NOTES

Introduction

1. This account follows from Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception, trans. A. M. Sheridan (New York: Pantheon, 1973).

2. See Tait D. Shanafelt, Sonja Boone, Litjen Tan, Lotte N. Dyrbye, et al., “Burnout and Satisfaction with Work-Life Balance Among US Physicians Relative to the General US Population.” Archives of Internal Medicine 172, no. 18 (2012): 1377–85.

Chapter 1. Seeing Wisely

1. Abraham Flexner and Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Medical Education in the United States and Canada: A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (New York: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1910).

2. Osler delivered the speech in 1894, and it was later disseminated in a collection of his writings. See William Osler, “The Army Surgeon,” in Aequanimitas, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: P. Blakinson’s Son, 1914), 105–20.

3. Sylvio LeBlond, “The Life and Times of Alexis St-Martin,” Canadian Medical Association Journal 88 (1963): 1205–11.

4. Osler, “Army Surgeon,” 120.

5. Osler’s essay was published in William Beaumont and William Osler, Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice and the Physiology of Digestion Together with a Biographical Essay, “William Beaumont: A Pioneer American Physiologist” (Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, 1996). The best overview of Osler’s life is Michael Bliss, William Osler: A Life in Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). The characterization of “old fistulous Alexis,” comes from LeBlond, “Life and Times of Alexis St-Martin,” 1209.

6. For example, see Howard Markel, “Experiments and Observations: How William Beaumont and Alexis St. Martin Seized the Moment of Scientific Progress.” JAMA 302, no. 7 (2009): 804–6.

7. R. L. Golden, “Sir William Osler and the Anatomical Tubercle,” Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 16, no. 5, pt. 1 (1987): 1071–74.

8. James R. Wright, “Sins of Our Fathers: Two of the Four Doctors and Their Roles in the Development of Techniques to Permit Covert Autopsies,” Archives of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine 133, no. 12 (2009): 1969–74.

9. George S. M. Dyer and Mary E. L. Thorndike, “Quidne mortui vivos docent? The Evolving Purpose of Human Dissection in Medical Education,” Academic Medicine 75, no. 10 (2000): 969–79.

10. Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception, trans. A. M. Sheridan (New York: Pantheon, 1973), 146.

Chapter 2. Occult Findings

1. Osler delivered the speech, “Internal Medicine as a Vocation,” in 1897, but it was disseminated in Aequanimitas, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: P. Blakinson’s Son, 1914), 139–152, quotation on p. 144.

2. Alvin E. Rodin, “Osler’s Autopsies: Their Nature and Utilization.” Medical History 17, no. 1 (1973): 37–48.

3. Abraham Flexner and Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Medical Education in the United States and Canada: A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (New York: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1910), 95, 68; Walter E. Finkbeiner, Philip C. Ursell, and Richard L. Davis, Autopsy Pathology: A Manual and Atlas, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier, 2009), 8.

4. See Finkbeiner, Ursell, and Davis, Autopsy Pathology.

5. Quoted in Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception, trans. A. M. Sheridan (New York: Pantheon, 1973), 146.

6. Foucault, Birth of the Clinic, 146.

Chapter 3. The Book and the Coat

1. Dan W. Blumhagen, “The Doctor’s White Coat: The Image of the Physician in Modern America,” Annals of Internal Medicine 91, no. 1 (1979): 111–16.

2. C. Stewart Rogers, “UNC White Coat Ceremony: Keynote Address 2000,” Forum of the North Carolina Medical Board 5, no. 4 (2000): 5–6.

3. Arnold Gold and Sandra Gold, “Humanism in Medicine from the Perspective of the Arnold Gold Foundation: Challenges to Maintaining the Care in Health Care,” Journal of Child Neurology 21, no. 6 (2006): 546.

4. Gold and Gold, “Humanism in Medicine from the Perspective of the Arnold Gold Foundation,” 547.

5. See, for example, Judah L. Goldberg, “Humanism or Professionalism? The White Coat Ceremony and Medical Education,” Academic Medicine 83, no. 8 (2008): 715–22; Philip C. Russell. “The White Coat Ceremony: Turning Trust into Entitlement,” Teaching and Learning in Medicine 14, no. 1 (2002): 56–59; Robert M. Veatch, “White Coat Ceremonies: A Second Opinion,” Journal of Medical Ethics 28, no. 1 (2002): 5–9; and Delese Wear, “On White Coats and Professional Development: The Formal and the Hidden Curricula,” Annals of Internal Medicine 129, no. 9 (1998): 734–37.

