Index

5:2 diet, 177

age-1 gene, 47

ageing

backwards, 14–15

process, 37–41, 43, 48, 105–106

purpose of, 41–44

syndromes, 41

theories of, 44–48, 52

trajectories, 10–13

age-related diseases, 39–41

and free radicals, 51–53

and genetic variants, 33–34

and size, 66, 69

and telomeres, 90

viruses and bacteria, 155

see also Alzheimer’s disease; cancer; cardiovascular diseases

agricultural diet, 192–193

alcohol, 130, 186, 190–191

almonds, 58

alternate-day fasting, 177

altitude, 60

Altos Labs, 112

Alzheimer’s disease, 33–34, 39, 40, 120, 123, 147–151

Ambrosia, 120

American aloe, 12

Americas (New World), 1, 34, 62–63, 65, 152

Ames dwarf mice, 17, 66–67, 69

Amish population, 34–36

AMPK enzyme, 200

amylase, 192–193

amyloid beta protein, 147–149, 150

ancestral diets, 192, 207, 209–210

Ancestry.com, 29

ancient world, 2, 95, 174, 197

angiotensin II hormone, 208–209

animal glands, 3

antacids, 133, 134

Antechinus stuartii (marsupial), 12

anti-ageing drugs, 100, 102–104, 199–202

antibiotics, 131, 132, 133, 134, 154

and gut bacteria, 136, 159

antibodies, 156

antioxidants, 51–53, 54, 56

ants, 47, 138–139

APOE gene, 33, 150

apoptosis, 86, 95–96, 99, 144, 155

apples, 99, 208

arsenic, 55

arterial plaques, 123, 144, 155, 203–204

Asian life expectancies, 24–25, 67–68

astronauts, 93–94

atherosclerosis, 203–204, 206

Austad, Steven, 15

autoimmune diseases, 144–145

autophagy, 77–81, 84–85, 115, 156, 172, 174

autopsies, 129

Ayerst Pharmaceutical, 73, 74

baboons, 219

backwards ageing, 14–15

Bacon, Lord Francis, 167

bacteria, 73, 82, 126–127, 131

and Alzheimer’s disease, 151

and cancer, 153–155

dormant state, 13

gut, 81, 85, 136, 158–159, 199, 200

and peptic ulcers, 131–135

Barbieri, Angus, 178–179

bats, 16, 79

B-cells, 144, 156

bees, 47

Bert, Paul, 118

beta cells, 113

Bezos, Jeff, 112

bile acids, 207–208

biological age, 103–104, 106, 107, 110, 142

biological clocks, 104, 195

see also epigenetic clocks

biological immortality, 14, 42, 46–47

biomarkers, 103–104, 194–195

Biosphere 2, 53–54, 168

birds, 16, 104, 138–139

birth certificates, 23

bladder, 39

blood

biomarkers, 195

microbes within, 137, 159

and rejuvenation, 118–121

donation, letting and transfusion of, 117–118, 120, 121, 122–123

blood pressure, 143–144, 208–211

blood sugar, 196–199, 218

blood–brain barrier, 137

Blue Zones, 20–24, 67–68, 185

BMI (body mass index), 23, 186

Bogdanov, Alexander, 117–118

bone health, 115–116, 215

bowhead whales, 8–9

brain, 108, 137–138, 147, 152

see also Alzheimer’s disease

breast tissue, 107–108, 109

brown fat, 61

Buettner, Dan, 21, 22

butyrate, 136, 159

C. elegans see worms

cabbages, 99

caffeine, 180

calcium hypochlorite, 129

Calico (California Life Company), 29

California (USA), 21, 185–186

calorie restriction, 167–172, 173–174

Calorie Restriction Society, 169–170

camouflage, 42

cancer, 19, 39, 40, 56–57

breast, 107–108, 109

cervical, 87, 89, 153, 154

and iron levels in blood, 123

Kaposi’s sarcoma, 142

and size, 66, 68

skin, 80

stomach, 134–135, 153

and telomerase, 92–93

teratoma, 111

viruses and bacteria, 152–155

Candida albicans fungi, 142, 151

Capone, Al, 152

carbohydrates, 192–193, 196, 198

cardiovascular diseases, 39, 40, 66, 85, 123, 203

see also blood pressure; LDL cholesterol

cargo cults, 183–184

Carlson, Anton, 175–177

cashew nuts, 58

causation or correlation? 185–186, 189

cells

B-cells, 144, 156

beta, 113

and blood sugar, 196

