accounted working days, 73–76, 101, 235
Adenauer, Konrad, 245
administrative documents, 3–4
Afghans, 151
agent-informant networks, 138, 150, 182. See also informants
agriculture, 31–33, 35, 62; collectivization of, 96, 264n23
Aktiubinlag, 123
Aldazhumanov, Kaidar S., 148
Alkhoev, Magomet, 239
Alzhir, 103–105
amnesties, 75; political prisoners excluded from, 257; post-Kengir extension of, 234; post-Stalin amnesty of 1953, 202, 205–208, 210–211, 237, 258; postwar, 157–159, 160. See also mass amnesties; release
annexed territories, 110–111, 155, 212, 256–257; arrests in, 297n203; deportations from, 144–145, 190; Sovietization of, 154, 189. See Baltic countries; Poland; Ukraine; Westerners
anti-Semitism, 196–197
Armenians, 245
arrests, 7, 159, 255; economic motives for, 35–36, 38, 40, 270n28; mass, 7, 35, 111, 154, 267n50; of political prisoners, 84, 249, 295n162; of Westerners, 89, 108, 111, 154, 297n203
Article 58 prisoners, 84–85, 91, 294n153; excluded from postwar amnesty, 158, 205, 312n19. See also counterrevolutionary prisoners; political prisoners
Article 70 prisoners, 249
Abdulaev, Iusip Abdulaevich, 242
Balkhash, 182
Baltic countries, 108–110, 189–190; annexation of, 257; Sovietization of, 154
Baltic nationalists, 184, 189; in Kengir, 214; role in Kengir uprising, 211, 224–225, 229, 231–232
Baltic peoples, 189, 253, 327n268; exempted from release, 238; as permanent exiles, 193–194; release from exile of, 245. See also Estonians; Latvians; Lithuanians; Westerners
Bardach, Janusz, 41, 43, 79, 90–91, 105, 114, 144, 272n54; attempted escape by, 54–55; medical experience of, 121
Basmachi, 190
Belomor Canal, 60
Belorussia, 109–110, 114, 245; annexation of, 257; deportations from, 190; Sovietization of, 154
Belorussians, 189, 238, 245, 327n268
Beria, Lavrenty, 114, 135, 208–209, 214, 315n63; on amnesty, 205; arrest of, 223–224; deportations ordered by, 147, 152; execution of, 202, 213; on filtration camps, 157
Berman, Matvei, 60
Bessarabia, 109–110
Bessarabians, 189
bitches (suki), 174–179, 306n126
bitches’ war, 173–182, 306n126
Bochkov, Viktor Mikhailovich, 217
Bogdanov, Nikolai K., 152
Bolshevik ideology, 10–11, 14–16, 87; labor and, 36, 38, 59, 125. See also propaganda
Bolshevik revolution, 13–14
Bondareva-Dmitrieva, Nina Borisovna, 137
Breusov, Vladimir Efimovich, 134
Brezhnev, Leonid, 258
Brown, Kate, 98
Buber-Neumann, Margarete, 53
Buca, Edward, 77, 176, 186–189, 199
Bugai, Nikolai, 96
Busarev Nikolai M., 192
bytoviki, 92
camp administrators, 47
camp closures, 237
camp employees, 47–49; educational activities among, 49–50; former inmates as, 51–53, 208, 246–249; political education of, 129, 136; post-Stalin treatment of prisoners, 209–210; prisoner-on-prisoner violence and, 177–179; propaganda aimed at, 12, 50; relationship with prisoners, 51–52; relationship with veterans, 199; sexual relations with prisoners, 100; in special camps, 168. See also guards
camp entertainment, 64
camp newspapers, 11–12, 59, 62–63
categorization of prisoners, 42, 68, 79–83, 124, 235, 255, 256; POWs and, 293n126
Catholics, 99
cause of death, 248–249
censorship, 13, 137; attempts to circumvent, 46, 227, 273n67; in special camps, 168, 171
Chechen-Ingush national homeland, 240–241, 244
Chechens, 95, 152–153, 187–188, 298n212; autonomous region for, 244; exile of, 195–196, 237, 256; isolation of, 252; in Karlag, 324n205; in post-Soviet era, 241; release from exile, 239–241, 245; wartime deportations of, 145
Chernyshov, Vasilii, 114, 116, 139
ChSIR (Chlen Semei Izmennikov Rodiny), 103
class, 144–145; contrasted with nationality, 94, 96; criminality and, 14; as primary category of identity, 83
coal mining, 31–32, 100–101, 127, 149, 167, 209
collaborators, 156
collective guilt, 150
collective punishment, 98, 151, 171, 174
collective responsibility, 40, 80, 140
collectivization, 10, 22, 33–35, 96, 255, 264n23; religious opposition to, 112
colonization, 39–40
common criminals (bytoviki): amnesty of, 207; contrasted with political prisoners, 83, 87, 93, 164, 175, 281n17; in Kengir uprising, 215, 219, 222, 315n72; reformability of, 87; victimization of political prisoners, 89
Communist Party members, 243, 247; deportation of, 97, 150, 153, 300n239
comrade courts, 64
conditional early release. See early release
Conquest, Robert, 8
copper mining, 30, 167–168, 254
corrective labor, 16, 33, 36–38, 255; for Westerners, 110. See also labor