6. Gold and Gold, “Humanism in Medicine from the Perspective of the Arnold Gold Foundation,” 546.

7. Moses Maimonides, “Oath of Maimonides,” trans. Harry Friedenwald, Bulletin of Johns Hopkins Hospital 28 (1917): 260–61.

8. Ryan M. Antiel, Farr A. Curlin, C. Christopher Hook, and Jon C. Tilburt, “The Impact of Medical School Oaths and Other Professional Codes of Ethics: Results of a National Physician Survey,” Archives of Internal Medicine 171, no. 5 (2011): 469–71.

9. T. Jock Murray, “Read Any Good Books Lately?” McGill Journal of Medicine 12, no. 1 (2009): 90–91.

10. John Stone and Richard C. Reynolds, “On Doctoring: The Making of an Anthology of Literature and Medicine,” in To Improve Health and Health Care: The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Anthology (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2003).

11. William Osler, “The Army Surgeon,” in Aequanimitas, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: P. Blakinson’s Son, 1914), 104.

12. William Osler, “Books and Men,” in Aequanimitas, 220.

Chapter 4. Full Responsibility

1. Abraham Verghese, My Own Country: A Doctor’s Story of a Town and Its People in the Age of AIDS (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994), 263. (My quotations are taken from the original hardcover edition, cited here; the paperback, published by Vintage, is subtitled simply “A Doctor’s Story.”)

2. Verghese, My Own Country, 25.

3. Verghese, My Own Country, 319.

4. Abraham Verghese, “The Physician as Storyteller,” Annals of Internal Medicine 135, no. 11 (2001): 1016.

5. Verghese, My Own Country, 342.

6. Jeffrey P. Bishop, “Rejecting Medical Humanism: Medical Humanities and the Metaphysics of Medicine,” Journal of Medical Humanities 29, no. 1 (2008): 16.

7. Richard T. Penson, Lidia Schapira, Sally Mack, Marjorie Stanzler, and Thomas J. Lynch, “Connection: Schwartz Center Rounds at Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center,” Oncologist 15, no. 7 (2010): 762.

8. Penson et al., “Connection,” 760.

Chapter 5. Duty Hours

1. ABIM Foundation, American Board of Internal Medicine, ACP-ASIM Foundation, American College of Physicians—American Society of Internal Medicine, and European Federation of Internal Medicine, “Medical Professionalism in the New Millennium: A Physician Charter,” Annals of Internal Medicine 136, no. 3 (2002): 243–46.

2. Marjorie Lehman O’Rorke, North Carolina Office of Archives and History, and North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources, Haven on the Hill: A History of North Carolina’s Dorothea Dix Hospital (Raleigh: Office of Archives and History, North Carolina Dept. of Cultural Resources, 2010). I also consulted the history page maintained by the North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services at http://www.ncdhhs.gov (accessed 5/31/15).

3. For a description of Osler’s work at Hopkins and his creation of the contemporary teaching service, see Michael Bliss, William Osler: A Life in Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).

4. Rufus Cole, “The Practice of Medicine,” Science 88, no. 2284 (1938): 312.

5. Cole, “Practice of Medicine,” 314.

6. Natalie S. Robins, The Girl Who Died Twice: Every Patient’s Nightmare; The Libby Zion Case and the Hidden Hazards of Hospitals (New York: Delacorte, 1995), 111.

7. Institute of Medicine (U.S.), Committee on Optimizing Graduate Medical Trainee (Resident) Hours and Work Schedules to Improve Patient Safety, Cheryl Ulmer, Dianne Miller Wolman, and Michael M. E. Johns, Resident Duty Hours: Enhancing Sleep, Supervision, and Safety (Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2009).

8. Thomas J. Nasca, Susan H. Day, E. Stephen Amis, and ACGME Duty Hour Task Force, “The New Recommendations on Duty Hours from the ACGME Task Force,” New England Journal of Medicine, 363, no. 2 (2010): e3.