division of, 88–90

and epigenetics, 104–105, 107

HeLa, 87–88, 89–90

immortal, 90, 110

pluripotent, 109–111, 112, 113, 114

replacement of, 114–115

T-cells, 141, 161

viruses, impact of, 143, 155–157

see also apoptosis; autophagy; mitochondria; stem cells; zombie cells

cellular reprogramming, 111–112

cellular senescence see zombie cells

cellular suicide see apoptosis

centenarians, 22, 23–24, 25, 106, 197, 208

century plant, 12

cerebellum, 108

cerebrovascular disease, 39

chickenpox, 141

childbirth, 128–130, 146

chillies, 58

chimpanzees, 106

Chlamydia trachomatis bacterium, 153

Chlamydophila pneumoniae bacterium, 151

chlorine, 129

chocolate, 58

cholesterol, 204–208, 210

chromosomes, 88, 148

cicadas, 12

circadian rhythm, 101

clinical trials, 102–104

CMV (cytomegalovirus), 142–144, 145, 210

cocoa, 58

coffee, 180

cold exposure, 61, 84

cold sores, 143, 150

Colombia, 91

Columbus, Christopher, 1, 62–63

Cornaro, Luigi, 165–166

coronavirus, 146

correlation and causation? 185–186, 189

Costa Rica, 20–21, 22–23

crustaceans, 12

cyanide, 58

Cyprus, 25

cytomegalovirus (CMV), 142–144, 145, 210

Darwin, Charles, 41

dasatinib, 99–100

death, 37, 39, 42

decaying of food, 130–131

dementia see Alzheimer’s disease

Denmark, 22

development (of human cells and bodies), 105–106

diabetes, 66, 113, 144, 197–200

dietary fibre, 135, 159, 207–208

diet, 181–182

agricultural, 192–193

ancestral, 209–210

calorie restrictive, 165–172, 173–174

Mediterranean, 25

plant-based, 185–186, 194

see also fasting

disinfectant, 129

DNA, 27, 88–89, 105

Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 41

dogs, 16–17, 76, 192, 218

dormancy of cells, 13

Down’s syndrome, 148

drugs

for Alzheimer’s disease, 147–148

anti-ageing, 100, 102–104, 199–202

for blood pressure, 209

calorie restriction mimetics, 171

for diabetes, 199–200

and microbes, 137–138

placebo effect, 216–217

see also antibiotics

dwarfism, 63–66

East Asian diet, 192–193

Easter Island, 72–73

EBV (Epstein-Barr virus), 144–145, 153

ecosystems, 53, 135, 168

Ecuador, 64–65, 68

education and longevity, 184–186, 188

eggs, 205–206

ellagitannins, 85

embryonic stem cells, 113–114

endospores, 13

environment versus genetics 26–30

enzymes, 58, 77, 89, 192, 193, 196, 200

see also telomerase

epigenetic clocks, 104, 106–107, 110, 142, 143, 195

epigenetics, 104–106

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), 144–145, 153

ethics and scientific research, 87, 114

European diet, 192–193

European life expectancies, 25, 67–68

eusocial organisation, 18

evolution, 8, 15–16, 41–44, 44–46, 82

exercise, 54, 57, 78, 84, 199, 201, 210–215

FADS1 and FADS2 genes, 193–194

familial hypercholesterolaemia ‘FH’, 204–205

fasting, 173–179, 200

fat, 61, 178, 190, 196

fatty acids, 187–189, 193–194

female life expectancy, 17, 108–109

fermentation, 130

ferritin, 124, 127

fertility, 61

Feynman, Richard, 182

fibre, 135, 159, 207–208

filtration, 131

Finland, 61

fisetin, 99

fish, 11–12, 149

consumption of, 187–189, 193–194

flatworms, 14

flavonoids, 99, 100

flies, 12

flying, 16, 43

Food and Drug Administration, USA, 91, 120

food chain, 16

food decay, 130–131

fountain of youth, 2–3, 112

FOXO3 gene, 33

fraud, age and pension, 24, 25

fraud, food, 189

free radicals, 51–53, 54, 78, 126

fungi, 73–74, 142, 154

Fusobacterium nucleatum bacterium, 154

garlic, 206–207

gastric acid, 133

gastrointestinal tract, 137

