2 The Refounding of the Young Turk Party Shortly Before and Shortly After the Armistice

1. Zhoghovurt, 23, 25 October and 7 November 1918; Zürcher, The Unionist, op. cit., p. 73. The new party was officially registered on 11 November (ibidem).

2. Ibidem.

3. Ibidem, pp. 68–9.

4. Ibidem, p. 74. Most of the provincial clubs were converted into offices of Tecceddüt Fırkası. Mahmut Celâl [Bayar] (1884–1987), the CUP’s responsible secretary in Smyrna and, later, a member of the Special Organization, was charged with establishing Tecceddüt in Smyrna before he joined the Kemalists in Anatolia. He ended his career as president of the republic (1950–1960).

5. Ibidem, p. 85.

6. Ibidem, p. 95.

7. Ibidem, pp. 76–7.

8. Ibidem, p. 77.

9. Ibidem, p. 78.

10. Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History, op. cit., p. 141.

11. Cf. supra, p. 69, n. 141.

12. Zürcher, The Unionist, op. cit., pp. 81–2, cites, as an example, the first cell created by Baha Said and Kara Vasıf in a tearoom located opposite the Mahmudpaşa Mosque, with Kel Ali [Çetinkaya], Major Yenibahçeli Şükrü ([Oğuz)], Major Çerkez Reşid, Refık İsmail, Major Sevkiyatçı Ali Rıza, and, according to certain sources, Colonel Galatalı Şevket (the commander of the Tenth Division of the Army of the Caucasus) and Edip Servet [Tör], a CUP member since 1906.

13. Ibidem, p. 82–3. Halide Edip [Adıvar] played an important role in this network that organized escapes until spring 1920 and her flight after the British occupation.

14. Ibidem, pp. 83–4.

15. Ibidem, p. 86. Çerkez Ethem (1885–1948), an officer of the Special Organization, collaborated with Rauf [Orbay]’s group in Bandırma, based on a farm in Salihli belonging to the former leader of the Special Organization, Kuşçubaşizâde Eşref, which served as a hiding place for weapons.

16. Ibidem, p. 103.

17. Ibidem, p. 104.

18. Ibidem, p. 105. This plan is described in detail in the memoirs of a Unionist, Şeref [Çavuşoğlu].

19. Harry Stuermer, Deux ans de guerre à Constantinople, Paris 1917, pp. 107–9.

20. Archives nationales (Paris), F12/7962, Turquie (secret) m.a. 44905, Financial, C.X.E.014722, report on the “economic conditions” in Turkey, Berne, 11 January 1918, provides indications about the system that was established to ensure these monopolies. Mehmed Cavid and Rahmi Bey, the vali of Smyrna, seem to have granted themselves the monopoly on exporting opium (ibidem, f° 2).

21. SHAT, Service Historique de la Marine, Service de renseignements de la Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 236. The record of these hearings was partially published in 1933 by the newspaper Vakit, under the title Harb Kabinelerının ısticvabi [Hearings of Members of the Ministry of War], and published in full, in Turkish written in Latin letters, in Osman Selim Kocahanoğlu, Ittihat-Terakki’nin sorgulanması ve Yargılanması (1918–1919), Istanbul 1998.

22. Zürcher, The Unionist, op. cit., p. 83.

23. Cf. supra, p. 200.

24. Archives nationales (Paris), F12/7962, Turquie (secret) m.a. 57805, Financial, C.X.E.051596, Geneva, 27 September 1918, London, 2 October 1918.

25. Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History, op. cit., pp. 138–40.

26. Zürcher, The Unionist, op. cit., p. 87.

27. Cf. supra, pp. 175, 180, 218, 219, 222, 289, etc.

28. Zürcher, The Unionist, op. cit., p. 98. He was dismissed only on the 18 February 1919 demand of General George Milne, the Commander-in-Chief of the British army of the Black Sea.

29. Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History, op. cit., p. 147.

30. Zürcher, The Unionist, op. cit., pp. 75, 89.

31. Ibidem, pp. 90–1. The Vilayâti Şarkiye Müdafaai Hukuku Milliye Cemiyeti was created on 4 December 1918; it included many former parliamentary deputies and prefects. Its official organ was the newspaper Hadisat (The Event), published by Süleyman Nazıf.

32. Ibidem, p. 91. Hoca Raïf [Dinç] (1874–1949), a Unionist parliamentary deputy from Erzerum, who returned from Constantinople in late December 1918, was particularly active in this regard.

33. La Renaissance, no. 80, 5 March 1919; La Renaissance, no. 142, 17 May 1919; La Renaissance, no. 266, 10 October 1919, announced the fall of Ferid’s government and its replacement by Ali Rıza Pasha. In an article entitled “La Dislocation de la Turquie,” published in the 22 October 1918 Matin, General Şerif Pasha describes the nomination of the İzzet cabinet as “a last disguise, to give the impression of a change.” The French secret service noted that “the Committee is supposed to have verbally threatened the Sultan, whom it held responsible for the legal prosecution of the party.” It also seems that the military commander of the city, Fayzi, was “dependent on the Committee” and threatened the prefect of police “when arrests of the members of the CUP” continued to be made: SHAT, Service Historique de la Marine, Service de renseignements de la Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 231, doc. no. 43, Constantinople, report of 21 December 1918.

34. Zürcher, The Unionist, op. cit., p. 75.

35. La Renaissance, no. 85, 11 March 1919.

36. La Renaissance, no. 57, 5 February 1919; SHAT, Service Historique de la Marine, Service de renseignements de la Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 231, doc. no. 200, Constantinople, report of 30 January 1919.

37. Ibidem.

38. La Renaissance, no. 59, 7 February 1919.

39. La Renaissance, no. 61, 8 February 1919.

40. La Renaissance, no. 69, 20 February 1919.

41. La Renaissance, no. 74, 26 February 1919.

42. La Renaissance, no. 79, 4 March 1919.

43. La Renaissance, no. 86, 12 March 1919.

44. La Renaissance, no. 94, 21 March 1919.

45. La Renaissance, no. 100, 28 March 1919.

46. La Renaissance, no. 104, 2 April 1919.

47. La Renaissance, no. 105, 3 April 1919.

48. La Renaissance, no. 118, 18 April 1919. The pace of arrests was slowed in May. Among the other Ittihadists arrested were Mustafa Abdülhalik, 27 October (La Renaissance, no. 281, 28 October 1919) and Dr. Ali Saib, 16 December (La Renaissance, no. 324, 17 December 1919).

49. Ahmed Bedevi Kuran, Osmanlı Iperatorlugunda Inkilâp Hareketleri ve Milli Mücadele [The Revolutionary Movements in the Ottoman Empire and the National Struggle], Istanbul 1959, p. 772.

50. M. Larcher, La guerre turque dans la Guerre mondiale, Paris, E. Chiron, 1926, pp. 540, 635, indicates that, out of a total of 2,850,000 Ottoman soldiers, 1,565,000 deserted in the course of the First World War. La Renaissance, no. 68 and 87, 18 February and 13 March 1919, indicates similar evaluation.

51. Zürcher, The Unionist, op. cit., p. 85.

52. Ibidem, p. 101.

53. La Renaissance, no. 12, 21 December 1918.

54. Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3425, 22 Kanunuvel.

55. Zürcher, The Unionist, op. cit., p. 80.

3 The Debates in the Ottoman Parliament in the Wake of the Mudros Armistice

1. The president of the Hürryet Ittilaf, Mustafa Sabri, declared, in the daily Sabah (reprinted in Nor Gyank, no. 107, 3 February 1919) that they were able to escape thanks to İzzet pacha.

2. Dadrian, Histoire du génocide arménien, op. cit., pp. 505–6.

3. Meclisi Mebusan Zabıt Ceridesi [Minutes of the Sessions of the Ottoman Parliament], 3th legislature, 5th session, vol. 1, 4 November 1334 [1918], pp. 95, 100, 109, in V. Dadrian, [The Treatment of the Armenian Genocide by the Ottoman Parliament and Its Historical Analysis], Watertown 1995, pp. 7–8 and n. 1.

4. Ibidem, pp. 100, 109.

5. Ibidem, pp. 12–13.

6. Haigazn K. Kazarian, an Ottoman academic who took part in the Battle of Gallipoli and later served as an officer in the English forces – notably from March 1920 on, on the General Staff of the British navy in Constantinople – reveals in his book. In his book, [The Genocidaire Turk], Beirut 1968 – Haigazn K. Kazarian, that the General Staff set up its offices on the premises of the Ministry of the Ottoman navy in Kasım Pasha (ibidem, p. 6). He worked under the direction of Intelligence Service officer, Ryan, on the archives of Evrak odasi, Kazarian had access to, and copied, certain of the documents preserved there, notably the version of the deportation law including the four paragraphs that were never made public, in addition to the four published in the version of the law that was signed by Sultan Reşad and Grand Vizier Said Halim and published in the Takvim-ı Vakayi (ibidem, pp. 179–80).

7. Meclisi Mebusan Zabıt Ceridesi [Record of the Sessions of the Ottoman Parliament], 3th legislature, 5th session, vol. 1, 18 November 1334 [1918], pp. 143–61, 109, in V. Dadrian, The Treatment of the Armenian Genocide, op. cit., pp. 56–7.

8. Ibidem, note 17. V. Dadrian provides precise information about Sâmi’s criminal activities, and also about his abduction of young girls whom he generously offered to his colleagues in Constantinople. Indicted by the Ottoman court-martial, Sâmi was arrested and then released after pretending to be insane; he was later apprehended by the British and exiled to Malta while waiting to be tried. For more details, cf. supra, pp. 346–8.

