls 2009; Winkler 2008.
31. Thomas and Blackmon 2015; Threlfall 2016.
32. See review pieces by Brown et al. 2007; Hughes et al. 2006; and Winkler 2012, 5.
33. D. Hughes 2003, 16.
34. Brega and Coleman 1999; Douglass and Umaña-Taylor 2015; Gartner, Kiang, and Supple 2014; D. Hughes 2003; Orbe 1999; Phinney and Chavira 1995; Quintana and Vera 1999; Rivas-Drake 2010; Rockquemore and Laszloffy 2005; Rollins and Hunter 2013.
35. Burton et al. 2010, 453.
36. Burton et al. 2010, 453.
37. Hamm 2001.
38. Derman-Sparks, Phillips, and Hilliard 1997.
39. Underhill 2017. For research on “antiracist” white parenting, see also Matlock and DiAngelo 2015; and Hagerman 2017b.
40. Feagin and O’Brien 2004, 30.
41. Bourdieu 1977.
42. Bonilla-Silva 2018, 121.
43. Bonilla-Silva, Goar, and Embrick 2006, 233.
44. Hagerman 2016.
45. Kinder and Sanders 1996, 110.
46. Sears and Henry 2003, 260.
47. Bonilla-Silva 2018; Doane 1997; Forman and Lewis 2006; Gallagher 2008; Hughey 2012; Lewis 2004; McDermott and Samson 2005.
48. Hughes et al. 2006; Rollins and Hunter 2013.
49. Lewis 2004, 634, citing Rasmussen et al. 2001. See also Hartigan 1999; Kenny 2000.
50. As the sociologists Monica McDermott and Frank Samson (2005) state, “Navigating between the long-term staying power of white privilege and the multifarious manifestations of the experience of whiteness remains the task of the next era of research on white racial and ethnic identity” (256).
51. Lewis 2004, 637.
52. Emerson 2001, 30.
53. Winkler 2012, 1.
54. For methodological detail, see appendix A.
55. Bronfenbrenner 1979, 3.
56. Bobo 2004, 15.
CHAPTER 2. “THE PERFECT PLACE TO LIVE”
1. In 2010, the United States as a whole was 72.4% white, 12.6% black, 4.8% Asian, 0.9% American Indian, and 16.3% Latinx, according to the Census Bureau. The median household income in the United States was $53,482, with a 14.8% poverty rate. The median value of owner-occupied homes was $175,700.
2. Bobo and Zubrinsky 1996; Charles 2003; Farley and Frey 1994; Krysan et al. 2009.
3. Crowder and Krysan 2016, 18.
4. Massey and Denton 1993; Meyer 2001; Oliver and Shapiro 2006; Sugrue 2005.
5. LaVeist et al. 2011; Polednak 1991.
6. Frankenberg and Orfield 2012; Kozol 2012; Orfield, Kucsera, and Siegel-Hawley 2012.
7. Crowder and Downey 2010.
8. Krysan et al. 2009.
9. Bobo 1989; Krysan et al. 2009.
10. Bishop 2009; Lareau and Goyette 2014.
11. Zamal, Liu, and Ruths 2012.
12. Walks 2006, 20.
13. Desilver 2014.
14. Winkler 2012, 180.
15. Lewis and Diamond 2015; Noguera 2009; Oakes 2005.
16. Johnson 2014; Holme 2002; Lareau and Goyette 2014; Schneider 2001.
17. Shapiro and Johnson 2005.
18. Johnson 2014, 56.
19. Johnson 2014, 41.
20. Lewis and Diamond 2015, 156.
21. Johnson 2014; Cookson and Persell 1987.
22. Informant interview with school social worker.
23. Lewis and Diamond 2015, 43–44.
24. Johnson 2014; Holme 2002; Lareau and Goyette 2014; Schneider 2001.
25. Bonilla-Silva 2018; Bonilla-Silva and Forman 2000; Carr 1997; Crenshaw 1997; Forman 2004; Forman and Lewis 2006; Gallagher 2003.
26. Lewis and Hagerman 2016, 158.
27. Lewis and Hagerman 2016, 159; Bonilla-Silva 2018; Crenshaw 1997; Forman and Lewis 2006; Gallagher 2003.
28. Ball 1997; Betts and Fairlie 2001; Buddin, Cordes, and Kirby 1998; Lareau and Goyette 2014; Cookson and Persell 1987.
29. M. Anderson 1999.
30. Halley, Eshleman, and Vijaya 2011.
31. Bartky 2002.
32. Perry and Shotwell 2009, 34.
33. Posey-Maddox 2013.
34. Lewis and Diamond 2015, 134.
35. Lareau 2011.
36. Calarco 2011.
37. Lewis 2003; Noguera 2009; Posey-Maddox 2013; Posey 2012.
38. Cucchiara 2013.
39. Delpit 2006.
CHAPTER 3. “WE’RE NOT A RACIAL SCHOOL”
1. Different families in these communities do experience differing degrees of wealth privilege, but they are all affluent.