gene therapy, 91–92

genetic engineering, 97

genetic mutations and variants, 33–34, 43–44, 46–47

and angiotensin II, 208–209

APOE, 33, 150

FADS1 and FADS2, 193–194

FOXO3, 33

Laron syndrome, 63–66, 68, 69

myostatin, 214

PAI-1, 35–36

PCSK9, 205

progeria, 41

and telomeres, 90

genetics

Blue Zones, 22

and diet, 192–195

versus environment, 26–30

and lifespan studies, 31–36, 47

genome sequencing, 195

Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS), 32–33, 34–36, 123

Germany, 25

glands, 3, 47, 66–67, 69

globalisation, 22–23

glucose, 196

grapes, 99

Greece, 21

Greenland sharks, 7–8

growth and longevity, 33, 63–66, 68, 69, 166–167

see also size and longevity

growth signalling, 33, 66, 68–69, 74, 78, 80, 156

Guevara-Aguirre, Jaime, 64–65, 65–66

gum disease, 151

gut bacteria, 81, 85, 136, 158–159, 199, 200

GWAS (Genome-Wide Association Studies), 32–33, 34–36, 123

haemoglobin, 122–123

handwashing, 129–130

Hayflick’s limit, 88–89, 96

heart attacks, 123, 155, 203, 204, 205, 208

heart diseases see cardiovascular diseases

heart health, 85, 155, 188, 203–208

heat shock, 60–61

height see growth and longevity; size and longevity

HeLa cells, 87–88, 89–90

Helicobacter pylori bacterium, 134–135, 153

hepatitis B and C, 153

hepcidin, 127

herbicides, 56

hereditary haemochromatosis (HH), 125–126

heredity, 26–30

heritability, 28–30

herpes viruses, 8, 142, 143, 144, 150–151, 153

HH (hereditary haemochromatosis), 125–126

high altitude, 60

HIIT (high-intensity interval training), 213

Hippocrates, 174

Hispanic life expectancies, 67

HIV, 141–142

Hoelzel, Frederick, 175–177

hormesis, 54–61, 75, 78, 80, 84, 122, 126, 174

exercise, 54, 201, 212, 213, 215

hormones, 38, 101, 109

angiotensin II hormone, 208–209

growth, 33, 64, 65, 66–67, 69–71, 157

IGF-1 hormone, 69–71, 74, 157, 196

Horvath, Steve, 104, 106

Human Papillomavirus (HPV), 89, 153–154

hunter-gatherer lifestyles, 192, 193, 207, 209–210

Hydra (jellyfish), 14

hyenas, 17

hygiene, 129–130, 131, 210

hypertension see blood pressure

IGF-1 hormone, 69–71, 74, 157, 196

Ikaria (Greece), 21, 25

immortality, 14, 42, 46–47, 90, 110

immune system, 86, 100, 113

ageing of, 38, 70, 98, 115, 160–161

and Alzheimer’s disease, 149

and cancer, 19, 154

and infections, 33, 127, 140–142, 143–144, 145, 156–157

and the microbiome, 136, 159–160

rejuvenation of, 75, 161–162

and transplants, 74–75, 114,

infections

and accelerated ageing, 142–146, 210

and the immune system, 33, 127, 140–142, 143–144, 145, 156–157

and peptic ulcers, 131–135

scientific understanding of, 129–130, 131

inflammation, 160, 201

influenza, 100, 142, 155

insects, 12

insulin, 113, 157, 196–200

intermittent fasting, 175–176

interval training, 213, 215

intestinal system, 39, 135–136, 137, 159

Iowa Women’s Health Study, 124

iron levels in blood, 122–127

irritable bowel syndrome, 217

Israel, 63, 65

Italy, 21, 25, 68, 165

Japan, 21–2, 23, 24, 25, 67–68

jellyfish, 13–14, 110

Jews, 63, 65

Johnson, Tom, 47

Kaposi’s sarcoma, 142

Kellogg, John Harvey, 185

Kelly, Scott and Mark, 93–94

killifish, 158–159

Kitava, Papa New Guinea, 198

Koch, Robert, 131

Kolletschka, Jakob, 129

Lacks, Henrietta, 87–88, 89, 92, 114

lactose, 193

lamin A protein, 41

Laron syndrome, 63–66, 68, 69

LDL cholesterol, 204–208, 210

Leach’s storm petrels, 104

leukaemia, 99

Levy, Carl, 130

life expectancy statistics, 24–25, 40, 67–68

lifespans

and the food chain, 16