9. Meclisi Mebusan Zabıt Ceridesi [Minutes of the Sessions of the Ottoman Parliament], 3th legislature, 5th session, vol. 1, 9 December 1334 [1918], pp. 257–8, 109, in V. Dadrian, The Treatment of the Armenian Genocide, op. cit., pp. 56–7.

10. Ibidem, 11 December 1334 [1918], pp. 286–301, in Dadrian, op. cit., pp. 61–74.

11. Ibidem, pp. 300–1, in Dadrian, op. cit., pp. 70–1.

12. Ibidem, 12 December 1334 [1918], pp. 305–17, in Dadrian, op. cit., pp. 74–86.

13. Ibidem, p. 322, in Dadrian, op. cit., p. 86.

14. SHAT, Service Historique de la Marine, Service de renseignements de la Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 236. These hearings saw only partial publication in 1933 in the newspaper Vakıt, under the title Harb Kabinelerının Isticvabi (Interrogations of the members of the War Ministry), and were published in full in Latin letters in Osman Selim Kocahanoğlu, İttihat-Terakki’nin Sorgulanması ve Yargılanması (1918–1919), Istanbul 1998.

15. SHAT, SHM, S.R. Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 236, doc. no. 1651 B-9, Constantinople, 24 January 1920, lieutenant de vaisseau Goybet: p. 3, annexe 14; İttihat-Terakki’nin Sorgulanması ve Yargılanması (1918–1919), op. cit., pp. 293–382, also details the makeup of the commission, headed by Abdüllah Azmi, and the dates of the hearings.

16. Ibidem, p. 7.

17. SHM, S.R. Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 236, doc. no. 1654 B-9, Constantinople, 26 January 1920, lieutenant de vaisseau Goybet, annexe 15, p. 10.

18. Ibidem, p. 11.

19. Ibidem, p. 12.

20. SHAT, SHM, S.R. Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 236, doc. no. 1687 B-9, Constantinople, 31 January 1920, lieutenant de vaisseau Goybet, annexe 17, p. 17.

21. Ibidem, doc. no. 1724 B-9, Constantinople, 7 February 1920, L. Feuillet, annexe 19, examination of Halil Bey, pp. 4, 6; İttihat-Terakki’nin Sorgulanması ve Yargılanması (1918–1919), op. cit., pp. 265–91.

22. Ibidem, p. 22.

23. SHAT, SHM, S.R. Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 236, doc. no. 1805 B-9, Constantinople, 26 February 1920, L. Feuillet, annexe 20, examination of Said Halim, p. 18; İttihat-Terakki’nin Sorgulanması ve Yargılanması (1918–1919), op. cit., pp. 55–97.

24. Ibidem, p. 19.

25. Ibidem, p. 20.

26. Ibidem, pp. 21–2.

27. Ibidem, pp. 23–4.

28. Ibidem, pp. 25–6.

29. Ibidem, pp. 29–30.

30. Kazarian, op. cit., p. 34. A former mutesarif of Serez, where he took part in the massacre of the Macedonians in 1912, Şükrü was implicated in the murder of journalists and liberal politicians.

31. SHAT, SHM, S.R. Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 236, doc. no. 1862 B-9, Constantinople, 19 March 1920, L. Feuillet, annexe 20, examination of Ahmed Şükrü Bey, pp. 21–4; İttihat-Terakki’nin Sorgulanması ve Yargılanması (1918–1919), op. cit., pp. 171–207.

32. Ibidem, pp. 25, 36.

33. SHAT, SHM, S.R. Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 236, doc. no. 1968 B-9, Constantinople, 15 April 1920, transl. L. Feuillet, examination of Ahmed Nesimi Bey in front of the Fifth Commission of the Ottoman parliament, pp. 1–2, 10; İttihat-Terakki’nin Sorgulanması ve Yargılanması (1918–1919), op. cit., pp. 209–51.

34. Ibidem, pp. 11–12.

35. Ibidem, pp. 13–18, 43.

36. SHAT, SHM, S.R. Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 236, doc. no. 2054 B-9, Constantinople, 3 May 1920, L. Feuillet, examination of İbrahim Bey, pp. 12, 27–8; İttihat-Terakki’nin Sorgulanması ve Yargılanması (1918–1919), op. cit., pp. 133–69.

37. Ibidem, pp. 27–41.

38. SHAT, SHM, S.R. Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 236, doc. no. 2000 B-9, Constantinople, 21 April 1920, transl. L. Feuillet, examination of the head of State Security and second in command at the Ministry of the Interior, İsmail Canbolat Bey, pp. 7–8; İttihat-Terakki’nin Sorgulanması ve Yargılanması (1918–1919), op. cit., pp. 417–36. It was a department of this Directorate for Emigrés, the Sub-Directorate for Deportees based in Aleppo, which ran the 25 concentration camps in Syria where several hundred thousand Armenians lost their lives.

39. Krieger, Yozgat, op. cit., p. 51.

40. Minute of the session: La Renaissance, no. 13, 22 December 1918, p. 1.

4 The Mazhar Governmental Commission of Inquiry and the Creation of Courts Martial

1. Taner Akçam, Insan Haklari ve Ermeni Sorunu, Ankara 1999, pp. 445–6, indicates in detail how the Commission of Inquiry was formed; also serving on it were a judge on the Final Court of Appeal, Avramakis; Artin Mosdichian, a judge on the Istanbul Court of Appeal; and two civil inspectors, Husni and Emin Bey: Krieger, Yozgat, op. cit., p. 305.

2. V. Dadrian, Histoire du génocide arménien, op. cit., p. 507.

3. Krieger, Yozgat, op. cit., p. 33, cites the Turkish newspapers: Adalet, Akçam, Alemdar, Sabah, Peyam, Tasviri Efkâr, Vakıt, Yeni Gün, Zaman; the Armenian newspapers: Aravod, Ariamard, Artsakank, Azadamard, Darakir, Giligia, Horizon, Hay Lur, Jagadamard, Zhamanag, Nor Giank, Nor Or, Puzantion, Veradznunt, Verchin Lur; the French newspapers: Le Bosphore, Le Moniteur Oriental, La Renaissance, Le Spectateur d’Orient, L’Officiel, which reported on the various sessions of the trials.

4. Cf. supra, pp. 286–7.

5. The indictment, drawn up on 12 April 1919, was read out before the court-martial on 27 April 1919, as were a whole series of letters and documents on which the accusation was based: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3540, 5 May 1919, p. 6.

6. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 152 and 281 (in English), doc. no. 14/1, file of Midhat Şükrü Bey.

7. Indictment and various documents in support of the accusation: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3540, 5 May 1919, p. 6.

8. Ibidem, extract from General Vehib’s written deposition (p. 17), which also mentions a large number of “directives, circulars, encrypted telegrams sent by the Interior Ministry and the Ministry of War to the valis of the provinces and army commanders with a view to massacring the Armenians rapidly and without exception.” Vehib’s deposition also reveals that Kâmil Effendi, a parliamentary deputy from Istanbul and the chairman of the Second Parliamentary Sub-Commission, told Ikdam of the disappearance of the files pertaining to the Fifth Commission’s inquiry that had been deposed in the parliament’s archives after parliament was dissolved. At the request of Mustafa Asim, the parliament’s general secretary turned these archives over to the government; according to information gathered by the Minster of War and the court-martial, the stolen documents were those attached to the minutes of the interrogations: Zhoghovurti Tsayn, no. 456, 6 April 1920.

9. Nor Giank, no. 107, 3 February 1919.

10. La Renaissance, no. 7, 15 December 1918, p. 1, and Ariamard, 18 December 1918, p. 2.

11. Cf. supra, pp. 286–7.

12. Fifth session of the Unionists’ trial, 12 May 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3554, 21 May 1919, pp. 67–9. The bureau’s telegram, signed by Aziz, Atıf, Nâzım, and Halil, is dated 13 November 1914. The judge presiding at the court had another telegram read out and then asked Colonel Cevad whether he had been the one who had written “to be destroyed” in the margins of this telegram, and whether he had received instructions to do so (ibidem, p. 68).

13. Cf. supra, pp. 184–6.

14. Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3554, 21 May 1919, pp. 67–8. The marginal note in one of the telegrams reads “Teşkilât-i Mahsusa. The rules state that one must send the originals of the telegrams. The 8th of the present month [November 1914]. Cevad.”

15. Krieger, Yozgat, op. cit., p. 33.

16. Public Record Office, FO 371/4174, no. 102551, from the high commissioner in Constantinople, Arthur Calthorpe, to Lord Curzon, Constantinople, 27 June 1919, concerning official documents in the possession of the mutesarif of Ayntab seized by the British military authorities on 4 February 1919. A 12 May 1919 telegram sent by the delegate in Trebizond to the high commissioner in Constantinople, M. Defrance (CADN, Trébizonde, file 77, no. 38), indicates that, according to the Syrian doctor Reshid Kavak Bey, part of the archives of the Committee of Union and Progress were transported to Nakhichevan the previous December by way of Erzerum and Trebizond and were still to be found in that city, in the house of someone named Jaffar Bey.

17. Dadrian, Histoire du génocide arménien, op. cit., p. 507.

18. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 186, chiffred telegram no. 197, from the secretary of the vilayet of Konya to the acting vali, transmitted to the Ministry of Interior, 27 March 1335 (1919) or 24 Cemazi ul-Akher 1337.

19. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 247–8, letter from the Ministry of Interior to the president of the courtmartial, 27 July 1919, accompanying the decrypted version of a telegram from Dr. Reşid to İsmail Hakkı, vali of Adana, 17 May 1915.

20. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 183–5, letter confirming reception of documents transmitted by the authorities in Konya, certified on 27 March 1919 by the interior minister.

21. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 146, Sublime Porte, Ministry of Interior, special bureau of the direction General Security, letter from Cemal Bey to the president of the court-martial, 30 Cemazi ul-Akhr 1337 (2 April 1335 [1919]).

22. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 247–8, letter from the Ministry of Interior to the president of the courtmartial, 27 July 1919, accompanying the decrypted version of a telegram from Dr Reşid to İsmail Hakkı, vali of Adana, 17 May 1915.

23. La Renaissance, no. 5, 13 December 1918. The two civilian magistrates were Şevket Bey and Artin Mosdichian, both from the Appeals Court. Two other members were to be designated by the military authorities (La Renaissance, no. 8, 16 December 1918).

24. Dadrian, Histoire du génocide arménien, op. cit., pp. 508–9, cites the imperial decrees published in Takvim-ı Vakayi officially creating the courts martial.

25. La Renaissance, no. 34, 13 January 1919.

26. La Renaissance, no. 82, 7 March 1919.

27. V. Dadrian refers to two court sessions in March 1919: 1) that of 8 March, at which the presiding judge was Fevzi Pasha (Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3493); 2) that of 19 March, at which the presiding judge was Nâzım Pasha (Journal d’Orient, 23 April 1919; Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3503).

28. Krieger, op. cit., pp. 309–10.

29. La Renaissance, no. 113, 12 April 1919, p. 1.

30. La Renaissance, no. 43, 26 January 1919. This founding member of the CUP committed suicide some ten days later: Kieser, “Dr Mehmed Reshid (1873–1919),” art. cit., p. 265.

31. La Renaissance, no. 286, 4 November 1919.

32. La Renaissance, no. 140, 141 and 142, 15, 16 and 17 May 1919.

33. La Renaissance, no. 208, 2 August 1919, from Turkçe Stambul.

34. La Renaissance, no. 281, 28 October 1919.

35. La Renaissance, no. 307, 27 November 1919.

36. La Renaissance, no. 313, 4 December 1919.

37. La Renaissance, no. 318, 10 December 1919.

38. Extract from General Vehib’s written deposition, 5 December 1918: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3540, 5 May 1919, p. 7, col. 2 and 12 pp. full written deposition: APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 171–82.

39. La Renaissance, no. 310, 30 November 1919.

40. La Renaissance, no. 313, 4 December 1919.

41. La Renaissance, no. 366, 7 February 1920.

42. La Renaissance, no. 323, 16 December 1919.

43. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 662–6, file no. 1, June 1919 letter from Setrag Karageuzian about Trebizond and the investigations conducted there after the armistice. CADN, Consulat de Trébizonde, file 77, telegram no. 48 from the high commissioner delegate in Trebizond to the high commissioner in Constantinople, M. Defrance, 1 June 1919, referring to a meeting with Karageuzian, who complained “confidentially of the problems he had encountered on his mission and his intention to resign from his post.”

44. Ibidem.

5 The Armenian Survivors in their Places of “Relegation” in the Last Days of the War

1. Bibl. Nubar, AGBU Archives, correspondence, vol. 23, letter from the Central Committee to the Colonel Deeds, chief of the Intelligence Department, War Office, 5 November 1917, f° 225.

2. Ibidem, vol. 23, letter from the Central Committee to the Colonel Brémond, 16 November 1917, f° 272.

3. Ibidem, vol. 23, letter from the Central Committee to chief of the Intelligence Department in Cairo, 16 November 1917, f° 276.

4. Ibidem, vol. 24, letter from the Central Committee to chief of the Intelligence Department in Cairo, 31 December 1917, f° 139.

5. Ibidem, vol. 26, letter from the Central Committee to Boghos Nubar, 22 April 1918, f° 48.

6. “900 déportés libérés à leur tour à Tafile (Sinai),” Miutiun, January-February 1918, no. 61, p. 5.

7. Bibl. Nubar, AGBU Archives, correspondence, vol. 26, f° 91; SHAT, Service Historique de la Marine, Service de renseignements de la Marine, sous-série Q87, report by Guassen, dated Jerusalem, 19 January 1919, confirms, based on information communicated by Ar. Mindikian, that tensions were running high in this region and that the harems contained many girls and young women whom the Armenian delegates were unable to recover.

8. La Renaissance, no. 46, 25 January 1919.

9. Ibidem.

10. Zaven Der Yeghiayan, Memories, op. cit., p. 179.

11. Yervant Odian, The Cursed Years, 1914–1919, op. cit., no. 124, 134.

12. Ibidem, no. 137–40.

13. Ibidem, no. 145–7.

14. Ibidem, no. 149.

15. Zaven Der Yeghiayan, Memories, op. cit., pp. 242–3.

16. Ibidem, p. 247. Bibl. Nubar, Archives of the DNA, 1–15, letter from bishop M. Seropian to Boghos Nubar, Mosul, 6 January 1919, mentions 100 prostitutes.

17. Zaven Der Yeghiayan, Memories, op. cit., pp. 249–50, 269, 273. Father Barsegh Torosian, of Arslanbeg, and Father Ghevont, of Geyve, helped gather up these survivors and provide them with food and lodging.

18. Ibidem, p. 254. The patriarch put together a makeshift orphanage in a house in Mosul rented on 10 January 1919 (ibidem, p. 255).

19. Ibidem, p. 256.

20. Ibidem, p. 270.

21. Golnazarian-Nichanian, Les Arméniens d’Azerbaïdjan, thesis cit., pp. 198–9.

22. A.M.G., 16 N 3186: A. Beylerian, Les grandes Puissances, op. cit., p. 670.

23. Report to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 26 December 1918: National Archives of Armenia, fonds 276, vol. 1, file 79, no. 1–7: Golnazarian-Nichanian, Les Arméniens d’Azerbaïdjan, thesis cit., p. 200.

24. National Archives of Armenia, fonds 57, vol. 5, liasse 198, ff. 1a–2a: ibidem, pp. 202–3.

25. AGBU’s Central Archives (Cairo), Baghdad, 1910–1937, CIII-7, letter from the Baghdad Committee to the headquarters of Cairo, 18 June 1920.

26. Zaven Der Yeghiayan, Memories, op. cit., p. 257.

27. Ibidem, p. 262.

28. Ibidem, pp. 266–8.

29. La Renaissance, no. 291, 8 November 1919.

30. BNu/Fonds A. Andonian, P.J.1/3, file 26, Kayseri, report of Yervant Der Mardirosian, a 23-year-old native of Talas who taught in Talas’s American College, f° 46.

31. Ibidem, f° 46v°.

32. Yervant Odian, The Cursed Years, 1914–1919, op. cit., no. 153, 159 and 164.

33. Ibidem, no. 167.

34. Ibidem, no. 170–1; Zhamanag, 15 October 1918.

35. La Renaissance, no. 47, 26 January 1919.

36. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 808–9, exactions committed in the province since the armistice. Among the victims were the Dr. Sisak, Aida Boyajian, Aghavni and Hagop Kirkirian, etc. In Zara 140 survivors and 325 in the sancak of Şabinkarahisar: APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 485–7, statistics for the vilayet of Sıvas.

37. Ibidem.

38. Zürcher, The Unionist, op. cit., p. 69.

39. Ibidem, p. 73. The distinction between the Kemalist movement and the CUP made by official Turkish historiography would seem to be artificial as far as the period of the Congress of Sıvas is concerned (ibidem, pp. 68–9).

40. Cf. n. 36.

41. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 810.

42. Ibidem. According to the Patriarchate’s report, 2,797 people were condemned and executed; 2,040 were Armenians and 757 were Greeks.

43. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 811, “La situation des chrétiens dans le vilayet de Trébizonde depuis l’Armistice de Moudros [The Christians’ Situation in the Vilayet of Trebizond since the Mudros Armistice].”

44. CADN, Consulat de Trébizonde, file 77, telegram no. 6 from the high commissioner delegate in Trebizond to the high commissioner in Constantinople, M. Defrance, 13 January 1919.

45. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 815–29.

46. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 101, report, Trebizond, 25 June 1919.

47. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 914, report on the situation in Ismit, 30 September 1920 (in arm.)

48. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 282–90, report on the pillaging and exactions in 1919–1921 in the region of Ismit.

49. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 851–6, report on the situation in the vilayet of Bursa in 1919; on the exactions in Çengiler, cf. ibidem, 856.

50. Cf. supra, p. 558, on the massacres of the males held in Orhaneli in the Atranos regions.

51. SHAT, Service Historique de la Marine, Service de Renseignements de la Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 231, doc. no. 1992, report by lieutenant Rollin, Constantinople, 15 April 1919, pp. 2–3.

52. Ibidem, p. 4.

53. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 873, file no. 144, Bursa.

54. CADN, Consulat de Trébizonde, file 66, telegram no. 6 from the high commissioner delegate in Trebizond to the high commissioner in Constantinople, M. Defrance, June 1919.

55. CADN, Consulat de Trébizonde, file 77, report no. 1 from the agent Kevork Aharonian to the high commissioner delegate in Trebizond, 1 May 1919.

56. Ibidem, p. 3.

57. CADN, Consulat de Trébizonde, file 76, report from the agent Kevork Aharonian to the high commissioner delegate in Trebizond, 15 August 1919.The agent states that Hulusi had been sent to Erzerum in order to be tried before the court-martial, adding that he thinks that there are people who are going to help him “flee.”

58. Cf. supra, p. 291, n. 27.

59. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 367, list of the regions where the Armenians and the Greeks was repatriate.

60. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 543–4, Arméniens présents dans l’Empire ottoman lors du traité de Sèvres.