corrective labor camps, 17, 21–22, 249; abolishment of, 251–252; bitches’ war in, 173–182; during Brezhnev years, 258; Chechens in, 153; contrasted with corrective labor colonies, 26; contrasted with prisons, 19, 44; death rates in, 76–77; early openness of, 255–256; at end of 1950’s, 253; exile following release from, 24–25; importance of labor in, 36; in Karaganda region, 30; kulaks in, 35; population of, 34, 113, 202; postwar population of, 158–160, 165; releases from, 72; 1956 reorganization of, 250–251; Soviet Germans in, 149; wartime escapes from, 138–140; Westerners in, 188–190. See also Karlag camp
corrective labor colonies, 17, 21, 25–27, 249; contrasted with special settlements, 24; death rates in, 76; at end of 1950’s, 253; importance of labor in, 36; Kazakh people in, 307n148; in Kazakh Republic, 268n80; in liberated territories, 154; population of, 34, 202; postwar population of, 158, 160; releases from, 72; 1956 reorganization of, 250–251; transfer from labor camps to, 251–252
correspondence, 69, 71, 136, 256, 293n114; censorship of, 13, 137; Katorga and, 141; in special camps, 168, 171, 233
counterrevolutionary prisoners, 158–159; accused of fascism, 162; among Soviet German population, 148; as anti-Soviet, 282n31; as camp employees, 52; declining population of, 183, 252–253; evacuations of, 136; excluded from cultural-educational activities, 67–68; excluded from postwar amnesty, 207; in labor brigades, 150; organization of uprisings by, 135; prewar population of, 113; releases of, 234, 237; in special camps, 165–166, 173; in strict-regime divisions, 233; wartime incarceration of, 123, 257. See also Article 58 prisoners; political prisoners
criminal gangs, 42, 90–91, 250–253, 305n118. See also professional criminals
criminality, 11, 13–14, 281n17
criminals. See common criminals; nonpolitical criminals; professional criminals
cult of action, 162
cultural brigades, 46, 64, 210
cultural-educational activities, 57–59, 61–65, 67–68, 85; labor output and, 128–131; labor productivity and, 163; patriotism and, 133; political prisoners excluded from, 85; in postwar period, 160; prisoner response to, 65–66; rewards for participation in, 74; at special camps, 171–172. See also educational activities; political education
Cultural-Educational Sections (KVChs), 37, 57–63, 65–68, 276n113, 276n119; political education and, 129
Dashnaki, 190
David-Fox, Michael, 11
death penalty, 17–18, 76, 209, 279n186; abolition of, 183, 302n23, 306n144. See also executions
death rate, 1–2, 76–77; in corrective labor camps, 22; of deportees, 152; downward trend in, 311n8; in Katorga divisions, 21, 142; in postwar period, 158, 203; during World War II, 5, 113, 116–118, 121–122
de-kulakization, 10, 33, 34–35, 255, 264n23
denationalization, 196
deportations, 97, 144–154, 255; based on nationality, 190–191, 256; of Chechens, 152–153; of ethnic minorities, 96; growth of Gulag and, 35; of “punished peoples,” 151–153; of Soviet Germans, 145–151, 297n205, 299n222; of Westerners, 108, 111, 190; during WWII, 123. See also exile; internal exile
de-Stalinization, 258
differentiation of rations, 41–43, 255
dissident movement, 247
Dolgun, Alexander, 1, 164, 179, 209–210, 248; release of, 236, 246; in special camp, 169–174
Dran’ko, Ekaterina Nikitichna, 242
Drevits, Georgii Mikhailovich, 118–121, 290n63
Dubrovlag, 227
Dzhezkazgan, 117, 164, 167–169, 182, 214; Kengir uprising and, 221–222; post-Stalin change in conditions, 210; professional criminals in, 173; releases from, 236
early release, 73–76, 255; abolishment of, 78, 108, 205; counterrevolutionary prisoners excluded from, 85; for outstanding labor performance, 25, 52, 72, 126, 165, 236; reintroduction of, 233. See also mass release; release
economic issues, 10, 35–36, 270n28; arrests and, 35–36, 38, 40, 270n28; cultural-educational activities and, 58–59; decline of Gulag and, 202–203; economic vs. penal tasks, 33; funding of Gulag, 293n114; ideology and, 128; inefficiency of Gulag, 200, 258, 311n7; labor productivity as, 40–41; mass arrests and, 35; in postwar period, 160–164; special camps and, 184–185; total Soviet economic output, 191n113; unprofitability of camps, 47, 127–128; during WWII, 109, 123–128. See also labor productivity
The Economics of Forced Labor in the Soviet Union, 10
educational activities, 49–50, 58–59; for camp employees, 129; prisoner response to, 65; women and, 99. See also cultural-educational activities; political education
Efimov, Vasilii Mefod’evich, 134
Ekibastuz, 167, 169, 180–181, 182; prisoner resistance at, 185
escape, 26, 53–57, 163, 190, 199–200; downward trend in, 77, 203, 311n8; from Katorga divisions, 141; ongoing existence of, 212, 252; preoccupation with preventing, 24, 50, 95, 126, 139, 308n191; punishment for, 49, 54–55, 70, 80, 170, 214; from special camps, 166, 168–169, 183, 185; during WWII, 137, 138–140