2. Goyette and Lareau 2014, xxii.
3. Goyette and Lareau 2014, xxii.
4. Gallagher (2003) speaks to the “hypervisibility of blacks by whites” in a context of high levels of racial segregation (383). Similarly, Alba, Rumbaut, and Marotz (2005) and others studying racial innumeracy find that whites often engage in a “numerical inflation” of the size of the nonwhite population in the United States. This designation of the school as “diverse” seems to be because of the presence of only a few students of color. Saporito (2003) also examines patterns of white families removing children from schools as the proportion of black students increases. Billingham and Hunt (2016) illustrate that the racial composition of schools influences white parents’ school choices.
5. Saporito and Hanley (2014) find that white private school enrollment is correlated with the racial composition of the community. For further discussion, see Zhang 2008; Saporito 2003; and Li 2009.
6. Despite the strong philosophical commitment to fairness of these parents, they are also regularly pushing hard to provide their children with the best opportunities and advantages, but they do not leave the public schools entirely.
7. Much of his anxiety about college resonates with the work of the journalist Alexandra Robbins (2007) and her insights into “driven kids” as they participate in “overachiever” culture and engage in practices of fierce capitalism-driven competition with one another for admission to selective universities, often with negative consequences for self-worth, anxiety, stress, and so forth.
8. Roda and Wells 2013.
9. Roda 2015, 2–3.
10. Oakes 2005, 22.
11. Oakes 2005, 3.
12. Oakes 2005, 4.
13. Carman 2011.
14. Barber and Torney-Purta 2008, 412.
15. Lewis and Manno 2011.
16. The Moynihan Report, published in 1965 by the secretary of labor, Daniel P. Moynihan, “contained the thesis that weaknesses in the black family are at the heart of the deterioration of the black community” (Johnson and Staples 2004, 46). Moynihan and his team reported that high rates of “dissolved” or unstable marriages, “illegitimate” children, and female-headed households in the black community were the cause of “the failure of youth,” measured by black children’s school performance, work ethic, IQ scores, and delinquency rates. Overall, as Jewell (2003) writes, “perceptions of African American families as structurally and functionally dysfunctional have been at the basis of both conservative and liberal social policy” (12).
17. D. Roberts 2002, 65.
18. Roda 2015, 83.
19. Roda 2015, 83.
20. Forman and Lewis 2006, 178, quoting Sue 2005, 108.
21. The term “opportunity hoarding” originates from Charles Tilly (1999). Scholars have built on his term, particularly with respect to education, arguing that goods are regulated by groups in positions of power subsequently monopolizing the use of these goods.
22. Tyson 2011, 9.
23. E. Anderson 2013.
24. Oakes 2005.
25. Bartky 2002.
26. Goyette and Lareau 2014, xiii.
27. These schools range from a few thousand dollars a year to nearly $15,000 per year.
28. Forman 2004.
29. “The specialness of white kids” is a phrase used by Antonia Randolph during conference proceedings at the 2016 Southern Sociological Society annual meeting, used with her permission.
30. As Amanda Lewis and John Diamond (2015) find in a school-based ethnographic study involving similar types of parents, “Parents are not just advocating for their own children. They are also advocating for the maintenance of the structures of inequality that facilitate their advantage” (156)—structures that are maintained in part by dominant ideologies across generations as young people adopt, reject, or transform them.
CHAPTER 4. “THAT’S SO RACIST!”
1. Myers 2005; Picca and Feagin 2007.
2. Bonilla-Silva, Goar, and Embrick 2006, 233.
3. Hagerman 2016.
4. For a discussion of the history of “after-school activities” and the various forms these activities take, see Adler and Adler 1998, 98–114.
5. For a discussion about the long history and current manifestations of race and science in the United States, see Davis 1983, 202–221; and D. Roberts 2011.
6. This is why ethnographic methods were necessary for this research.
7. For a discussion of verbal routines and games, see Corsaro 2014.
8. For more theoretical depth on this topic, see Hagerman 2016.
9. Connections can be drawn here between the policing of whiteness and the policing of masculinity found in Pascoe’s (2011) research with high school boys.
10. Robert’s use of “light” and “dark” skin was somewhat unique across the kids in this study, although many of their parents told me that when the children were younger, this is how they would talk about kids at school.
11. For a discussion of how scholars are only beginning to consider racial socialization as a “transactional process—how parents’ racial socialization is influenced by children’s experiences,” see Hughes and Johnson 2001 (981).
12. Perry and Shotwell 2009, 34, 40.
13. Allport 1954; Feagin and O’Brien 2004; Pettigrew 1998.
14. Although the shooting of Trayvon Martin happened during the period of data collection, this episode occurred prior to that.
15. Perry and Shotwell (2009) distinguish their notion of “antiracist praxis” from the term “antiracism” because “antiracism” “implies a reactive politics that is not always true of successful practices for social justice.” They argue that three specific types of knowledge must combine with a relational understanding of self and one’s group position in order for “antiracist consciousness and practice” to emerge (34).