61. Vahé Tachjian, La France en Cilicie et en Haute-Mésopotamie (1919–1933), Paris 2004, pp. 36–44.

62. Ibidem, pp. 45–53.

63. Julien Zarifian, Le sancak de Sis/Kozan, Master thesis, University Paris VIII 2003.

64. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 543, Tableau des exactions commises contre la population arménienne depuis l’armistice.

65. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 375, telegram from Gibbons to the Monitor of Boston, Trebizond, 24 May 1920. On the deportations of Greeks in the vilayet of Sıvas and the exactions to which they were subjected after the war, cf. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 793.

66. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 368. An Armenian-Greek committee, created by the inter-allied commission, met continuously with representatives of the Patriarchates and the American Near East Relief from 26 February 1919 to spring 1922 in order to oversee the rehabilitation of the survivors, recover people who had been Islamicized, and so on: FO 371–3658, first session, 26 February 1919.

67. La Renaissance, no. 50, 29 January 1919.

68. Ibidem.

69. Spectateur d’Orient, no. 116, 29 April 1919, “Le procès de l’Union et Progrès.”

70. La Renaissance, no. 43, 22 January 1919.

71. Public Record Office, FO 371/4174, no. 118377, letter from the Admiral Calthorpe to Lord Curzon, 1 August 1919.

72. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 900–2, report on the activities of the Informations Bureau for the years 1919–1920, by Garabed Nurian, member of the Politic Council, June 1920.

73. Zaven Der Yeghiyan, Memories, op. cit., pp. 301–2, 304.

74. Ibidem, p. 277; La Renaissance, no. 71, 22 February 1919.

75. The bureau’s reports were often published in the French-language daily La Renaissance, which was published from December 1918 to spring 1920 under the direction of Dikran Chayan, a former member of the Council of State, and Garabed Nurian, with the assistance of Dr. Topjian. Zaven points out that the Patriarchate financed publication of this journal: Zaven Der Yeghiyan, Memories, op. cit., pp. 302–3.

76. Ibidem, p. 304.

77. Ibidem, p. 305.

78. Ibidem, p. 307.

79. Ibidem, p. 308.

80. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 578, report by the Armenian Patriarchat of Constantinople, 27 December 1918, report on Turks responsibles for the Armenian atrocities.

81. Ibidem.

82. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 114–25, Primary list of the chief instigators and perpetrators of the Armenian massacres and deportations of the Years of the Great War (1914–1918).

83. Ibidem, 117–19.

84. Ibidem, 124.

85. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 25–34, Second report on Turks responsibles for the Armenian atrocities of the Bureau of Information: the question of Turkish witnesses (Part 1).

86. Cf. supra, pp. 737–8.

87. Cf. supra, p. 359, n. 24 (report of 20 December 1915 on Dyarbekir), p. 417, n. 353 (report of 9 December on Harput) and p. 417, n. 353.

88. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 25–34, Second report on Turks responsibles.

89. Ibidem.

90. Ibidem. According to the same report, Asim’s secretary, someone named Şevfik Bey provided valuable information not only on his own activities, but also on those of the valis Cevdet Bey in Adana and Abdülhalik in Aleppo, as well as on these mutesarifs and military commanders in these vilayets.

91. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 104–5, Memorandum from Dr. A. Nakashian to the colonel Ballard, member of the British Intelligence Service, Galata, July 1920.

92. Ibidem.

93. Zaven Der Yeghiayan, Memories, op. cit., pp. 299–300.

94. Ibidem, pp. 313–14.

95. Cf. supra, p. 204. The patriarch was aided here by the Armenian-Greek committee created by the inter-allied commission, in which these questions were settled on an ad hoc basis in the course of the 85 coordinating meetings (held from 19 February 1919 to 29 March 1922) attended by representatives of the Greek and Armenian Patriarchates and American Near East Relief: FO 371/ 3658, 371/4195, 371/4196, 371/4197, 371/5087, 371/5213, 371/5214, 371/6548, 371/6549, 371–7879.

96. Zaven Der Yeghiayan, Memories, op. cit., p. 321.

97. Ibidem; La Renaissance, no. 140–141–142, 15, 16 and 18 May 1919.

98. Kévorkian et Paboudjian, Les Arméniens dans l’Empire ottoman, op. cit., p. 60.

99. Zaven Der Yeghiayan, Memories, op. cit., p. 312. Those present: Stepan Karayan, le Dr. Krikor Tavitian, Tavit Der Movsesian, Hayg Khojasarian, Nerses Ohanian, Khachig Sevajian, etc.

100. Ibidem, pp. 321–22.

101. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 126.

102. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 181–6, no. 193, letter from the Patriarchate to the Ministry of Justice, 3 January 1920, about the law of “abandoned property.”

103. Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3747, 12/25 January 1920, p. 6, col. 1 and 2.

104. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 192, “Movable property.”

105. La Renaissance, no. 382, 26 February 1920, and no. 388, 4 March 1920. La Renaissance, no. 355, 25 January 1920, announces the promulgation of the new law about the assets of massacre victims. According to the paper, the law made the despoliation legal: “no one can accept,” we read there, “the idea that the Turkish state should inherit all the assets of those massacred.”

106. Such was, in any case, the patriarch’s interpretation: Zaven Der Yeghiayan, Memories, op. cit., p. 321; Traité de paix entre les Puissances alliées et associées et la Turquie du 10 août 1920 (Sèvres), texte français, article 288, pp. 107–8.

107. SHAT, Service Historique de la Marine, Service de Renseignements de la Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 231, doc. no. 302, Constantinople, 13 February 1919; the Armenian-Greek committee and representatives of the Greek and Armenian Patriarchs and American Near East Relief coordinated operations; the British High Commissariat enforced their decisions: FO 371/ 3658, 371/4195, 371/4196, 371/4197, 371/5087, 371/5213, 371/5214, 371/6548, 371/6549, 371–7879.

108. The materials cited in the following thirteen notes were kindly put at our disposal by Vahe Tachjian. Bibl. Nubar, Archives of AGBU, correspondance du siège, vol. 26, letter from the Central Committee to the director of the Intelligence Department, 25 April 1918, ff. 61–3.

109. Bibl. Nubar, Archives of the DNA 1–16, correspondance April-May 1919, memoir from the UNA of Marseille to Boghos Nubar, 28 April 1919.

110. Bibl. Nubar, Archives of AGBU, correspondence, vol. 26, letter from the Central Committee to the director of the Intelligence Department, 25 April 1918, ff. 163–4.

111. Levon Yotneghperian, Diary (unpublished), pp. 26–30; Sahagian, The Urfa, op. cit., pp. 1166–77.

112. Yotneghperian, op. cit., pp. 40–1.

113. Ibidem, pp. 43–8.

114. Archives Bibl. Nubar, Armenian Orphans, “Herian file: extract of newspapers.”

115. Dzovinar Kévonian, Réfugiés et diplomatie humanitaire: les acteurs européens et la scène proche-orientale pendant l’entre-deux-guerres, Doctoral thesis, University of Paris I, 1998, p. 106.

116. Archives Bibl. Nubar, Armenian Orphans, “Herian file: extract of newspapers.” R. Herian is dead in 1921, in Alexandria.

117. Kévonian, op. cit., pp. 105–6.

118. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 543–4, “Arméniens présents dans l’Empire ottoman lors du traité de Sèvres.”

119. Raymond Kévorkian & Vahé Tachjian, Un siècle d’histoire de l’Union générale arménienne de bienfaisance, I, Paris 2006, pp. 64–89.

120. James L. Barton, Story of Near East Relief (1915–1930), New York 1930.

121. Kévorkian & Tachjian, Un siècle d’histoire, op. cit., pp. 60–8.

122. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 181–6, no. 193, letter from the Patriarchat to the Ministry of Justice, 3 January 1920.

123. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 543–4, “Arméniens présents dans l’Empire ottoman lors du traité de Sèvres.”

124. Zaven Der Yeghiayan, Memories, op. cit., pp. 279–80; Azkayin Khnamadarutiun, [General Report, 1 May 31-October 1919], Constantinople 1920, p. 3.

125. Zaven Der Yeghiayan, Memories, op. cit., p. 283; Barton, Story of Near East Relief (1915–1930), op. cit., pp. 207–14. The Armenian-Greek committee created by the inter-allied commission dealt with these questions together with representatives of the High Commissioners in the course of the 85 coordinating meetings (which took place from 19 February 1919 to 29 March 1922) that the representatives of the Greek and Armenian Patriarchates and American Near East Relief held with the Allies, who intervened wherever they were in a position to do so: FO 371/3658, 371/4195, 371/4196, 371/4197, 371/5087, 371/5213, 371/5214, 371/6548, 371/6549, 371–7879.

126. Zaven Der Yeghiayan, Memories, op. cit., p. 284.

127. SHAT, Service Historique de la Marine, Service de Renseignements de la Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 231, doc. no. 256, Constantinople, letter, 6 February 1919, and “Liste des orphelins qui se trouvent chez les Turcs.”

128. Zaven Der Yeghiayan, Memories, op. cit., p. 287.

129. Ibidem, p. 289. Chakrian’s team also concerned itself with obtaining the prisoners’ release, recovering churches’ “confiscated” property, and finding the Young Turk cadres’ caches. La Renaissance, no. 42, 19 January 1919, p. 2, notes that, in Kayseri, five hundred young female converts “had not yet been given back.”

130. Zaven Der Yeghiayan, Memories, op. cit., p. 291.

131. Ibidem, pp. 292–8. The “maison neutre” was closed in August 1922 by the British high commissioner.

132. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 260, transl. of an article from Ileri, 3 June 1919, “Les enfants battus au Patriarcat.”

133. Ibidem.

134. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 266, transl. of an article from Ileri, 3 June 1919, “Pauvre Djemile Hanoum.”