and gene manipulation, 47

and heritability, 28–30

of humans, 16, 17, 21–25, 67–68

longest, 7–10, 67

of males and females, 17, 108–109

and parasites, 138–139

shortest, 158

and size, 15–17, 18, 66–71, 166–167

lifestyle and longevity, 22–23, 24–25, 29, 66, 165, 186

see also diet; exercise

Lindeberg, Staffan, 198

lions, 45–46

lipopolysaccharide (LPS), 159–160

Lister, Joseph, 131

liver, 39, 69, 153, 204, 205, 207

lobsters, 12–13

Loma Linda (California, USA), 21, 185–186

loneliness, 218–219

Longo, Valter, 177–178

LPS (lipopolysaccharide), 159–160

lungs, 39

lupus, 144

lysosomes, 77

malaria, 127

male life expectancy, 17

mammals, 8–9, 17, 18, 79, 106–107

Marshall, Barry, 132–134

marsupials, 12

maternal mortality rates, 128–130

mayflies, 12

Mayo Clinic, Minnesota, 96, 97

McCay, Clive, 118, 166–167, 176

measles, 140–141

meat-eaters, 185–186

Medawar, Peter, 42

medication see drugs

Mediterranean diet, 25

melanin, 80

melatonin, 101

menopause, 108–109

menstruation, 124

mental illness, 137

mesenchymal stem cells, 115–116

meta-analyses, 52–53

metabolism, 33, 179

metformin, 199–202

methylation, 106

mice, 19, 59, 66–67, 79, 93, 148, 149, 214

lifespan of, 15, 17, 18

microbes, 157

and Alzheimer’s disease, 149–151

and cancer, 153, 154

in the human body, 135–138

and the immune system, 140–142, 160–162

and iron, 126, 127

and peptic ulcers, 132–135

scientific understanding of, 130–131

microbiomes, 135–138, 158–159, 199

microorganisms, 126

see also microbes

milk, 193

mitochondria, 82–86, 155, 156

mitophagy, 84–85

monkeys, 3, 149, 169

mononucleosis, 144

mTOR protein complex, 73–74, 78, 174

multiple sclerosis, 144–145

multipotent cells, 114

multivitamins, 124

see also supplements, dietary

muscles, 84, 179, 194–195, 199, 201, 214–215

myostatin gene, 214

naked mole-rats, 17–19, 59, 79

NASA, 93–94

nature versus nurture, 26–30

Nicoya Peninsula (Costa Rica), 20–21, 22–23

Nobel Prize, 77, 109, 134, 153

nocebo effect, 218

Nordic culture, 60–61

nucleotides, 88–89

nutrition, 166–167, 181–182, 184–186

see also diet

nuts, 58, 85

oats, 208

obesity see weight and health

obstetrics, 128–130

octopuses, 12, 47

Ohsumi, Yoshinori, 77

Okinawa (Japan), 21–22, 23, 67–68

oldest animals and plants, 7–10

omega-3 fatty acids, 187–189, 193–194

onions, 99

opossums, 15–16, 42–43

organ transplants, 74–75, 112–113, 114

organelles, 77, 83

osteoarthritis, 217

osteoporosis, 115–116, 215

oxidative stress, 51–53, 55–56, 59, 157

oxygen levels, 60

oxytocin, 70

P. gingivalis bacterium, 151

Pacific salmon, 11

PAI-1 protein, 35–36

parabiosis, 118–119

parasites, 138–139

Parkinson’s disease, 123, 155

Parrish, Liz, 90–93

Pasteur, Louis, 130–131

pasteurisation, 131

PCSK9 gene, 205

pension fraud, 25

peptic ulcers, 131–135

peptidoglycan, 159–160

periodontitis, 151

pharmaceutical business, 133, 134

physical decline, 37–41, 43, 48, 78–79, 83–84, 115

see also age-related diseases

pineapple, 58

pituitary gland, 66–67, 69

placebo effect, 216–218

Planaria (flatworm), 14

plants, consumption of, 57–59, 99, 100, 185–186, 194, 208

plaques, 123, 144, 147, 155, 203–204

plasma, 119, 120

pluripotent cells, 109–111, 112, 113, 114

Plutarch, 174

poisons, 55, 58

polio, 88

pollution, 25

polyp stage, 14

polyphenols, 59, 85

pomegranates, 85

Ponce de León, Juan, 1–2

Porphyromonas gingivalis bacterium, 151

premature births, 146

preventative medicine, 102–103

see also anti-ageing drugs