Estonians, 189–190, 327n268; decline in incarceration rates of, 253; exempted from release, 238; as permanent exiles, 193–194
ethnicity, 80, 86, 132; contrasted with nationality, 93; exile based on, 96–98, 123
ethnonational movements. See nationalist movements
evacuations, 114–116, 288n32; of counterrevolutionary prisoners, 136
executions, 17–18, 184, 211, 248–249, 254; of Beria, 202, 213; during Great Terror, 86, 256, 279n191; of Kengir rebels, 230; for labor infractions, 125–126; political, 295n164; of political prisoners, 136; total numbers of, 1. See also death penalty
exile, 22, 268n68; based on ethnicity, 96–98, 123; based on nationality, 144, 153–154, 185, 188, 189–191, 193; following release from camps, 24–25, 166, 192, 238, 246; forced labor and, 254; in Kazakhstan, 308n201, 323n192, 323n193; living conditions in, 190; mass release from, 244–245; of “nonnational” groups, 190–191; permanent, 153, 165; postwar population of, 195; release from, 237–245, 258; wartime release from, 115; of Westerners, 111. See also deportations; internal exile; special settlements
fascists, 156, 219, 243; class enemies labeled as, 86; political prisoners labeled as, 88, 162, 164; Soviet Germans labeled as, 145, 147–148
Fastenko, Anatolii, 88–89
Fel’dman, Artem, 173, 179, 185, 197, 309n208; on Stalin’s death, 204, 208
Figes, Orlando, 103, 130, 260n8
filtration camps, 17, 124, 154, 156–157, 189; Red Army veterans at, 197
financing of camps, 251–252
First Five-Year Plan, 255
Fogel, Mariia Ivanova, 242
food, 41–43, 255; reduced as punishment, 68–69; tied to labor output, 165; wartime scarcity of, 116–117, 119–120
former kulaks, 19, 96–98, 144, 191, 195, 238, 323n197; executions of, 86; wartime release of, 115. See also kulaks
freedom of movement, 24, 43–44, 244
Galkina, Antonina Nikolaevna, 242–243
gender identity, 98–106; loss of “womanhood” and, 101–102. See also women
Genuine Orthodox Church, 112–113
Gerin’sh, Boleslav Adamovich, 230
Germans. See Soviet Germans
Getty, J. Arch, 10
Gigant state farm, 30–32
Gilboa, Yehoshua, 110–112, 117
Ginzburg, Eugenia, 20, 22, 89, 93; on anti-Semitism, 197; on categorization, 81; on gender identity, 102; rearrest of, 192–193; release of, 73; transfer of, 70; wartime experience of, 130, 145
Gol’dshtein, Samuil, 131–133
Gorky, Maksim, 87
Great Patriotic War. See World War II
Great Terror, 15, 35, 98, 108, 267n59; aimed at former kulaks, 19, 97; camp death rates during, 77; executions during, 18, 86–87, 103, 256, 279n191; reeducation and, 276n113
Gregory, Paul, 10
group cells, 68
guards, 47–53, 174, 188, 274n76; brutality towards prisoners of, 55–56, 100, 114, 168; counterrevolutionary activities among, 140; effect of WWII on, 123, 135–137, 140; former prisoners as, 88, 208; Kengir uprising and, 214–215, 224, 231; political education of, 163, 180; postwar shortage of, 203; propaganda aimed at, 12; Red Army veterans and, 198; relationships with prisoners, 51, 54, 101, 178; in special camps, 168, 171–172; at Steplag, 183, 306n139. See also camp employees
The Gulag Archipelago, 8–9, 213, 314n51
Gulag Cultural-Educational Department, 57
Gulag identity, 4–5, 12, 81–83, 105–106; as basis for propaganda, 218; gender and, 98–105; individual evaluations and, 80; nationality and, 93–98, 144, 219–220; political prisoners vs. common criminals, 83–93; in special camps, 172–173
Gulag population, 1, 34–36, 310n4; escapes and, 55; of exiles, 191–192, 195; of informants, 182; under Khrushchev, 249; maximum, 202; political prisoners as a percentage of, 123, 137, 165, 281n17; post-Stalin decline in, 234–237; in postwar period, 157–160, 165, 301n11, 302n23; of recidivists, 252; reduced by amnesty, 205, 207; release of, 8, 12, 72, 254; of special camps, 182; wartime decline in, 113, 122–124; of Westerners, 189; of women, 282n36; before WWII, 113, 256
Gumeniuk, Pavel Mikhailovich, 126
Gur’evsk, 308n201
Higher School of the NKVD USSR, 140
The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror, 9
homosexuality, 105
honest thieves (chestnyagi), 174–175
human perfectibility, 266n30
Ibragimov, Zaidula Khamidilovich, 230
ideology, 9–12, 91, 217, 264n17; economic considerations and, 128; exposure to non-Soviet, 155–156, 189, 212, 231, 315n56; of labor, 37, 59
illness, 117, 122, 285n86, 290n74, 304n66
individualization of prisoners, 80–81. See also categorization of prisoners
indoctrination networks, 2, 59, 107, 276. See also cultural-educational activities; political education; propaganda
informants, 53, 55, 56–57, 175; growth of, 182; during Kengir uprising, 317n86; murder by prisoners of, 179–182, 203, 305n122; wartime increase in number of, 138. See also agent-informant networks