135. Cf. supra, pp. 716, 718.

136. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 259–260–261, transl. of an article from Hadisat, no. 158, 5 June 1919.

137. Ibidem.

138. Ibidem.

139. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 261, “Réponse des journaux arméniens aux allégations des journaux turcs [The Armenian Newspapers’ Response to the Allegations of the Turkish Newspapers].”

6 The Great Powers and the Question of “Crimes Against Humanity”

1. AMAE, Guerre 1914–1918, Turquie, 887. I. Arménie (26 May 1915); FO 371/ 2488/51010 (28 May 1915); A.A. Türkey 183/37, A17667; Foreign Relations of the United States, 1915 Supp., p. 981 (1928); U.S. National Archives, RG 59, p. 867. 4016/67 (28 May): Dadrian, Histoire du génocide arménien, op. cit., p. 356, n. 26. Eric Avebury and Ara Sarafian (ed.), British Parliamentary Debates on the Armenian Genocide, 1915–1918, Princeton & London 2003, Annexe I, pp. 59–60, notes that the Russian version of the declaration speaks of “crimes against Christianity and civilization.”

2. A. Nasibian, Britain and the Armenian Question from 1915 to 1923, London 1984, pp. 124–9.

3. PRO, FO 371/4141, file 71, no. 6781, letter from to Calthorpe to Foreign Office, 13 January 1919, recommending extradition procedures for Enver, Talât “and others.”

4. PRO, FO 371/4174, file 1270, ff. 251–62, describes the organization of the activities of the Armenian-Greek committee that worked alongside the British High Commission.

5. AMAE, Série Archives du Bureau français de la SDN (1920–1940), vol. 10, Commission de la Société Des Nations; vol. 11, Conférence des préliminaires de Paix. This copious documentation has been studied by Céline Mouradian, Le traitement juridique et politique des crimes commis contre les minorités ottomanes de l’Armistice de Moudros jusqu’à la préparation du traité de Sèvres, Master thesis, University Paris VII 2003.

6. AMAE, Série Conférence de la Paix, Sous-Série Recueil des actes (1918–1932), vol. 40, Commission des Responsabilités des auteurs de la guerre et Sanctions, Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1922.

7. Ibidem, pp. 5–6.

8. Ibidem. Albert de Lapradelle, professor of international public law, and Lieutenant Colonel O. M. Biggar were put at the disposition of this committee.

9. Ibidem, p. 324.

10. Ibidem, Procès-Verbal no. 2, session of 7 February 1919, p. 29. N. Politis spells out that these are “acts contrary to what might be called human law or moral law.”

11. Ibidem, Rapport présenté par la Troisième sous-commission de la Commission des Responsabilités, 5 March 1919, pp. 75–6.

12. Ibidem, p. 78.

13. Ibidem, p. 80.

14. Ibidem, pp. 431–55.

15. Ibidem, pp. 511–14.

16. Ibidem, pp. 162–79.

17. Ibidem, p. 173.

18. Ibidem, pp. 176–7.

19. Ibidem, pp. 178–9.

20. Ibidem, pp. 178–9.

21. Paul Mantoux, Les délibérations du Conseil des Quatre (24 March- 28 June 1919), I, Paris 1955.

22. Ibidem, p. 124.

23. Ibidem, pp. 184–5.

24. Ibidem, II, p. 445–6.

25. Ibidem, II, p. 519.

26. Ibidem, II, p. 517.

27. FO 371/5104, E 1477, propositions unanimously adopted by the Committee for the Protection of Minorities in Turkey, pp. 6–16. The members of the committee designated by the League of Nations were: Great Britain, R. Vansittart; United States, Forbes Adam; France, M. Kammerer, Italie, Colonel Castoldi; Japon, I. Yoshida (ibidem, p. 6) [French version: FO 371/5105, pp. 135–41].

28. Ibidem, p. 7.

29. Ibidem, pp. 10–11.

30. Ibidem, pp. 11–15.

31. Ibidem, p. 16. FO 371/5107, E 2409, 26 March 1920: the draft treaty on the protection of minorities in Armenia, in English and French versions (13 pp. and 12 articles) was probably meant to show that these principles would apply everywhere.

32. FO 371/5105, E 2109, telegram no. 241, from the Admiral de Robeck to the Foreign Office, 17 March 1920, relatif to the law of “abandoned property,” with the note to the Sublime Porte, 2 December 1919.

33. FO 371/5105, f° 21.

34. FO 371/5105, E 2109, Cambon to Lloyd George, 11 March 1920.

35. FO 371/5109, pp. 116 and sqq., “Observations présentées par la Délégation ottomane à la Conférence de la Paix,” 25 June 1920.

36. FO 371/5110, E 8687, response from the president of the Peace Conference, Lloyd George, to the “Observations présentées par la délégation ottomane,” Spa, 16 July 1920, pp. 128–30.

37. The Allies consequently introduced most of the recommendations of the Committee on Reparations and of the London Conference in the Peace Treaty of 10 August 1920 between the Allied and Associated Powers and Turkey (the Treaty of Sèvres), French version, articles 226–30, pp. 83–4.

38. La Renaissance, no. 197, 20 July 1919, text of the memorandum ready by Grand Vizier Damad Ferid Pasha before the Peace Conference.

39. FO 371/4174, no. 118377, letter from Arthur Calthorpe to Lord Curzon, 1 August 1919, in which the high commissioner reviews the history of his interventions with the Turkish authorities and mentions his 22 January 1919 telegram no. 158 to the Foreign Office in which he describes his intervention with the Sublime Porte.

40. FO 371/4173/53351, ff. 192–3, telegram from the assistant high commissioner, Richard Webb, to the Conférence de la Paix, 3 April 1919: Dadrian, Histoire du génocide arménien, op. cit., p. 486, n. 23.

41. FO 371/4174, no. 118377, letter from Arthur Calthorpe to Lord Curzon, 1 August 1919, which recapitulates these recommendations.

42. Ibidem, p. 1.

43. Ibidem, p. 2.

44. FO 218/1552, letter from the Admiral Webb to Balfour, 25 February 1919.

45. FO 371/4173, no. 47293, telegram from the Admiral Calthorpe to Balfour, 26 March 1919.

46. FO 371/4174, report by the Admiral Calthorpe, “Deportations,” August 1919, p. 5.

47. FO 371/4174, no. 98243, report by the Admiral Calthorpe, on the trials, 10 July 1919, p. 6.

48. Ibidem.

49. Ibidem.

50. FO 371/4174, no. 88761, telegram from the Admiral Calthorpe to Lord Curzon, 30 May 1919. Initial plans were to put the accused under a guard of French and British soldiers, but this proposed solution was dropped because of the reluctance of the French.

51. Ibidem.

52. La Renaissance, no. 153, 30 May 1919.

53. FO 371/4174, no. 136069, telegram from the Admiral Calthorpe to Lord Curzon, 21 September 1919.

54. FO 371/6500, Turkish War Criminals: Vartkès Yeghiayan (ed.), British Foreign Office dossiers on Turkish War Criminals, op. cit.

55. FO 371/5089, no. 1054, Turks deported in Malta, Parliamentary Question, 4 March 1920.

56. FO 371/5089, no. 2293, John de Robeck, the high commissioner in Constantinople, to Lord Curzon, 11 March 1920, f° 108. Among the prisoners classified “A/T” (prisoners detained “for direct or indirect participation in outrages on subject christians”), Robeck mentions Ali Ihsan Pasha, Hüseyin Cahid, Tevfik Hadi, Yusuf Rıza, Sabit Bey, Veli Neced, Fethi Bey, Tahir Cevdet, Rahmi Bey, İsmail Canbolat, Nevzâde Bey, Mumtaz Bey, Fazıl Berki, and İbrahim Bedreddin.

57. Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History, op. cit., p. 101.

58. Ibidem, p. 145.

59. FO 371/5089, no. 2301, f° 91, telegram from John de Robeck, the high commissioner in Constantinople, to Lord Curzon, 20 March 1920.

60. FO 371/5089, no. 2322, telegram from John de Robeck to Lord Curzon, 27 March 1920. Salih Pasha’s government succeeded Ali Rıza’s on 20 March 1920 for ten days; it fell in its turn after the declaration by the Entente that made Constantinople a conquered city. Damad Ferid took the reins of government again in April 1920: FO 371/5046, no. 328, f° 140, chiffred telegram from John de Robeck to Foreign Office, 5 April 1920, announcing the appointment, on the same day, of Damad Ferid, the leader of the Liberal Entente, to the post of grand vizier; FO 371/5166, E 4278, 14 April 1920, reports from the British Intelligence services to Lord Curzon, p. 221, on the composition of Damad Ferid’s cabinet, with, notably, as interior minister, Reşid Bey, a liberal who had spent the war years in Switzerland.

61. Bibl. Nubar, Archives of the DNA, The House of Lords and the House of Commons, ff. 116–17.

62. Ibidem, f° 28.

63. Vahakn Dadrian, “Raphael Lemkin, International Law and the Armenian Genocide,” in The Key Elements in the Turkish Denial of the Armenian Genocide: a Case Study of Distortion and Falsification, Watertown, Zorian Institute, 2001, p. 37; Yves Ternon, “Comparer les génocides,” in Ailleurs, hier, autrement: connaissance et reconnaissance du génocide des Arméniens, Revue d’histoire de la Shoah 177–8 (2003), p. 41.

64. Annette Becker, “L’extermination des Arméniens, entre dénonciation, indifférence et oubli, de 1915 aux années vingt,” Revue d’Histoire de la Shoah 177–8 (2003), p. 309; Raphaël Lemkin, Axis Rule in occupied Europe, Laws of Occupation, Analysis of Government, Proposals for Redress, Washington, 1944, p. 80.