16. Adler and Adler 1998, 206.
17. Corsaro 2014, 20 (emphasis added).
CHAPTER 5. “EVERYBODY IS WHITE”
1. Winkler 2012, 178.
2. Winkler 2012, 52. When children leave Detroit, they compare places and produce ideas about race and about behavior of people of particular racial groups (Winkler 2012, 66).
3. Urry 1990.
4. Hughey’s (2012) research finds evidence of “antiracist” whites drawing on a paternalistic white savior complex, informing how they view themselves as white allies.
5. Lasker’s (2016) research explores related debates in the realm of global health volunteering.
6. Hagerman 2017b, 69.
7. Whyte, Selinger, and Outterson 2011, 337.
8. Steinbrink 2012, 232.
9. Whyte, Selinger, and Outterson 2011, 337.
10. Steinbrink 2012, 213.
CHAPTER 6. “SHAKING THOSE GHETTO BOOTIES”
1. Association of Black Women Historians 2011.
2. Hughey 2014, 15.
3. Dubrofsky 2013, 83.
4. Dubrofsky 2013, 98.
5. Greenberg 1972.
6. Van Evra 2004.
7. See, e.g., Berry 1998; Guidotti-Hernández 2007; Moran 2007; and E. Roberts 2004.
8. Bernstein 2011.
9. Thomas and Blackmon 2015.
10. Adler and Adler 1998; Lareau 2011.
11. Rodriquez 2006, 645. For further debates about the relationship between hip hop, whiteness, and cultural appropriation, see also Kitwana 2005; and Eberhardt and Freeman 2015.
12. For a historical analysis of race, class, and youth soccer, see Andrews et al. 1997.
13. Much as existing research shows, fathers frequently hold leadership positions in the context of youth sports. See Gottzén and Kremer-Sadlik 2012; and Messner 2009.
14. Hamm (2001) illustrates how white parents tend to passively hope for interracial “exposure” through institutions, whereas black parents tend to actively encourage individual interracial contact outside of places such as school. Here, Seth actively works to build a racially diverse environment, which is a deviation from Hamm’s findings and also stands out within my own findings.
CHAPTER 7. “IT WAS RACISM”
1. Bell and Hartmann 2007; Doane 1997; Lewis 2004.
2. Bonilla-Silva 2018, 70.
3. DiAngelo 2011, 57.
4. Bonilla-Silva 2018, 91.
5. Goffman 1959, 113.
6. DiAngelo 2011, 61.
7. In these kids’ individualized understanding of racism, they are in line with the views of many white Americans. But as the writer Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie (2016) has recently remarked, “no racism story is a ‘simple’ racism story, in which grinning evil people wearing white burn crosses in yards.” Sociologists such as Eduardo Bonilla-Silva (1997) have suggested that a structural framework rather than an individual one is required to understand racism.
8. Bonilla-Silva 2018, 98.
9. Johnson 2014, 27–73.
10. Johnson 2014, 201.
11. Lareau 2011, 6.
12. While it is beyond the scope of this book to examine how kids engage with privilege and disadvantage due to gender or sexuality, some of the children I interviewed did mention the additional privileges that come with being a man or being straight in their interviews. Other scholars have examined gender socialization and male, heterosexual privilege in young people (Thorne 1993; Pascoe 2011).
13. Interestingly, in other moments, Kelsey is more willing to recognize that racism exists, such as when she references the That’s So Raven episode. This shows that these kids are in the process of figuring out what they think and that, to some extent, their racial common sense is either inconsistent or still forming.
CONCLUSION
1. This research is in progress and will be described in more detail in future publications.
2. For more on this topic, see Hughey 2012.
3. Hackman 2015; Dewan and Oppel 2015; Graham 2017; Democracy Now 2017; Sullivan 2015.
4. Democracy Now 2015; Scholl 2015; Lowery 2016.
5. Pearce 2015; Fernandez and Hauser 2015; Jarvie 2015.
6. Vittrup 2015; Vawter 2015; Leahy 2015.
7. Dell’Antonia 2014; Moyer 2014.
8. Bartky 2002.
9. For more on this topic, see Bernstein 2011.
APPENDIX A
1. Zuberi and Bonilla-Silva 2008.
2. Lewis 2004, 637.
3. Biklen 2007.
4. Lamont 1992; Oliver and Shapiro 2006.
5. L. Hughes 2001, 515.
6. Meece 2002, 443.
7. Charmaz 2001.
8. Charmaz 2001, 336.
9. Barker and Weller 2003; Biklen 2007; Fraser et al. 2003; Freeman and Mathiston 2008; Hagerman 2010.
10. For more about the use of photographs of celebrities, see Hagerman 2017a.
11. Lofland et al. 2005, 201.
12. Charmaz 2001.
13. Emerson 2001.