Ingush, 152–153, 187; autonomous region for, 244; exile of, 195–196, 256; isolation of, 252; release from exile, 239–241, 245
internal camp prisons, 19, 69, 180, 304n73
internal exile, 1, 23, 202, 241, 253, 256, 268n61; in Karaganda region, 26, 31, 46; of kulaks, 35, 96, 264; of Soviet Koreans, 97; of Westerners, 111, 239. See also exile; special settlements
international affairs, 112, 194–195
interrogation prisons, 18–19, 267n50
Islam, 133
isolation of prisoners, 13–14, 17, 48, 82, 126, 184, 252, 262n5; cost of, 45, 160–161; following Kengir uprising, 230–231; in Katorga divisions, 141, 257; of political prisoners, 21, 173, 257; in prisons, 19; of recidivists, 250; in special camps, 165, 168–169, 200; in strict-regime divisions, 233; temporary nature of, 223; during WWII, 116, 124, 137
Istoshchenie, 290n72
Ivanova camp, 309n3
Ivashchenko, Valentin Vladimirovich, 230
Izvestkovaia, 70
Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, 196
Jews, 131–133, 145, 162; anti-Semitism and, 196–197
Kalmyk people, 244–245
Kamenlag, 290n57
Karachai people, 244–245
Karaganda region, 2–3, 12, 29, 30–31; Chechens in, 240; coal mining in, 148–149; contact between prisoners and noncamp population, 46; corrective labor camps in, 22; deportations to, 146–148, 195–196; exiles in, 25, 152, 195–196, 237–238, 308n201, 323n193; special camps in, 164, 166–167, 182–183; special settlements in, 196
Karlag camp, 3, 28–34, 199–200; agricultural nature of, 32, 44–46; bitches’ war in, 177; Chechen-Russian hostility in, 240; Chechens in, 324n205; closing of subdivisions, 237; cohabitation in, 101; as corrective labor camp, 17; counterrevolutionary prisoners in, 67–68; cultural-educational activities in, 58–59, 62–63, 128; declining population of, 183; effect of 1953 amnesty on, 206–208, 210–211; effect of WWII on, 113–114; employee conditions in, 49; escapes from, 54, 56; executions in, 125–126; exiles in, 25; food provisions in, 41; founding of, 29–30, 32–33; holidays in, 65; Katorga divisions in, 143; Kuznetsov in, 230; liberation commissions in, 235; light-regime conditions in, 233–234; living conditions in, 30–31, 44, 136–137; national minorities in, 95; penalty facilities at, 68–69; political education in, 162–163; political prisoners in, 85–86, 294n153; population of, 34; postwar population of, 159; POW camp in, 124; prisoner-on-prisoner violence in, 181–182; prisoner resistance in, 137; releases from, 72, 75; religious groups in, 112; shock workers in, 60; size of, 269n13; Soviet Germans in, 148; special camps in, 213; three-tiered regime in, 305n118; victimization of political prisoners in, 89–90; wartime death rates in, 116–118, 121–122; wartime demographics of, 123–124; wartime escapes from, 139–140; wartime releases from, 111–112, 115; women in, 99, 102–105; Zhuravlev-Drevits feud in, 119–120
Katerinenko (Assistant Director of Karlag), 107
Katorga camp divisions, 20–21, 140–143, 184–185, 213, 257; end of, 210, 232; special camps and, 168
Katyn, 111
Kazakh Republic: Chechens and Ingush in, 188, 241; corrective labor camps in, 17; deportations to, 147, 151–153; as location for exile, 166, 195–196, 308n201, 323n192, 323n193; special camps in, 182–183; special settlements in, 22. See also Karaganda region
Kazitlag camp, 25, 30–31, 57, 269n10
Kekushev, Nikolai L’vovich, 232
Keller, Gersha, 227–228
Kengir camp, 173, 214; aftermath of uprising, 229–232, 234; in Gulag Archipelago, 314n51; prisoner uprising in, 5, 200, 211–225, 227–231, 309n2, 318n97; releases from, 236; Westerners at, 189, 239
Khemshil people, 245
Khmel’nytskyi, Hetman Bohdan, 133
Khrushchev, Nikita, 206, 231, 248, 258; ouster of, 249
Kirghiz Republic, 22
Kmiecik, Jerzy, 112–113
Knopmus, Iurii Al’fredovich, 222, 228–230
Kolyma camp, 1–2, 12, 65–66, 256; anti-Semitism in, 197; attempted escape from, 54–55; early release from, 126; employee conditions in, 49; guards in, 50; Katorga divisions in, 143; Petrov in, 273n67; special camps and, 166; transfer to as punishment, 70, 217, 230; wartime death rates in, 116–118; as worst possible destination, 17, 21, 126
Kondratas, Iozac, 230
Kondratenko, 147–148
Konovalov, Sergei Aleksandrovich, 238–239
Kopelev, Lev, 145, 156, 196–197, 198; description of bitches’ war, 174–176
Korean War, 194
Kovpak, Sydir, 198
Kronstadt, 309n3
Kruglov, Sergei, 117, 119, 122–123, 153, 165; Kengir uprising and, 215–216, 220
kulaks, 264n23; contrasted with ethnic exiles, 153; exile of, 22, 25, 35, 96, 144; released from exile, 191, 289n42. See also de-kulakization; former kulaks
Kun, Ol’ga, 239
Kurds, 245
Kurmanbaev, Senkul, 61