9. Cole, “Practice of Medicine,” 313.

10. See, for example, Christopher P. Landrigan, Amy M. Fahrenkopf, Daniel Lewin, Paul J. Sharek, et al., “Effects of the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education Duty Hour Limits on Sleep, Work Hours, and Safety,” Pediatrics 122, no. 2 (2008): 250–58; Andrea S. Cedfeldt, Clea English, Raphael El Youssef, Joseph Gilhooly, and Donald E. Girard, “Institute of Medicine Committee Report on Resident Duty Hours: A View from a Trench,” Journal of Graduate Medical Education 1, no. 2 (2009): 178–80; Teryl K. Nuckols and José J. Escarce, “Cost Implications of ACGME’s 2011 Changes to Resident Duty Hours and the Training Environment,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 27, no. 2 (2012): 241–49; Megha Garg, Brian C. Drolet, Dominick Tammaro, and Staci A. Fischer, “Resident Duty Hours: A Survey of Internal Medicine Program Directors,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 29, no. 10 (2014): 1349–54; Kiersten Norby, Farhan Siddiq, Malik M. Adil, and Stephen J. Haines, “The Effect of Duty Hour Regulations on Outcomes of Neurological Surgery in Training Hospitals in the United States: Duty Hour Regulations and Patient Outcomes” Journal of Neurosurgery 121, no. 2 (2014): 247–61.

Chapter 6. Efficient and Effective

1. Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group, “Evidence-Based Medicine: A New Approach to Teaching the Practice of Medicine,” JAMA 268, no. 17 (1992): 2424. Guyatt first introduced the phrase a year earlier in Gordon H. Guyatt, “Evidence-Based Medicine,” ACP Journal Club 114, suppl. 2 (1991): A-16. Sackett and colleagues published a seminal overview for the British medical establishment: David L. Sackett, William M. C. Rosenberg, J. A. Muir Gray, R. Brian Haynes, and W. Scott Richardson, “Evidence-Based Medicine: What It Is and What It Isn’t,” BMJ 312, no. 7023 (1996): 71–72.

2. See Ariel L. Zimerman, “Evidence-Based Medicine: A Short History of a Modern Medical Movement,” Virtual Mentor 15, no. 1 (2013): 71–76. An insightful oral history of the evidence-based medicine movement was recently published: Richard Smith and Drummond Rennie, “Evidence-Based Medicine—An Oral History,” JAMA 311, no. 4 (2014): 365–67.

3. Peter C. Wyer and Suzana A. Silva, “Where Is the Wisdom? I—A Conceptual History of Evidence-Based Medicine,” Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 15, no. 6 (2009): 892.

4. Theodore M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995). Porter provides an overview of his argument in the preface; his statement that “quantification is a technology of distance” can be found on page ix. Further reflections on quantification in medicine can be found in the essay collection edited by Gerard Jorland, Annick Opinel, and George Weisz, Body Counts: Medical Quantification in Historical and Sociological Perspectives (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2005). The final essays, by George Weisz (“From Clinical Counting to Evidence-Based Medicine”) and Theodore Porter (“Medical Quantification: Science, Regulation, and the State”), particularly informed this chapter.

5. Iain Chalmers, “Archie Cochrane (1909–1988),” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 101, no. 1 (2008): 41–44, available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2235918/.

6. Archibald L. Cochrane, Effectiveness and Efficiency: Random Reflections on Health Services (London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust, 1972), 5.

7. Quoted in Clive Adams and Karla Soares, “The Cochrane Collaboration and the Process of Systematic Reviewing,” Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 3 (1997): 240.

8. Murray Enkin, Marc J. N. C. Keirse, Iain Chalmers, and Eleanor Enkin, A Guide to Effective Care in Pregnancy and Childbirth, Oxford Medical Publications (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).

9. The Cochrane organization offers a list of qualifying low- and middle-income countries; see http://community.cochrane.org/editorial-and-publishing-policy-resource/overview-access-options-cochrane-library. For more on the reviews, see Mark Starr, Iain Chalmers, Mike Clarke, and Andrew D. Oxman, “The Origins, Evolution, and Future of the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews,” International Journal of Technological Assessment in Health Care 25, suppl. 1 (2009): 182–95; Joanne E. McKenzie, Georgia Salanti, Steff C. Lewis, and Douglas G. Altman, “Meta-Analysis and the Cochrane Collaboration: Twenty Years of the Cochrane Statistical Methods Group,” Systematic Reviews 2 (2013): 80.