65. Raphaël Lemkin, “Le crime de génocide,” Revue de Droit international, des Sciences diplomatiques et Politiques, no. 24 (1946), pp. 213–14.

66. Ibidem.

67. The text of this talk may be found in the Lemkin archives, which were given to the Jewish-American Archives in 1965 and are available on the internet at www.preventgenocide.org.

68. AMAE, Série Conférence de la Paix, Sous-Série Recueil des actes (1918–1932), vol. 40, Commission des responsabilités des auteurs de la guerre et sanctions, Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1922, pp. 176–7.

69. Anne-Marie La Rosa & Santiago Villalpando, “Le crime de génocide revisité,” in Katia Boustany and Daniel Dormoy (eds.), Génocide (s), Bruxelles 1999 (Collection de droit international; 42), pp. 56–7.

7 The First Trial of the Young Turk Criminals Before the Istanbul Court-Martial

1. La Renaissance, no. 151, 28 May 1919, a French translation of an article from Alemdar.

2. La Renaissance, no. 128, 1 May 1919, from Sabah.

3. Cf. supra, p. 252. Münîf Bey later adopted the family name Yeğena. He also seems to have played a major role in organizing the famine in Lebanon in his capacity as governor of the province.

4. FO 371/5091, no. 11834/1670.

5. Cf. supra, pp. 508–13.

6. Krieger, Yozgat, op. cit., pp. 309–10. The 5 February trial session, the first, was opened at 10:30 a.m. by the judge presiding over the extraordinary court-martial, Mahmud Hayret Pasha. The military judges on the court were General Ali Nâzım Pasha and General Kürd Mustafa Pasha; the civilian judges were, to the presiding judge’s left, Harutiun Mostichian, a judge on the Constantinople Appeals Court, and, to his right, Şevket Bey, a judge on the Constantinople Appeals Court.

7. Ibidem, pp. 311–12, n. 5: the court-martial held lists of massacred people, but not the places and dates of extermination. The plaintiff is presented again by Hayg [Hmayag] Khosrovian, Hagop Bahri and Avedis Surenian, chosen by the Armenian Bar Association.

8. Ibidem, pp. 312–15.

9. SHAT, Service Historique de la Marine, Service de renseignements de la Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 231, doc. no. 259, Constantinople, 7 February 1919, “Rapport sur les atrocités de Yozgat, dressé par un fonctionnaire turc [Report on the Atrocities in Yozgat, Drawn up by a Turkish Official].”

10. Krieger, op. cit., p. 224.

11. Fourth trial session, 11 February 1919: Krieger, op. cit., pp. 315–16. At the 15 February fifth trial session, a medical report showed that Eugenie Varvarian had sustained a head injury several years earlier; a certificate attested that she was 18 years old.

12. Fifth trial session, 15 February 1919: ibidem.

13. Cf. supra, pp. 516–8.

14. Cf. supra, p. 739.

15. Krieger, op. cit., p. 312. Remzi, speaking on his own behalf, demanded that the court award him one and a half million Turkish pounds in compensation for damages in his capacity as the only survivor and representative of a family from the region 117 of whose members had been murdered. The court observed, however, that of the 8,000 Armenians living in Yozgat before the massacres, 80 were still alive (ibidem, p. 311, n. 5)..

16. Hüsameddin Ertürk, İki Devrin Perde Arkası [Behind the Curtain during Two Times], ed. by Samih Hafız Tansu, Istanbul 1964, p. 299.

17. Ibidem; Zhamanag, 25 March 1919, p. 3, col. 5 and p. 4, col. 1–3. The court was made up of the following members: General Mustafa Nâzım pasha, president; General Zeki pasha, General Mustafa Pasha (known as Nemrud or Kurd Mustafa), General Ali Nâzım Pasha, and colonel Receb Ferdi Bey; Sâmi Bey, prosecutor, with three assistant prosecutors.

18. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, ' 350, telegram from the civil inspector Nedim Bey, charged with conducting an investigation in the sancak of Yozgat, to Emin Bey, 28 December 1918.

19. Verdict of the trial of Yozgat, 8 April 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3617, 7 August 1919, p. 2. The verdict was submitted to the Sultan, who promptly ratified it: Zhamanag, 9 April 1919, p. 1.

20. Ibidem.

21. Public Record Office, FO 371/4173, no. 61185, 17 April 1919, telegram from the high commissioner, Calthorpe, to the Foreign Office, describing the execution of Kemal Bey; FO 371/4173, no. 72536, 21 April 1919, letter from Calthorpe to the Foreign Office, about Kemal Bey’s burial, and a 24 April 1919 report by Captain H. A. D. Hoyland, to General Staff Intelligence, 24 April 1919. According to a report of French Intelligence Services, the “peine de mort n’aurait été prononcée qu’à une voix de majorité.”

22. Hüsameddin Ertürk, op. cit., p. 297.

23. Ibidem, pp. 297–8.

24. Ibidem, p. 300.

25. Krieger, op. cit., p. 300. A French source indicates that he added: “Long live Muslims and Turkey! Death to the Armenians, the eternal enemies of the Empire”: SHAT, Service Historique de la Marine, Service de renseignements de la Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 231, doc. no. 563, Constantinople, report of 12 April 1919, “L’exécution de Kemal bey.”

26. Hüsameddin Ertürk, op. cit., pp. 220–1. SHAT, Service Historique de la Marine, Service de renseignements de la Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 231, doc. no. 563, Constantinople, report of 12 April 1919, “L’exécution de Kemal bey.”

27. Ibidem.

28. La Renaissance, no. 232, 31 August 1919, p. 1.

29. Ibidem.

8 The Truncated Trial of the Main Young Turk Leaders

1. First session of the trial of the Unionists, 27 April 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3540, 5 May 1919, p. 1, List of the accused, present or fugitives from justice. The court-martial comprised: General Mustafa Nâzım Pasha, president; General Zeki Pasha, General Nemrud Mustafa Pasha, General Ali Nâzım Pasha, Colonel Receb Ferdi Bey, judges; Reşat Bey, prosecutor.

2. First session of the trial of the War Cabinets, 3 June 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3571, 11 June 1919, p. 127. Our count indicates that only three of the 23 members of the Ittihad’s Central Committee were not indicted: Haci Adıl, Mehmed Cavid, and Hüseyin Cahid.

3. This probably explains why a few people among the leadership of the Special Organization, such as Aziz Bey or Ahmed Cevad, were indicted along with the members of the Central Committee.

4. Indictment of 12 April 1919, read out at the 27 April first session of the trial of the Unionists: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3540, 5 May 1919.

5. Ibidem.

6. Ibidem, p. 17.

7. Ibidem.

8. SHAT, Service Historique de la Marine, S. R. Marine, Turquie, 1BB7 231, doc. no. 614, Constantinople, 29 April 1919, “Le procès des Unionistes [The Trial of the Unionists].”

9. Dadrian, Histoire du génocide, op. cit., pp. 519–22, explains the procedure followed by the defense.

10. SHAT (cf. n. 8), 1BB7 232, doc. no. 658, translation of the decree of competency, attached to an 8 May 1919 report entitled “The Trial of the Unionists.”

11. Ibidem, pp. 1–2 (annexe).

12. Ibidem, pp. 1–3 (report).

13. Second session of the trial of the Unionists, 4 May 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3543, 12 May 1919, pp. 15–31.

14. Ibidem, p. 21, col. 2.

15. Ibidem, p. 23, col. 2.

16. Ibidem, pp. 24–6.

17. Ibidem, pp. 29–31.

18. Third session of the trial of the Unionists, 6 May 1335/1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3547, 15 May 1919: pp. 33–6, examination of Midhat Şükrü; pp. 37–41, examination of Ziya Gökalp; pp. 42–6, examination of Küçük Talât; pp. 47–8, examination of Atıf Bey; p. 49, examination of Yusuf Rıza.

19. SHAT, Service Historique de la Marine, S. R. Marine, Turquie,1BB7 232, doc. no. 663, Constantinople, May 1919, “The Trial of the Unionists.”

20. Fourth session of the trial of the Unionists, 8 May 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3547, 15 May 1919, pp. 52–66.

21. Ibidem, pp. 54–5; SHAT (cf. n. 8), 1BB7 232, doc. no. 663, p. 3.

22. Ibidem; Fourth session of the trial of the Unionists, 8 May 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3547, 15 May 1919, pp. 55–7.

23. Fifth session of the trial of the Unionists, 12 May 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3554, 21 May 1919, pp. 66–90.

24. Ibidem, pp. 67–9.

25. Ibidem, p. 85.

26. Ibidem, pp. 85–6.

27. Ibidem, p. 89.

28. Sixth session of the trial of the Unionists, 17 May 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3557, 25 May 1919, p. 107.

29. Seventh session of the trial of the Unionists, 19 May 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3561, 29 May 1919, p. 119. Five members of the Central Committee’s Bureau directed the Special Organization.

30. SHAT (cf. n. 8), 1BB7 232, doc. no. 680, report by L. Feuillet, Constantinople, 13 May 1919.

31. FO 371/4174, no. 88761, telegram from Calthorpe to Lord Curzon, 30 May 1919; La Renaissance, no. 153, 30 May 1919, from Alemdar.

32. First session of the trial of the ministers, 3 June 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3571, 11 June 1919, pp. 128–31.

33. The court decided to try Şakir separately, together with those who had organized the massacres of Mamuret ul-Aziz.

34. Dadrian, Histoire du génocide arménien, op. cit., p. 488.

35. First session of the trial of the ministers, 3 June 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3571, 11 June 1919, p. 141.

36. Ibidem.

37. Ibidem, pp. 132–40.

38. Second session of the trial of the ministers, 5 June 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3573, 12 June 1919, pp. 144, col. 2 and 145, on Esad effendi, former şeyh ul-Islam.