Kuznetsov, Kapiton Ivanovich, 211–212, 215, 320n130; aftermath of Kengir uprising, 230; as leader of Kengir uprising, 224–229, 320n134; as target of propaganda, 219–220
labor, 36–41; Bolshevik ideology of, 36, 38, 59, 125; cultural importance of, 125; food and, 41–43, 165; forced, 38, 254; ideology of, 11, 59; as key to reforging, 16; as method for reeducation, 40; redemption and, 126; reeducation and, 59–60, 134; rehabilitation and, 255; rewards for, 75–76; unproductiveness of forced labor, 160, 311n7; wartime increases in, 126–127; wartime politics of, 128; as weapon, 131. See also corrective labor
labor brigades, 80, 82, 149–150; women in, 299n228
labor camps. See corrective labor camps
labor colonies. See corrective labor colonies
labor heroism, 60–61; during WWII, 131
labor laws of 1940, 113, 115, 125–126, 257; growth of Gulag and, 35
labor productivity, 39–40, 60–61, 161–163, 232, 271n39; creation of special camps and, 184–185; cultural-educational activities and, 58, 68, 129; leading to early release, 72, 75, 126, 137, 150, 243; post-Stalin improvements in, 232; rewards for, 41, 71, 163–164, 233; unproductiveness of forced labor, 38, 127–128, 160, 203; during WWII, 129, 133
Latvians, 189–190, 253, 327n268; exempted from release, 238; as permanent exiles, 193–194
Lazarev, Vasilii Nikoforovich, 192
Leninist justice, 248
liberation commissions, 234–236
Lithuanians, 145, 186, 188–190, 327n268; decline in incarceration rates of, 253; exempted from release, 238; as permanent exiles, 193–194
living conditions, 9, 30, 43–47, 255; efforts to improve, 71, 163; faced by exiles, 190; following Stalin’s death, 209–210, 232; at special camps, 168–169; during WWII, 122, 150
Loginov, 130–134
Magnitogorsk, 15, 23–24, 26–27, 65–66; heroic labor at, 60–61
Makeev, Aleksei Filippovich, 219, 229
Maksimchuk, I. Ia., 242
Malenkov, Georgii, 204, 208, 216
marriages, 99–100
Maslov V. N., 60
mass arrests, 7, 35, 111, 154, 267n50
mass burial, 122
mass release, 160, 243, 248, 254, 256, 324n219; closure of camps and, 237; of nationalities, 241, 244–245; in post-Stalin era, 234–237; prisoner uprisings and, 202; during WWII, 113, 257. See also release
Matrosov, Aleksandr Matveevich, 134
Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD), 17–172, 166, 174, 204, 208–209, 236; Gulag deaths and, 248–249; Kengir uprising and, 216, 218; reforms proposed by, 250–252; release of exiles and, 242–243, 245
Ministry of Justice, 205
Ministry of State Security (MGB), 166, 171–172, 188, 236
Moldavia, 154
Moldovan Republic, 190
Moldovans, 189
Mongols, 151
“monolithic family” of socialism, 218
morale building, 49
Mordovian autonomous republic, 166
mortality. See death rate
Moscow-Volga Canal, 84
Nal’giev, Israil, 239
Nasedkin, Viktor, 114–115, 127, 129, 137, 139–140; on deportations, 146; deportations and, 152; on Katorga, 142; role in Zhuravlev-Drevits feud, 119–120, 290n63
national identity, 93–98, 185–191, 237–242; camp antagonism and, 188; categorization of prisoners by, 256; of Chechens, 153; deportation based on, 190–191; exile based on, 144, 153–154, 189–191, 193; inescapability of, 191; mass release and, 244–245; permanent exile based on, 165, 193; in postwar prisoner society, 185–191; as primary category of identity, 219–220; role of during WWII, 143–154
nationalism, 88, 185–186, 245; Russian, 131, 300n247
nationalist movements, 70, 108, 110, 145, 185–186, 190, 200, 231–232, 316n66; Baltic nationalists, 108, 154, 189, 211, 257; involved in Kengir uprising, 211–212, 214, 217, 220, 224–225, 229, 231; release of members, 245, 247, 253; Ukrainian nationalists, 179–180, 189, 238–239, 274n84. See also Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN)
nationality. See national identity
national minorities, 94–95, 99
Nazi concentration camps, 132, 259n2
Nazis, 81, 109, 114, 151, 153, 186
Nazi-Soviet pact, 110, 112, 125
new Soviet person, 10
noncustodial forced labor, 17, 27
nonpolitical criminals, 250–251, 253. See also common criminals; professional criminals (urki)
Noril’sk, 3, 12, 22, 143, 166; uprising at, 319n118
Novikov, B. V., 243
Novikova, Evdokiia Arsent’evna, 235–236
Omsk Oblast, 22
One Day in the Live of Ivan Denisovich, 50, 248
Operative-Chekist Departments, 54
Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), 212, 239, 242; exile of members, 190, 193, 195–196, 237, 323n193; release of members, 246
Orthodox Church, 131
Ostavnov, Aleksei Ivanovich, 134
Overy, Richard, 133
Ozerlag, 230
Panin, Dmitri, 169–170, 179–181
partisan armies, 110, 186, 197, 199, 229, 257; Western, 162, 184, 188–189, 211–212, 257, 274n84. See also nationalist movements
passports, 235
payment of prisoners, 160, 163, 205, 232
pellagra, 117, 121–122, 290n74
Peltevna, 189
