Chapter 6:
U.S. Forces Burn York (Toronto)

 

 

The War of 1812

 

The military forces of the United Kingdom and France were in open conflict on land and sea. While the armies of Britain fought to repel the armies of Napoleon Bonaparte, the British Navy sought to impose a naval blockade around continental Europe, intent on starving Napoleon of necessary supplies. As the young United States allied with France, it too was drawn into the conflict with the British superpower.

Many American ships were forcibly intercepted by the British Navy and their cargo and crews seized. The perceived affront to their liberty, combined with a growing conviction among many American politicians that the U.S. was destined to somehow rule the entire North American continent in a policy known as Manifest Destiny, helped solidify U.S. resentment of the growing power of the British Empire.

Hostilities increased between Britain and the U.S. and open warfare was declared by the U.S. Congress on June 18, 1812. Many Americans saw military action against British North America as a war of liberation. There was a prevailing sentiment that American forces would be freeing colonists from the yoke of British oppression and that the invasion would be concluded quickly as a “mere matter of marching.”

The residents of British North America, now Canada, who mostly lived along the shores of the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, thought otherwise. Since the American Revolution, 60,000 Loyalists had left the U.S., primarily for Canada. American invasion forces were met with fierce and largely successful opposition. The British military, aided by local volunteer militias and natives, fought bravely at Niagara, York and all along the frontier and were successful in defending the colony from the American onslaught.

 

With the opposing naval bases on Lake Ontario only 35 miles apart, the British and American fleets played cat and mouse, attempting to position themselves for an attack advantage. While the British were blockading Sackets Harbor, Commodore Chauncey slipped away to attack York, in present-day Toronto.

York had two British batteries on the east of the town with a small blockhouse. A larger blockhouse to the west, with 800 men, was commanded by Major General Roger Shaeffe. The British defenses were weak. The cannon were without trunnions and were frozen in mud. A newly built 10-gun brig, HMS Duke of Gloucester, was in port.

On April 27, 1813, with 1,700 soldiers and Marines, the American fleet appeared before York. The land forces were lead by General Zebulon Pike, explorer and namesake of Pike’s Peak in Colorado. Chauncey’s message to the fleet read, “It is expected that every corps will be mindful of the honor of the American arms and endeavor by a cool and determined discharge of their duty, to support the one and wipe off the other.”

There was little support for this war among the townsfolk. The Americans thought York’s populace, mostly comprised of new American settlers, would flock to the American colors—but that didn’t happen. The Quebecois, or French Canadians, had been allowed by the British to keep their language, customs and culture, and didn’t want to be assimilated.

The attack started at 8 a.m. with Major Forsyth and his riflemen hitting the beach first. Their landing craft had blown a half-mile to the west beyond the covering fire of the fleet and they were met by heavy volleys by the Glengarry Fencibles and Indians. The American attack column consisted of the 6th, 15th, 16th, and 21st regiments, a detachment of light and heavy artillery, and Colonel M. Clare’s volunteers as flankers. The Marines were held in reserve aboard ship in case the Great Lakes fleet of Sir James Lucas Yeo appeared and there would be a ship battle. The British were reinforced by companies of the 8th Royal Newfoundland Regiment, and a large body of militia and Indians.

The British attacked the American flankers but sustained heavy losses. They were overpowered and fell back. Pike’s bugler sounded the advance. The Indians were terrified by the bugle blast and gave one horrified yell as they fled into the woods.

The fleet cheered and began to fire grapeshot. The British retreated quickly to the town and the Americans struck up “Yankee Doodle” in the quick march to York. Since the bridges were destroyed, the artillerymen had hot work moving their great guns forward as they were met by British 24-pounders.

The fleet then attacked the town and commenced heavy shot fire. Over 200 pounds of iron shot per ship salvo was hurled at the British capital. The American ground forces charged with bayonets, attacking the two blockhouses and leaving them abandoned and spiked. The artillery silenced the guns of the enemy who had retreated to the town.

At that moment, the ground shook with a thunderous explosion. The British had accidentally blown their own powder magazine holding 500 barrels of gunpowder (12.5 tons). Huge timbers and stone blocks flew for hundreds of yards. Fifty-two Americans were killed and 180 wounded. Forty of the British were also killed. General Pike, crushed by a stone block, was mortally wounded. Gen. Henry Dearborn was quite ill but assumed command and, weighing over 250 pounds, was rolled about in a two-wheeled cart contraption later called a “Dearborn.” He reformed the attack and, with three cheers from his men, entered the capital of Canada with its 900 inhabitants.

The sailors and Marines landed and burned York’s public buildings, including the legislative chambers, because of a human scalp found over the mace behind the speaker’s chair. They also burned the house of Mrs. Gwen, wife of the Indian Department leader. The Americans showed no mercy for British Indian leaders who had conjured up the Indians to fight. It was known British frontier policy to buy American scalps from the Indians for 20 pounds sterling and one British officer—Hamilton at Fort Maiden—had the dubious distinction of being known as “The Hairbuyer.”

 

Example of American scalp supposedly found on Parliament wall behind speaker’s chair.
Courtesy of Benson Lossing

The American losses were 66 killed and 203 wounded. The Marine losses were 17 killed and wounded. British losses were 60 killed, 89 wounded, in addition to prisoners taken by the Americans. Pike was carried on board where he smiled at the news of the American flag raised over the town. The surrendered British flag was placed under his head and he died. His remains were preserved in a cask of spirits until he could be buried at Sackets. The British parliamentary mace taken from the capital was presented by Commodore Chauncey to the Secretary of the Navy.

The Americans captured 290 prisoners and a huge quantity of naval and military stores. The naval stores included all of the armament and equipment for the British squadron on Lake Erie as well as the stores for the new ship under construction at Amherstburg. Cables, cordage, canvas, tools, guns, and ammunition were all seized. This move seriously crippled the British right division, aiding the American victory on Lake Erie five months later.

York marked the first American victory in ten months of warfare. Pike’s ability as a commander was proven as the British had been overwhelmed without putting up much of a fight. They had retreated east to Kingston to fight another day—much to the dislike of the people of that town.

The inhabitants of York were thrilled when the Americans distributed farm implements they’d found in a warehouse, along with a huge supply of peas, flour and bread that the Americans couldn’t fit in their ships.

The Americans were upset that they hadn’t captured the British ships. The frigate Isaac Brock was burned by the retreating British and her sister ship, the Duke of Gloucester, had slipped away. But York, intended as a ship building base, ceased to produce ships. When the British later tried shipbuilding there again, it was burned once more by the American fleet.

In retaliation, Washington City was eventually torched for the burning of the York capital buildings and for the burning of Newark. The War of 1812 was the first where total war was waged. For the first time, towns were burned on both sides and modern warfare had begun to take on a new “scorched earth” policy.