39. Ibidem, pp. 147–8.

40. Third session of the trial of the ministers, 9 June 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3575, 15 June 1919, pp. 149–55.

41. Fourth session of the trial of the ministers, 12 June 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3577, 17 June 1919, pp. 157–9.

42. Fifth session of the trial of the ministers, 24 June 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3593, 9 July 1919 (10 Temmuz 1335), pp. 177–83.

43. Sixth session of the trial of the ministers, 25 June 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3594, 10 July 1919, pp. 188–93.

44. L’Entente, 26 June 1919.

45. Seventh session of the trial of the ministers, le 26 June 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3595, 12 July 1919, p. 198.

46. In addition to Musa Kâzım, Esad effendi, Rifât bey, Hüseyin Haşim, all of whom were present, those affected were Talât, Enver, Cemal, Dr. Nâzım, Cavid Bey, Süleyman el-Bustani, Mustafa Şeref, and – another oddity of this trial – Oskan effendi (Mardikian), a former minister of the post and telegraph office who had resigned his post at the outbreak of the war, p. 1, verdict rendered on 5 July 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3604, 5 August 1919, pp. 217–24; English and French translations of the court-martial’s verdict, dated 6 Shewal 1335 [5 July 1919], sent to Lord Curzon by the British high commissioner on 7 July 1919: FO 371/4174, no. 1310.

47. Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3604, 5 August 1919, pp. 217–20.

48. Ibidem.

9 The Trial of the Responsible Secretaries and the Vicissitudes of the Subsidiary Trials in the Provinces

1. The first session of the trial of the CUP’s responsible secretaries and delegated inspectors, 21 June 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3586, 28 June 1919, pp. 161–4, 168. Sitting on the court were many of the same judges who had tried the ministers.

2. The second session of the trial of the CUP’s responsible secretaries and delegated inspectors, 23 June 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3589, 5 July 1919, pp. 165–75; Third session of the trial, 28 June 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3596, 13 July 1919, pp. 205–15 (pagination error for pp. 209–10, which are mentioned twice)

3. Vahakn Dadrian, “The Turkish Military Tribunal’s Prosecution of the authors of the Armenian Genocide: Four Major Court-Martial Series,” Holocaust & Genocide Studies, vol. 11/1 (1997), p. 42. Convicted in absentia: Hilmi Bey (deputy of Angora), Ağaoğlu Ahmed (deputy of Karahisar), Colonel Mümtaz Bey (CUP’s delegate in Suvar), Hasan Fehmi Bey (delegate in Kastamonu) [cf. supra, p. 527, n. 1947]; Sabri Bey (deputy of Sarukhan), Hüseyin Tosun (CUP’s delegate and deputy of Erzerum [cf. supra, p. 316]), Samih Rifât Bey (former vali of Konya), Haci Ahmed, the father of Enver, etc.

4. Cf. supra, pp. 530, 560; on Ahmed Midhat, former chief of the police in Istanbul: APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 19 and 396, “List of responsibles in the vilayet of Angora”; 457–9, 432, file 70 (in French).

5. Cf. supra, pp. 560–2.

6. Cf. supra, p. 570.

7. Cf. supra, p. 672.

8. The first session of the trial of the CUP’s responsible secretaries and delegated inspectors, 21 June 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3586, 28 June 1919, pp. 161–4, 168.

9. La Renaissance, no. 295, 13 November 1919, reports that the trial of the responsible secretaries was continued on Wednesday, 12 November. The presiding judge was Esad Pasha.

10. Verdict in the trial of the responsible secretaries, 8 January 1920: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3772, February 1920, p. 2, col. 2, p. 3, col. 1.

11. Ibidem. Sitting on the court at the time were Esad Pasha (presiding judge), and Ihsan Pasha, Mustafa Kerimi Pasha, İsmail Hakkı Pasha, Süleyman Şakir Bey.

12. Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3771, 9 February 1920, pp. 48–9.

13. La Renaissance, no. 330, 24 December 1919, reports that his trial had begun.

14. La Renaissance, no. 357, 27 January 1920.

15. La Renaissance, no. 363, 4 February 1920, no. 365, 6 February 1920.

16. La Renaissance, no. 369, 10 February 1920.

17. La Renaissance, no. 374, 17 February 1920.

18. Cf. supra, p. 471.

19. Verdict of the trial of Trebizond, 8 July 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3616, du 6 August 1919, pp. 50–2. It is noteworthy that the verdict was published two months after the end of the trial and one month after the verdict was announced.

20. La Renaissance, no. 324, 17 December 1919; no. 329, 23 December 1919.

21. La Renaissance, no. 605, 6 September 1920.

22. Cf. supra, with regard to his activities.

23. Cf. supra, p. 297.

24. Under the number 2696: FO 371/6504, f° 348. Another document indicates that the American missionaries Dr. H. Atkinson and Henry Diggs were state’s witnesses who gave evidence incriminating Sabit: FO 371/6503, no. 264.

25. Le Spectateur d’Orient, 13 June 1919.

26. La Renaissance, no. 276, 22 October 1919.

27. La Renaissance, no. 284, 31 October 1919, no. 302, 21 November, no. 344, 11 January 1920.

28. Chiffred Telegram no. 5, from the head of the Teşkilât-ı Mahsusa, Bahaeddin Şakir, Erzerum, 21 Haziran 1331 (4 July 1915), to the vali of Mamuret ul-Aziz, Sabit Bey, attention: Resneli Nâzım Bey: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3540 (read at the trial session of 12 April 1919), 5 May 1919, p. 6, col. 1–2, and no. 3771, 9 February 1920, p. 48, col. 1.

29. Ibidem, pp. 48–9.

30. FO 371/5089, no. 949, from Robeck to Lord Curzon, 18 February 1920.

31. La Renaissance, no. 423, 23 April 1920.

32. Cf. supra, pp. 301–2, with regard to their activities at the practical level.

33. Judgement of the court-martial, 20 July 1920: Tercüman-ı Hakikat, no. 14136, 5 August 1920, p. 5.

34. Ibidem. Necati was not executed.

35. Cf. supra, p. 301; Kazarian, op. cit., pp. 292–300.

36. Cf. supra, pp. 308–9, with regard to the activities of Memduh. Many of the exhibits presented during the hearings have been preserved in the archives of PCI Bureau: APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 372–4, 376–401 and 555–70.

37. Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3917, 31 July 1920, pp. 5–6.

38. Le Bosphore, 23 July 1920.

39. La Renaissance, no. 111, 10 April 1919.

40. La Renaissance, no. 156, 3 June 1919.

41. FO 371/5043, E 1363, ff. 123–5, dispatch of 18 February 1920, with attached a 4 February 1920 report bearing on General Halil Pasha. La Renaissance, no. 332, 27 December 1919, specifies that the trial of Ferid Bey began in the court-martial the 27 December 1919. But we have not information to a sentence.

42. La Renaissance, no. 290, 7 November 1919, no. 375, 18 February 1920.

43. La Renaissance, no. 347, 16 January 1920.

44. La Renaissance, no. 382, 26 February 1920, no. 386, 2 March 1920.

45. La Renaissance, no. 347, 16 January 1920, no. 369, 11 February 1920, no. 387, 3 March 1920.

46. La Renaissance, no. 388, 4 March 1920.

47. La Renaissance, no. 402, 20 March 1920.

48. La Renaissance, no. 410, 31 March 1920.

49. Cf. supra, pp. 543. Verdict of the trial of deportations in Büyükdere/San Stefano, 24 May 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3618, 8 August 1919, pp. 6–7.

50. Cf. supra, pp. 69, 103.

51. Cf. supra, p. 249; Astourian, “The Armenian Genocide: An Interpretation,” The History Teacher, art. cit., p. 141, n. 23–4.

52. First session of the trial of Sabancali Hakkı, 9 August 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3623, 14 August 1919, pp. 1–3.

53. Second session of the trial, 12 August 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3632, 25 August 1919, pp. 5–17, 12–17; third session of the trial, 27 August 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3636, 27 August 1919, pp. 18–23; Fourth session of the trial, 31 August 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3637, pp. 24–31; Fifth session of the trial, 10 September 1919: Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3656, pp. 32–9.

54. La Renaissance, no. 282, 29 October 1919.

55. Aravod, no. 46, 7 February 1921.

56. Cf. supra, pp. 467–82.

57. La Renaissance, no. 340, 7 January 1920.

58. La Renaissance, no. 383, 27 February 1920; Le Spectateur d’Orient, 12 July 1919: 12 people sent to Yozgat to be tried locally, one sent to Amasia, and two sent to Akşehir. Le Spectateur d’Orient, 14 July 1919, reports that warrants had been issued for the arrest of Bedros Halajian, Mansurizâde Said (Sarouhan) and Nori (Kerbela). Le Spectateur d’Orient, 18 July 1919, also reports a planned trial of “people implicated in the massacres and deportations in Angora, as well as those implicated in atrocities committed in Kerasund, Sıvas, Adabazar, Bilejik, Bitlis, Ismit, Mamuret ul-Aziz, Amasia, Der Zor, Kirşehir, Dyiarbekir, Kayseri, Konya, Kangri, Andrinople, Karahisar, Adana, Çataldja, Dardanelle, Bafra, Marash, Akhisar and, finally, Constantinople. Among the people involved in the Constantinople atrocities were Bedri Bey, the former police chief and, at the time, a fugitive from justice, Reşad Bey, the former head of the political section of the police department, and Şehab Bey, the former military commander of Constantinople ... One is never forbidden to wait,” the newspaper concluded, “and one can always hope.”