penal ideology, 11
penal policy, 13, 15–16, 82, 142; WWII and, 134
penal practice, 11, 13–14, 16, 256, 262n8, 281n17
penalty camp zones, 68–69
penalty facilities, 68–70. See also punishment facilities
permanent exile, 153, 165, 191–193, 213, 258; demands for abolishment of, 222–223; factors leading to, 184
personal files, 79–80, 236, 275n98
Peschanlag, 167, 169, 182–183; release from, 238
Petrov, Vladimir, 44, 48–49, 65–66, 90, 273n67
petty criminals (zhulik), 92, 250
Pilishchuk, Vissarion Nikolaevich, 107–108, 130
Podsokhin, Aleksei Gerasimovich, 177
Poland, 111–112, 307n165; annexation of, 108
Poles, 111–112, 151, 186–188, 188–190; as exiles, 195–196, 237; as political prisoners, 110; released from exile, 245
political agitation, 160–161
political education, 5, 49, 87, 109, 128–131, 165; of camp employees, 136, 163; in foreign affairs, 195; Kengir uprising and, 217, 223; of noncamp residents, 147; patriotism and, 133; in postwar period, 162–163; of POWs, 293n126. See also cultural-educational activities; educational activities
political indoctrination, 38, 172. See also political education; propaganda
political literacy, 129
political prisoners, 83–84, 88–89, 257, 281n17; accused of fascism, 162; in aftermath of Kengir uprising, 231; contrasted with common criminals, 83, 87, 93, 164, 175; as cultural workers, 85; decline in numbers of, 202; disagreements among, 91–93; excluded from postwar amnesty, 158–160, 205, 207, 258; executions of, 136; isolation of, 257; Katorga and, 143; Kengir uprising and, 219, 221–222; Poles as, 110; post-Stalin releases of, 234; post-Stalin status of, 249–250; postwar population of, 165; release of, 206, 237, 252–253, 258; in special camps, 5, 21, 165–166, 172–173, 213; victimized by common criminals, 89, 215. See also Article 58 prisoners; counterrevolutionary prisoners
Ponamerenko, Panteleimon, 156
Popov, V.P., 18
population. See Gulag population
population cataloging, 81
Pravda, 197
prisoner evaluations, 71, 74, 79–80, 254
prisoner marginalization, 7, 12–13, 15
prisoner memoirs, 3–4, 8–9, 51, 260n8; in special camps, 164; survival of memoirists and, 77–78. See also individual memoirists
prisoner of war (POW) camps, 17, 124, 154, 291n71, 293n126; suspicion following release from, 156–157
prisoner-on-prisoner violence, 176–182, 199, 211, 252, 306n126; Chechen-Russian hostility and, 240–241. See also bitches’ war
prisoner resistance, 50, 203; at Ekibastuz, 180–181; at Karlag, 137; Kengir uprising as, 231; low rate of, 212; rebellious organizations and, 138; at special camps, 183, 185. See also escape; prisoner uprisings; strikes
prisoners of war (POWs), 127; political education of, 129, 293n126; role in Kengir uprising, 315n59
prisoner uprisings, 5–6, 258, 319n118; aftermath of Kengir, 229–232, 234; consequences of, 231; following Stalin’s death, 212; Kengir uprising, 201, 211–225, 227–231, 309n2, 314n51, 318n97; official response to, 309n3; in special camps, 202; in Steplag camp, 3; at Vorkuta, 134–135, 137; during WWII, 134–135
prisons, 1, 17, 18–20, 40, 70–71, 113; compared with labor camps, 44, 142; criminal-bandit element in, 250, 252; within labor camps, 69, 71, 170, 183
production meetings, 37
professional criminals (urki), 89–91, 173–174, 237; release of, 246; during WWII, 109
Proniuk, Nikolai Andreevich, 239
propaganda, 11–12, 50–51; cultural-educational activities and, 64; early release and, 75; effect of on Gulag employees, 50; in filtration camps, 157; issued by prisoners, 222–225; Kengir uprising and, 216–225; during WWII, 131
property theft laws of 1947, 159–160, 205, 302n23; growth of Gulag and (see exile)
prostitution, 101
psychoprisons, 258
“punished peoples,” 151–153
punishment, 15, 40, 68–71, 74, 76, 125, 279n186; for attempted escape, 49, 55, 80, 140; economic, 27; execution as, 17; food withheld as, 41–42; Katorga as, 141–143; for labor violations, 92, 150; in prisons, 18, 21; in special camps, 169–171; for theft, 159–160, 205; work as, 36
punishment facilities. See penalty facilities; prisons
quantification, 13
Rachlin, Rachel and Israel, 22–24
radio broadcasts, 61, 135, 222
rape, 315n72
Razgon, Lev, 201
rearrests, 192
rebellious organizations, 137–138
recidivists, 250–252–253
reconstruction, 161
Red Army: Soviet Germans removed from, 146
Red Army veterans, 107, 154, 197–199, 200, 227, 231, 257; involvement in Kengir uprising, 215; killing of, 180; relationship with nationalist partisans, 229; release of, 243; role in Kengir uprising, 211–213, 224–225; suspicion of, 156–157. See also Kuznetsov, Kapiton Ivanovich
Red Corners, 130
redeemability. See redemption