Chapter 7. Checklists and Dance Lessons

1. See Asaf Degani and Earl L. Wiener, Human Factors of Flight-Deck Checklists: The Normal Checklist, ed. Ames Research Center (Moffett Field, Calif.: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1990).

2. A cardiac catherization checklist can be found in Srihari S. Naidu, Sunil V. Rao, James Blankenship, Jeffrey J. Cavendish, et al., Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, “Clinical Expert Consensus Statement on Best Practices in the Cardiac Catheterization Laboratory: Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions,” Catheter Cardiovascular Interventions 80, no. 3 (2012): 456–64.

3. Alex B. Haynes, Thomas G. Weiser, William R. Berry, Stuart R. Lipsitz, et al., and Safe Surgery Saves Lives Study Group, “A Surgical Safety Checklist to Reduce Morbidity and Mortality in a Global Population,” New England Journal of Medicine 360, no. 5 (2009): 491–99; see also Atul Gawande, The Checklist Manifesto: How to Get Things Right (New York: Picador, 2010).

4. See István Ujváry, “Psychoactive Natural Products: Overview of Recent Developments,” Annali dell’Istituto Superiore di Sanità 50, no. 1 (2014): 12–27.

5. The quality improvement and patient safety literature in medicine is vast, but two of its most important statements are the consensus reports released by the Institute of Medicine: Linda T. Kohn, Janet Corrigan, and Molla S. Donaldson, To Err Is Human: Building a Safer Health System (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 2000); and Institute of Medicine (U.S.), Committee on Quality of Health Care in America, Crossing the Quality Chasm: A New Health System for the Twenty-first Century (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 2001). A popular account of the quality and safety movement can be found in Charles Kenney, The Best Practice: How the New Quality Movement Is Transforming Medicine (New York: Public Affairs, 2008).

6. Lucian L. Leape, “Error in Medicine,” JAMA 272, no. 23 (1994): 1851–57.

7. See, for example, Mark R. Chassin, Jerod M. Loeb, Stephen P. Schmaltz, and Robert M. Wachter, “Accountability Measures—Using Measurement to Promote Quality Improvement,” New England Journal of Medicine 363, no. 7 (2010): 683–88.

8. Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education, Common Program Requirements, 2013. Available at https://www.acgme.org/acgmeweb/Portals/0/PFAssets/ProgramRequirements/CPRs2013.pdf (accessed July 31, 2015).

9. John T. James, “A New, Evidence-Based Estimate of Patient Harms Associated with Hospital Care,” Journal of Patient Safety 9, no. 3 (2013): 122–28.

10. Mark R. Chassin, “Improving the Quality of Health Care: What’s Taking So Long?” Health Affairs (Millwood) 32, no. 10 (2013): 1762.

11. Deming published several books, but the most relevant are W. Edwards Deming, Quality, Productivity, and Competitive Position (Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Center for Advanced Engineering Study, 1982), and Out of the Crisis (Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Center for Advanced Engineering Study, 1986).

12. See Hélio A. G. Teive, Guilherme Ghizoni Silva, and Renato P. Munhoz, “Wittgenstein, Medicine and Neuropsychiatry,” Arquivos Neuro-Psiquiatria 69, no. 4 (2011): 714–16.

13. Charles Taylor, Philosophical Arguments (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).

14. Taylor, Philosophical Arguments, 172.

15. See, for example, the essays edited by Renato D. Alarcón, Julia Frank, and Jerome D. Frank, The Psychotherapy of Hope: The Legacy of Persuasion and Healing (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012).

16. Dean Smith, Gerald D. Bell, and John Kilgo, The Carolina Way: Leadership Lessons from a Life in Coaching (New York: Penguin, 2004).

Chapter 8. Famous Factory Meatloaf

1. Atul Gawande, “Big Med,” New Yorker, August 13, 2012, 53. For an example of how members of the quality-improvement movement compare medicine unfavorably to other industrial sites, see Mark R. Chassin and Jerod M. Loeb, “High-Reliability Health Care: Getting There from Here,” Milbank Quarterly 91, no. 3 (2013): 459–90.