59. La Renaissance, no. 307, 27 November 1919, no. 313, 4 December 1919, no. 318, 10 December 1919. His file was transmitted to Court-martial No. 3 as early as June 1919 (Le Spectateur d’Orient, 25 June 1919), which seems to indicate that even Damad Ferid’s government did not appreciate the written statement that he submitted to the Mazhar Commission in December 1918.

60. Cf. supra, pp. 627, and 646.

61. Aravod, no. 31, 25 October 1920.

62. “A la cour martiale, un réquisitoire éloquent,” in La Renaissance, no. 352, 22 January 1920; Le Bosphore, 22 January 1920.

63. Ibidem.

64. “Choses de Turquie, Autour d’un procès,” in La Renaissance, no. 354, 24 January 1920, from Peyam Eyam.

65. “Le cas de Mustafa pacha,” in Le Bosphore, 25 October 1920.

66. Takvim-ı Vakayi, no. 3995, 31 October 1920; Aravod, no. 32, 1 November 1920, also reports these appointments.

67. Alemdar, 31 October 1920.

68. “Le procès de Mustafa pacha,” in Le Bosphore, 8 November 1920.

69. “Réparations, réintégrations, etc. Mustafa pacha,” in Le Bosphore, 21 November 1920.

70. “L’affaire du général Mustafa pacha,” in Le Bosphore, 24 November 1920.

71. “Le procès de Mustafa pacha,” in Le Bosphore, 21 December 1920.

72. La Renaissance, no. 281, 28 October 1919.

73. La Renaissance, no. 282, 29 October 1919.

10 Mustafa Kemal: From the Young Turk Connection to the Construction of the Nation-State

1. Zürcher, The Unionist, op. cit., p. 107. After entrusting the command of his army to Nihat Pasha [Anılmış], Kemal left Adana for the capital. According to Zürcher, he presented the British, in vain, with a plan for a British mandate over Anatolia; he would have been the governor of the area under mandate. This episode is omitted in his memoirs.

2. Ibidem, p. 114.

3. Ibidem, pp. 114–1–15.

4. Ibidem, pp. 111–12. But Kemal seems to have considered Esad to be a man who was “obstinate, with limited capability.” (ibidem, p. 79).

5. Ibidem.

6. Ibidem, p. 92.

7. Ibidem, p. 118.

8. Ibidem, p. 119.

9. Ibidem, p. 121. Karakol’s representative with the Bolsheviks, Baha Said, signed a mutual assistance pact with the representative of the Bolshevik government on 11 January 1920.

10. Ibidem, pp. 85, 122.

11. Ibidem, p. 123. Zürcher mentions a public demonstration for Enver that took place in Trebizond in May 1920.

12. Ibidem, p. 130.

13. FO 371/5043, E 1363, ff. 123–5, letter of 18 February 1920, with a 4 February 1920 report on the newly elected deputies to the Ottoman parliament.

14. Ibidem, f° 125.

15. Ibidem, f° 126.

16. Cf. supra, p. 340. The evidence he gave the court directly incriminated Halil [Kut].

17. FO 371/5043, E 1363, f° 126.

18. The Greek-Armenian Committee dealt systematically with questions of security in the 85 coordinating meetings that it held between 19 February and 29 March 1922: FO 371/3658, 371/4195, 371/4196, 371/4197, 371/5087, 371/5213, 371/5214, 371/6548, 371/6549, 371/7879.

19. 34th session, 10 March 1920: FO 371/5087, ff. 141–5.

20. FO 371/5041, E 432, report of Intelligence Services; FO 371/5042, E 875, 16 March 1920, about the withdrawal of French troops from Marash and the massacre of the Armenian population by the Kemalists.

21. FO 371/5046, E 3318, f. 89, report of 15 April 1920.

22. FO 371/5045, E. 2804, ff. 191 and 196, report of 25 March 1920, “Extortion of contributions by Nationalists.”

23. FO 371/5043, E 1297, ff. 35 and sq., report of 10 March 1920.

24. FO 371/5043, E 1462, ff. 146–55, letter from Lord Curzon to Robeck, 12 March 1920, on the Allied decision to occupy Istanbul.

25. FO 371/5043, E 1550, about the naval tactics and the deployment of battleships.

26. FO 371/5043, E 1531, report of 15 March 1920, about the reinforcement of the British troops in Turkey; FO 371/5043, E 1642, second report of 15 March 1920.

27. FO 371/5043, E 1693, report of 17 March 1920.

28. FO 371/5046, E 3649, report of 2 April 1920, about Turkish reactions to the pursuit of the military occupation of the capital.

29. FO 371/5173, no. 6709, letter from the British ambassador in Berlin to Lord Curzon, 14 juin 1920, report on the Representatives of the Young Turks, f. 100 (report in French).

30. FO 371/5173, E 4154, from the French embassy in London to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1 May 1920.

31. FO 371/5173, E 3404, telegram from Robeck to G. Buchanan, British ambassador in Rome, 16 April 1920. It is probable that the Italian authorities closed their eyes to these movements and were already considering cooperating with the Ittihadist-Kemalist forces.

32. FO 371/5171, E 12472, report of British Intelligence Services (the Istanbul branch of the S.I.S.), on the week beginning 9 September 1920, passed by Robeck to Lord Curzon, pp. 14–16.

33. FO 371/5178, E 14638, Constantinople, 7 September 1920, report of British Intelligence Services (the Istanbul branch of the S.I.S.), f° 195.

34. Ibidem, f° 196.

35. FO 371/5089, appendix, copy of a Circular of the Ottoman League, Geneve, 6 January 1920.

36. FO 371/5050, f° 198, copy of the Journal d’Orient, 3 June 1920.

37. FO 371/5171, E 12803, report of British Intelligence Services (the Istanbul branch of the S.I.S.), on the week beginning 21 September 1920, passed by Robeck to Lord Curzon, f° 153.

38. Telegram from the foreign minister of the Ankara government, Ahmed Muhtar, to Kâzım Karabekir, 8 November 1920, published in the collection: Kâzım Karabekir, İstiklâl Harbimiz (Our War of Independence), Istanbul 1969, pp. 844–5, coted in Dadrian, Histoire du génocide arménien, op. cit., pp. 564–5, n. 4.

39. FO 371/5178, E 14269, report of British Intelligence Services (the Istanbul branch of the S.I.S.), on the week beginning 28 October 1920, passed by Robeck to Lord Curzon, f° 226.

40. Ibidem, ff. 227–8.

41. Kâzım Karabekir, İstiklâl Harbimiz (Our War of Independence), op. cit., p. 845, coted in Dadrian, Histoire du génocide arménien, op. cit., p. 565.

42. FO 371/6503, no. 6902, letter from the War Office to the State secretary of Foreign Office, London, 15 June 1921.

43. FO 371/6506, f° 335chiffred telegram from Sir H. Rumbold, 27 September 1921.

44. FO 371/6505, f° 93, telegram from the governor of Malta to the War Office, 29 October 1921. An attached 9 November 1921 report recalls that these men had been arrested under Damad Ferid in 1919 and sent to Malta in May–June 1919, and a second group in March 1920; that Chapter VII, Articles 225 to 230 of the Treaty of Sèvres stipulate that Turks guilty of committing acts of violence should be tried, and so on.

45. Zürcher, The Unionist, op. cit., pp. 132–3.

46. Ibidem, p. 134. The first article in the program announces that “Union and Progress is a radical political party that defends all freedoms.”

47. Ibidem.

48. Ibidem, p. 143. The killers, including the man who laid the assassination plan, Ziya Hurşit, were discovered in the hotels of the port.

49. Ibidem, p. 143. On 8 February 1925, Kel Ali, a loyal follower of Kemal’s, personally killed the deputy from Ardahan, Deli Halit, a member of the opposition, in the midst of a session of the National Assembly (ibidem, pp. 146–14–7). Those tried before Ali Fuad [Cebesoy], Kâzım Karabekir, Refet [Bele], Cafer Tayyar [Eğilmez], Colonel Arif (1882–1926), Rüştü (1873–1926), Bekir Sâmi (1867–1932), Sabit [Sağiroğlu] (1881–1960), Ahmed Şükrü, Halis Turgut (1886–1926), Necati [Kurtuluş] (1882–1956), Haret [Sağıroğlu] (1880–1947), Münir Hüsrev [Göle] (1890–1955), Halil [Işık] (1879–1935), Zeki [Kadirbeyoğlu] (1884–1952), İsmail Canbolat, Kâmil [Mitas] (1875–1957), Hulusi [Zarğı] (1883–1968), Abidin (1890–1926), Besim [Özbek] (1882–1965), Faik [Günday] (1884–1964), brother of Ziya Hurşid, Ahmed Muhtar [Cilli] (1871–1958): ibidem, pp. 147–14–8. The cases of the other Ittihadists were judged in the second trial, which took place in Ankara.

50. Ibidem, pp. 149–53. On his return from Malta, Şükrü was appointed vali of Trebizond and elected deputy from Ismit to the Grand National Assembly. The prosecutor alluded, in his closing speech, to a very dubious connection to the 1925 Kurdish revolt.

51. Ibidem, p. 153. Kara Kemal committed suicide on 27 July before he could be transferred to Ankara.

52. Ibidem, pp. 154–7. The presiding judge, Ali [Çetinkaya], was on intimate terms with Dr. Nâzım’s and a close associate of Enver’s.

53. Ibidem, p. 159.

54. Ibidem. The case of Muftizâde Şükrü Kaya, the head of the Department for the Settlement of Tribes and Emigrants in 1915, is perhaps the most revealing.

Conclusion

1. Currently held in the archives of the Armenian Patriarchate in Jerusalem.

2. APC/APJ, PCI Bureau, 125–128-129–130.