redemption, 16–17, 18, 27, 65, 254; amnesty and, 207; corrective labor and, 38; corrective labor camps and, 22; of counterrevolutionary prisoners, 85; of criminals, 251; death and, 255; hierarchy of, 184; individual redeemability, 12; interrogation prisons and, 18; of national minorities, 94; political education and, 130; of political prisoners, 85, 237; prisons and, 18–19; shock worker movement and, 60; of special camp prisoners, 172; through labor, 126
reeducation, 12, 57–58, 165, 254–256; of class enemies, 85; corrective labor and, 38; counterrevolutionary prisoners excluded from, 67–68; of ethnic minorities, 96; during Great Terror, 276n113; labor as a method for, 40, 134; political education and, 130–131, 217; political prisoners excluded from, 84; prisoner skepticism and, 66; release and, 59; survival and, 78; of Westerners, 110. See also cultural-educational activities
reforging, 33, 57–58, 266n33; of common criminals, 87; exclusion of counterrevolutionary prisoners, 67; labor and, 16
rehabilitation, 12; corrective labor and, 38; executions and, 86. See also redemption
release, 8, 10, 71–76; de-Stalinization and, 258; early release, 74–76; exclusion of nationalities, 151; from exile, 237–245; followed by exile, 24–25, 192, 238; individual petitions for, 241–242; life after, 246–249; mass vs. individual, 241–244; of political prisoners, 206, 237, 252–253; redemption and, 12; reeducation and, 59; during WWII, 111–112, 114–115. See also amnesties; early release; mass release
Resurrected, The, 130
Revolution of 1917. See Bolshevik revolution
Riabov, Viktor Petrovich, 230
Riewe, Karl, 209, 222, 232, 246
Rittersporn, Gábor Tamás, 10
Roga, Ol’ga Krishevna, 248
Romanians, 151
Rudenko, Roman, 215, 216, 220, 234
Russian Liberation Army, 162, 195–196
Russians, 187, 327n268; conflict with Chechens, 95, 240; conflict with Ukrainians, 188, 219; in Kengir uprising, 219–220; privileged position of, 145, 186
sabotage, 54, 125, 174, 279n186
Sasykul’, 56
scientific prison institutes, 17
Selivanov, Vasilii Petrovich, 112, 287n22
Semenova, Galina Aleksandrovna, 29, 72, 103, 104, 117; wartime experience of, 120
“semi-released” prisoners, 136
Serzhantov, Ivan Iakovlevich, 134
sexual relationships, 100–101, 103, 121. See also cohabitation
Shimanskaia, Mariia Semenova, 230
Shmidt, Khristian Georgievich, 233
shock workers, 60–61, 87, 131; sentence reductions for, 73–74
Shumuk, Danylo, 82–83, 197, 286n9
Siberia, 17
silicosis, 304n66
Skiruk, Vitalii Petrovich, 230
Sluchenkov, Engel’s Ivanovich “Gleb,” 215, 225, 318n103; conviction of, 230; relationship with Kuznetsov, 227–229; as target of propaganda, 219–220
social engineering, 108
social hierarchies, 16
social identity, 4–5, 218. See also Gulag identity
socially friendly/socially harmful boundary, 87–88
Sokolov, Vasilii Petrovich, 122
Solikamskii camp, 150
solitary confinement, 19–20, 68, 267n50; at special camps, 170
Solovetskii, 12, 15, 38–39, 272n45; cultural-educational activities in, 59–60, 62, 64, 91, 255; political prisoners in, 84–85
Solovki region, 12
Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr, 1–2, 13, 16, 37, 50, 194, 233, 248–249; on bitches’ war, 175; critique of, 262n8; cultural participation of, 85; as historian, 4, 8–9; on ideology, 10; on Kengir uprising, 213, 216, 221–222, 224, 231; on Kuznetsov, 226–227, 229; on liberation commissions, 235; as political prisoner, 88–89, 92; on political prisoners, 84; on postwar politics, 160; in special camp, 167; on special camps, 172–173; survival of, 77–78; as veteran, 199; wartime experiences of, 130
sorting of prisoners, 184
Soviet Germans, 145–151, 298n212; deportations of, 150–151, 297n205, 299n222; exile of, 195–196, 237–238, 256; labor mobilization of, 148–149, 150–151, 299n228, 299n234; liberation of, 244–245
Soviet society, 13, 16, 37–38, 54, 58, 81, 223, 258; anti-Semitism in, 196–197; cultural activities in, 61, 63–64; exiles in, 192; inmates as dangerous to, 21, 39, 46, 49, 124, 137, 184–185, 213; place of prisoners in, 42, 217, 318n88; political education in, 130–131; in postwar period, 109, 155, 160–162; recreated in the Gulag, 5–6, 41, 58, 106, 109, 128; Red Army veterans in, 197–198, 257; reintroduction of prisoners into, 74, 133, 157, 206–207, 247, 251; Westerners in, 108; during WWII, 116, 122, 125, 131–132, 134
Spassk camp, 29, 181–182, 252, 304n66; Chechen-Russian hostility in, 240; Chechens in, 324n205; as POW camp, 124, 167
speaking “Bolshevik,” 212, 222, 232, 321n164
special camps, 3, 5, 17, 20–21, 164–173, 182–185, 213, 257; Article 58 prisoners in, 84; creation of, 136, 159; Gulag economy and, 160; nationality in, 186; permanent isolation of prisoners, 222–223; population of, 182; post-Stalin moderation of, 232–233; prisoner resistance in, 202, 212, 231