2. Kenneth James, Escoffier: The King of Chefs (London: Hambledon and London, 2002).

3. Gawande, “Big Med,” 56.

4. Gawande, “Big Med,” 54, 60.

5. Gawande, “Big Med,” 53.

6. Ivan Illich, Medical Nemesis: The Expropriation of Health (New York: Pantheon, 1976).

7. Ivan Illich and David Cayley, The Rivers North of the Future: The Testament of Ivan Illich (Toronto: House of Anansi Press, 2005), 204.

8. For examples, see the writings of Donald W. Berwick, a leading figure in the quality and safety movement who recently served as administrator of the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. His influential works include “Continuous Improvement as an Ideal in Health Care,” New England Journal of Medicine 320, no. 1 (1989): 53–56; Troyen A. Brennan and Donald M. Berwick, New Rules: Regulation, Markets, and the Quality of American Health Care (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996); and Donald M. Berwick, Promising Care: How We Can Rescue Health Care by Improving It (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2014).

9. This reading of Foucault is consistent with the interpretations of his work advanced by McKenny and Bishop. See Gerald P. McKenny, To Relieve the Human Condition: Bioethics, Technology, and the Body (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997); Jeffrey Paul Bishop, The Anticipatory Corpse: Medicine, Power, and the Care of the Dying, Notre Dame Studies in Medical Ethics (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2011).

Chapter 9. Sickbeds and Garden Beds

1. Victoria Sweet, Rooted in the Earth, Rooted in the Sky: Hildegard of Bingen and Premodern Medicine, Studies in Medieval History and Culture (New York: Routledge, 2006).

2. Victoria Sweet, God’s Hotel: A Doctor, a Hospital, and a Pilgrimage to the Heart of Medicine (New York: Riverhead, 2012), 29.

3. Sweet, God’s Hotel, 5.

4. See Daniel C. Javitt and Robert Freedman, “Sensory Processing Dysfunction in the Personal Experience and Neuronal Machinery of Schizophrenia,” American Journal of Psychiatry 172, no. 1 (2015): 17–31.

5. Wighard Strehlow and Gottfried Hertzka, Hildegard of Bingen’s Medicine (Santa Fe: Bear, 1998), 6.

6. Max Weber, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, trans. Hans Heinrich Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New York: Routledge, 2009), 139.

7. Sharon K. Inouye, “Delirium in Older Persons,” New England Journal of Medicine 354, no. 11 (2006): 1158.

8. Christian Wiman, My Bright Abyss: Meditation of a Modern Believer (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2013), 90.

9. Dartmouth Atlas of Health Care: Tools, at http://www.dartmouthatlas.org/tools (accessed May 4, 2015).

Chapter 10. Committed

1. Pierre Rousselot, The Eyes of Faith, trans. Joseph Donceel (New York: Fordham University Press, 1990).

2. Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, trans. Robert C. Bartlett and Susan D. Collins (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 26.

3. Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, 316. This discussion of virtue in medicine is informed by Jennifer Radden and John Z. Sadler, The Virtuous Psychiatrist: Character Ethics in Psychiatric Practice, International Perspectives in Philosophy and Psychiatry (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).

4. Charles L. Bosk, Forgive and Remember: Managing Medical Failure, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 177–78.

5. Jeannette Guerrasio, Maureen J. Garrity, and Eva M. Aagaard, “Learner Deficits and Academic Outcomes of Medical Students, Residents, Fellows, and Attending Physicians Referred to a Remediation Program, 2006–2012.” Academic Medicine 89, no. 2 (2014): 352–58.

6. See Arthur E. Poropat, “A Meta-Analysis of the Five-Factor Model of Personality and Academic Performance,” Psychological Bulletin 135, no. 2 (2009): 322–38.

7. For a quantitative sense of how this operates on a national level, see Steven Angus, T. Robert Vu, Andrew J. Halvorsen, Meenakshy Aiyer, et al., “What Skills Should New Internal Medicine Interns Have in July? A National Survey of Internal Medicine Residency Program Directors,” Academic Medicine 89, no. 3 (2014): 432–35.

8. Christine K. Cassel and James A. Guest, “Choosing Wisely: Helping Physicians and Patients Make Smart Decisions About Their Care,” JAMA no. 307, no. 17 (2012): 1801–2.

9. Nancy E. Morden, Carrie H. Colla, Thomas D. Sequist, and Meredith B. Rosenthal, “Choosing Wisely—The Politics and Economics of Labeling Low-Value Services,” New England Journal of Medicine 370, no. 7 (2014): 589–92.