processed foods, 66, 197, 209–210

procyanidin C1, 99

progeria, 41

programmed ageing, 44, 46–47

pro-oxidants, 55–56

proteasome system, 79

proteins

amyloid beta, 147–149, 150

bacteria and viruses, 145

and blood, 120, 121

lamin A, 41

mTOR complex, 73–74, 78, 174

PAI-1, 35–36

shock, 60–61

Yamanaka factors, 110

psychological factors for longevity, 216–219

psyllium, 208

puberty, 37

quasi-programmed ageing, 106

quercetin, 99–100

radiation, 51–52, 56–57, 60

rainforests, 15–16

randomised controlled trials, 186–187, 190, 207

rapamycin, 73–76, 78, 171, 172

raspberries, 85

rats, 167

red blood cells, 122–123, 126

red wine, 186

rejuvenation, 14–15, 75, 118–121, 161–162

see also stem cells

religious fasting, 174–175

respiratory diseases, 39

rhesus monkeys, 169

rheumatoid arthritis, 144

rodents, 15, 167–168, 168–169, 174

see also mice

Rous, Peyton, 152–153

Salk, Jonas, 88

salmon, 11, 188

Sardinia (Italy), 21, 25, 68

saunas, 60–61

science and the understanding of ageing, 3

seafood, 187–189

Second World War, 183

Segal, Nancy, 27

self-experimentation, 90–93, 134

semelparity, 11

Semmelweis, Ignaz, 128–130

senolytics, 99–100

sharks, 7–8

shock proteins, 60–61

Singapore, 24

size and longevity, 15–17, 18, 66–71, 166–167

see also growth and longevity

skin, 116, 137

sleep, 101

smoking, 25, 204

social connections and longevity, 218–219

soil, 73

South Korea, 24

South Pacific islands, 183–184, 185

space exploration, physical impact of, 93–94

Spain, 1, 24, 25, 62–63

spermidine, 81, 85, 136, 157, 171

spouses, similar life expectancy of, 29–30

starch, 192–193

steady-state exercise, 213, 215

stem cells, 107, 110, 112–116, 119, 162

sterilisation, 131

strawberries, 99

stress and resilience, 53–4, 57, 59–61, 132, 156

strokes, 39, 123, 203, 204, 205, 208

successful people, imitation of, 183–184

superorganisms, 9–10

supplements, dietary, 52–53, 124, 127, 162, 188–190, 208

surgery, placebo, 217

swimming, winter, 61, 84

Switzerland, 24

syphilis, 152

Taiwan, 56

tapeworms, 138–139

T-cells, 141, 161

telomerase, 89–90, 91, 92–93

telomeres, 88–94, 96, 104, 195

teratoma, 111

testicles, 3

tetanus, 73

theories of ageing, 44–48, 52

thymus, 161–162

tigers, 41–42

time-restricted eating, 175

toxins, 55–57, 58–59

tragedy of the commons, 44–46

transfusions, blood, 117–118, 120

transplants, 74–75, 112–113, 114

trees, 9–10, 53–54, 57

tribespeople, 1–2, 209–210

tumours, 154

Turritopsis (jellyfish), 13–14, 110

turtles, 10

twin studies, 26–28, 93–94

UK, 25

ulcers, peptic, 131–135

urine, 196–197

urolithin A, 85

UV radiation, 60, 80

vaccinations, 88, 131, 140, 141, 144, 154, 210

veganism and vegetarianism, 185–186, 194

Venezuela, 209–210

Venice, 165

vertebrates, 8, 158

viruses, 140–146

and Alzheimer’s disease, 150–151

and cancer, 152–155

CMV, 142–144, 145, 210

EBV, 144–145, 153

herpes, 8, 142, 143, 144, 150–151, 153

HPV, 89, 153–154

impact on the body, 100, 143, 155–157

vitamin D, 189–190

Voronoff, Serge, 3

Waford, Roy, 167–168

walnuts, 85

Warren, Robin, 131–134

wealth and longevity, 24, 184–186, 188, 190

weight and health, 23, 66, 178–179, 186, 190, 195, 197, 213

weightlifting, 214–215

Weindruch, Richard, 167–168

whales, 8–9

wheatgerm, 81

wildebeests, 45–46

wine, 186

World Health Organisation (WHO), 24, 127

worms, 14, 47, 196, 209

Yamanaka factors, 109–111

zinc, 162

zombie cells, 36, 95–101, 144, 157, 161

Zur Hausen, Harald, 153