special corrective labor prisons, 250–251
special prisons, 17, 166, 170. See also prisons
special settlements, 17, 22–25, 268n68; informants in, 138; in Karaganda region, 196; kulaks and, 96; labor of, 292; legal situation of, 190; release from, 238–239, 244–245; wartime release from, 115. See also exile
Spiridonova, Mariia, 136
Stakhanov, Aleksei, 60
Stakhanovite movement, 15–16, 60–61, 87, 131; sentence reductions and, 74
Stalin, Josef, 14, 262n4; death of, 6, 201–202, 204, 208, 213; ending of early release by, 75; reaction to death of, 312n14; wartime radio broadcasts of, 135
Stalin constitution, 86–87, 282n27, 284n68
Stefanskaia, Militsa, 28, 44–45, 89–90, 102–103
Steplag camp, 1, 29, 181–183, 213–214, 304n73; closing of, 237; Kengir uprising in, 3, 5, 200, 211–225, 227–231; Kuznetsov in, 227; post-Stalin improvements in, 232; prisoner-on-prisoner violence in, 179; reaction to Stalin’s death in, 204; release from, 238, 246; as special camp, 167–169; Westerners in, 189. See also Kengir camp
strict-regime camps, 252, 305n118, 324n205
strikes, 180–181, 203, 223, 257–258; in Kengir, 214–216, 217
surveillance, 6, 53–57, 135, 150; of camp employees, 129; performed by prisoners, 50–51, 53–54, 305n122; prisoner countermeasures to, 203; in special camps, 168; wartime increase in, 138
Temir-Tau, 237
Terekhov, 119–120
thieves (vory), 174–176, 178, 306n126. See also common criminals; professional criminals (urki)
Third Department, 54
three-tiered camp regime, 233, 305n118
transfer, 82, 252, 316, 316n23; death during, 254; to prevent violence, 178; as punishment, 17, 19, 69–71, 229–230, 240; as reward, 71, 76, 233–234, 250; to special camps, 166, 170, 183
Trotsky, Leon, 36
tufta, 182
Ukraine, 193; deportations from, 190; mass executions in, 136; Soviet annexation of, 109–110, 154, 256; Sovietization of, 154; wartime evacuation of, 114
Ukrainians, 180, 184, 188–190, 327n268; accused of fascism, 162; anti-Semitism among, 197; cultural resistance of, 186; decline in incarceration rates of, 253; exempted from release, 238–239; as exiles, 195–196; in Kengir, 214; release from exile of, 245; role in Kengir uprising, 219–220, 224–225, 227–229, 231–232, 314n51; at Vorkuta, 307n168. See also Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN)
Ukrainian Insurgent Army, 212
underground organizations, 202–203
The Unknown Gulag: The Lost World of Stalin’s Special Settlements, 9–10
urki. See professional criminals
Uzbek Republic, 22, 26, 190, 241
venereal disease, 285n86
Vilnius, 307n165
Viola, Lynne, 9–10
virgin lands campaign, 248
Vlasovites, 162, 191, 198–199, 274n84; as exiles, 195–196; in Kengir uprising, 213, 215; released from exile, 238
Vorkuta, 3, 12, 134–135; anti-Semitism in, 197; corrective labor camps in, 22; Katorga divisions in, 143; special camps and, 166; Ukrainians in, 307n168; uprising in, 134–135, 137, 319n118; Westerners in, 186, 188
Voroshilov, Kliment, 229
vory. See thieves (vory)
Vyshinskii, Andrey, 15, 37, 75
wall newspapers, 63–64, 162–163
Warsaw Pact, 258
Westerners, 110–111, 188–190, 257; anti-Soviet attitudes following release, 247; arrests of, 89, 108, 154, 297n203; cultural traditions maintained, 186; decline in incarceration rates, 253; deportation of, 108, 111, 190; exempted from release, 238; in partisan armies, 162, 184, 257, 274n84; permanent exile of, 193–194; role in Kengir uprising, 211–212, 219–220, 239; in Soviet society, 108; suspected of rebellion, 138. See also Estonians; Latvians; Lithuanians; Poles; Ukrainians
White Sea-Baltic Sea Canal, 11, 36, 256
women, 99–106; economic tasks of, 104; in Kengir, 214; in Kengir uprising, 220–222, 309n2, 314n51; labor mobilization of, 299n228; murders among, 178; population in labor camps of, 113; rape of, 315n72; release from exile of, 243; Soviet ideal of, 221; in special camps, 170; venereal disease and, 285n86; wartime incarceration of, 123, 151; during war years, 282n36. See also gender identity
World War II, 5–6, 108–109, 256–257, 289n43; camp death rates during, 77; cult of war, 161–162; effect of on Gulag population, 113–124; former prisoners fighting in, 133–134; Gulag economy and, 124–128; intensification of camp discipline during, 135–140; mass deportations and, 144–154; political education during, 129–130; postwar social identity and, 218–219; Russian nationalism and, 131–132; Soviet penal policy and, 134
wrongful convictions, 234
Young Communist League, 50
Zadorozhnyi, Anatolii Kostritskii, 230
Zemskov, Viktor N., 10, 182, 244
Zhukov, Georgii, 208
Zhuravlev, V.P., 47, 117–122, 126, 139; feud with Drevits, 119–120