10. Timothy P. Daaleman, Warren A. Kinghorn, Warren P. Newton, and Keith G. Meador, “Rethinking Professionalism in Medical Education Through Formation,” Family Medicine 43, no. 5 (2011): 326.

Chapter 11. Impatient Attending

1. In Colorado 93 percent of all medical marijuana registrants are registered for “severe pain.” See Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment, “Medical Marijuana Registry Program Update, May 31, 2015,” at https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/sites/default/files/05_2015_MMR_report.pdf (accessed July 16, 2015).

2. Jerome D. Frank and Julia Frank, Persuasion and Healing: A Comparative Study of Psychotherapy, 3rd ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991). I cite here the third edition, which Jerome Frank co-wrote with his daughter Julia.

3. Frank and Frank, Persuasion and Healing, 52.

4. See Scott L. Furney, Alex N. Orsini, Kym E. Orsetti, David T. Stern, et al., “Teaching the One-Minute Preceptor: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 16, no. 9 (2001): 620–24. Some of the many teaching tools popular in academic medicine are described in Jennifer R. Kogan, Eric S. Holmboe, and Karen E. Hauer, “Tools for Direct Observation and Assessment of Clinical Skills of Medical Trainees: A Systematic Review,” JAMA 302, no. 12 (2009): 1316–26.

5. Renato D. Alarcón, Julia Frank, and Jerome D. Frank, eds., The Psychotherapy of Hope: The Legacy of “Persuasion and Healing” (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012).

6. See Tait D. Shanafelt, Sonja Boone, Litjen Tan, Lotte N. Dyrbye, et al., “Burnout and Satisfaction with Work-Life Balance Among US Physicians Relative to the General US Population,” Archives of Internal Medicine 172, no. 18 (2012): 1377–85.

7. Katherine J. Gold, Ananda Sen, and Thomas L. Schwenk, “Details on Suicide Among US Physicians: Data from the National Violent Death Reporting System,” General Hospital Psychiatry 35, no. 1 (2013): 45–49.

Chapter 12. Muscle Ups

1. Glassman’s analogy can found, among other places, in Andréa Maria Cecil, “Prevention or Prescription?” CrossFit Journal, April 6, 2014, available at http://journal.crossfit.com/2014/04/prevention-or-prescription.tpl. The best overview of CrossFit’s development is by J. C. Herz, Learning to Breathe Fire: The Rise of CrossFit and the Primal Future of Fitness (New York: Crown Archetype, 2014).

2. See, e.g., Stephen J. Bartels, Sarah I. Pratt, Kelly A. Aschbrenner, Laura K. Barre, et al., “Pragmatic Replication Trial of Health Promotion Coaching for Obesity in Serious Mental Illness and Maintenance of Outcomes,” American Journal of Psychiatry 172, no. 4 (2015): 344–52.

3. For an overview, see Jeanette M. Olsen and Bonnie J. Nesbitt, “Health Coaching to Improve Healthy Lifestyle Behaviors: An Integrative Review,” American Journal of Health Promotion 25, no. 1 (2010): e1–e12; Ruth Q. Wolever, Leigh Ann Simmons, Gary A. Sforzo, Diana Dill, et al., “A Systematic Review of the Literature on Health and Wellness Coaching: Defining a Key Behavioral Intervention in Healthcare,” Global Advances in Health and Medicine 2, no. 4 (2013): 38–57; Amireh Ghorob and Thomas Bodenheimer, “Sharing the Care to Improve Access to Primary Care,” New England Journal of Medicine 366, no. 21 (2012): 1955–57.

4. For example, see Paul Taro Hak, Emil Hodzovic, and Ben Hickey, “The Nature and Prevalence of Injury During CrossFit Training,” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research November 22, 2013 (epub ahead of print).

Chapter 13. Doctors Without Silver

1. Dominican Prayer: Assembly Edition (Chicago: Dominican Province of St. Albert the Great, 1994), 393.

2. The pamphlets are lost to me now, but the ongoing engagement with Cosmas and Damian was discussed by Jacalyn Duffin in Medical Saints: Cosmas and Damian in a Postmodern World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013); she notes that in 1915 Osler sent a color lithograph of the two saints to the founder of the Mayo Clinic.

3. Stanley Hauerwas, Suffering Presence: Theological Reflections on Medicine, the Mentally Handicapped, and the Church (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1986), 81.

4. Hauerwas, Suffering Presence, 49.

5. David Hilfiker, Healing the Wounds: A Physician Looks at His Work (Omaha: Creighton University Press, 1998).

6. For an influential account of the distinction between Platonic and Hippocratic medicine, see Henry Cohen, “The Nature, Methods, and Purpose of Diagnosis,” Lancet 24, no. 6277 (1943): 23–25.

7. Guenter B. Risse, Mending Bodies, Saving Souls: A History of Hospitals (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 44.

8. The passage is Micah 6:6–8, from Donald Senior and John J. Collins, eds., The Catholic Study Bible: The New American Bible, Including the Revised New Testament and Psalms, Translated from the Original Languages with Critical Use of All the Ancient Sources, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 1287.

9. The passage is Matthew 25:35–36, from Senior and Collins, Catholic Study Bible, 1389.

10. The development of Basil’s hospital is addressed by Risse, but more fully in Andrew T. Crislip, From Monastery to Hospital: Christian Monasticism and the Transformation of Health Care in Late Antiquity (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005).

11. Quoted in Margaret Guenther, At Home in the World: A Rule of Life for the Rest of Us (New York: Seabury, 2006), 149.

12. Timothy S. Miller, The Birth of the Hospital in the Byzantine Empire, 2nd ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).

13. Risse, Mending Bodies, 80.

14. Victoria Sweet, God’s Hotel: A Doctor, a Hospital, and a Pilgrimage to the Heart of Medicine (New York: Riverhead, 2012), 29.

Chapter 14. Red Cards

1. See Martha N. Gardner and Allan M. Brandt, “‘The Doctors’ Choice Is America’s Choice’: The Physician in US Cigarette Advertisements, 1930–1953,” American Journal of Public Health 96, no. 2 (2006): 222–32.

2. Kristen Wyatt, “Colorado Pulls in $76M in Marijuana Taxes and Business Fees for 2014,” Denver Post, March 10, 2015, available at www.thecannabist.co/2015/02/10/colorado-pot-tax-44-million-recreational-taxes-2014/29510/.

3. Abraham M. Nussbaum, Christian Thurstone, Laurel McGarry, Brendan Walker, and Allison L. Sabel, “Use and Diversion of Medical Marijuana Among Adults Admitted to Inpatient Psychiatry,” American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 41, no. 2 (2015): 166–72.

4. The most thorough account of the limited evidence for the medical use of marijuana is Penny F. Whiting, Robert F. Wolff, Sohan Deshpande, Marcello Di Nisio, et al., “Cannabinoids for Medical Use: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” JAMA 313, no. 24 (2015): 2456–73. For an overview of the adverse effects of marijuana use, see Nora D. Volkow, Ruben D. Baler, Wilson M. Compton, and Susan R. B. Weiss, “Adverse Health Effects of Marijuana Use,” New England Journal of Medicine 370, no. 23 (2014): 2219–27.

5. These data come from the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment and can be accessed online at https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/cdphe/statistics-and-data (accessed August 4, 2015).

6. Talcott Parsons, The Social System (London: Routledge, 1991).

7. Nancy Tomes, Remaking the American Patient: How Madison Avenue and Modern Medicine Turned Patients into Consumers (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016). When I was writing this book, I used material from Tomes’s book, at that time forthcoming and due for publication in January 2016.

8. For spirited overviews of the rise of our contemporary use of medications, from which these statistics are drawn, see Melody Petersen, Our Daily Meds: How the Pharmaceutical Companies Transformed Themselves into Slick Marketing Machines and Hooked the Nation on Prescription Drugs (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2008); and David Healy, Pharmageddon (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012).

9. Stanley Hauerwas and Charles Pinches, “Practicing Patience: How Christians Should Be Sick,” in The Hauerwas Reader, ed. John Berkman and Michael G. Cartwright (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001), 348.

10. Annemarie Mol, The Logic of Care: Health and the Problem of Patient Choice (London: Routledge, 2008).

11. Christine White and Javier Gonzalez Del Rey, “Decreasing Adverse Events Through Night Talks: An Interdisciplinary, Hospital-Based Quality Improvement Project,” Permanente Journal 13, no. 4 (2009): 16–22.

Chapter 15. Witnesses

1. There are scores of health inequality papers and textbooks. For a brief illustration of how inequality affects health across generations, see Caroline Sayer and Thomas H. Lee, “Time After Time—Health Policy Implications of a Three-Generation Case Study,” New England Journal of Medicine 371, no. 14 (2014): 1273–76.

2. See Julie M. Zito, Daniel J. Safer, Devadatta Sai, James F. Gardner, et al., “Psychotropic Medication Patterns Among Youth in Foster Care,” Pediatrics 121, no. 1 (2008): e157–63.

3. The seven items, known as the “Hospital-Based Inpatient Psychiatric Services Core Measure Set,” are created and enforced by the Joint Commission. The list can be accessed at http://www.jointcommission.org/assets/1/6/HBIPS.pdf (accessed July 17, 2015).

4. For example, see Paula W. Yoon, Bastian Brigham, Robert N. Anderson, Janet L. Collins, Harold W. Jaffe, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Potentially Preventable Deaths from the Five Leading Causes of Death—United States, 2008–2010,” MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 63, no. 17 (2014): 369–74.

5. This literature is reviewed in the summary report by the Institute of Medicine’s Committee on Geographic Variation in Health Care Spending and Promotion of High-Value Care, Variation in Health Care Spending: Target Decision Making, Not Geography, ed. Joseph P. Newhouse, Alan M. Garber, Robin P. Graham, Margaret A. McCoy, Michelle Mancher, and Ashna Kibria (Washington D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 2013).

6. Paul Farmer, Pathologies of Power: Health, Human Rights, and the New War on the Poor (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 138.

7. Farmer, Pathologies of Power, 140.

8. Farmer, Pathologies of Power, 157–58.

9. Mission statement, Partners in Health, at http://www.pih.org/pages/our-mission.

10. Farmer, Pathologies of Power, 227; Michael Griffin and Jennie Weiss Block, In the Company of the Poor: Conversations Between Dr. Paul Farmer and Fr. Gustavo Gutiérrez (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2013), 16. The story of Paul Farmer and Partners in Health is also told by Tracy Kidder in Mountains Beyond Mountains: The Quest of Dr. Paul Farmer, a Man Who Would Cure the World (New York: Random House, 2003).

11. Paul Farmer and Jonathan Weigel, To Repair the World: Paul Farmer Speaks to the Next Generation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013), 234.

12. See Alexandra Cook, Joseph Spinazzola, Julian Ford, Cheryl Lanktree, et al., “Complex Trauma in Children and Adolescents,” Psychiatric Annals 35, no. 5 (2005): 390–98.

13. Jeffrey J. Haugaard, “Recognizing and Treating Uncommon Behavioral and Emotional Disorders in Children and Adolescents Who Have Been Severely Maltreated: Somatization and Other Somatoform Disorders.” Child Maltreatment 2004, 9(2): 169–76.

14. This history was recently reviewed in Emmanuel Broussolle, Florent Gobert, Teodor Danaila, Stéphane Thobois, Olivier Walusinski, and Julien Bogousslavsky, “History of Physical and ‘Moral’ Treatment of Hysteria,” Frontiers of Neurology and Neuroscience 35 (2014): 181–97. The quotation comes from Henry Maudsley, The Pathology of Mind: A Study of Its Distempers, Deformities, and Disorders. (New York: Macmillan, 1895), 138.

Chapter 16. Hope

1. Eric R. Kandel, “A New Intellectual Framework for Psychiatry,” American Journal of Psychiatry 155, no. 4 (1998): 466.

2. Walker Percy, Love in the Ruins: The Adventures of a Bad Catholic at a Time Near the End of the World (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1971).

3. Josef Breuer and Sigmund Freud, Studies on Hysteria (New York: Basic, 1957), 305.

4. My favorite account of such an approach is the wise book by Margaret Mohrmann, Medicine as Ministry: Reflections on Suffering, Ethics, and Hope (Cleveland: Pilgrim, 1995).

5. Sigmund Freud, “Recommendations to Physicians Practicing Psycho-Analysis,” in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, vol.12, ed. James Strachey (London: Hogarth, 1961), 115.

6. Basil of Caesarea, Ascetical Works, trans. Sister M. Monica Wagner (New York: Fathers of the Church, 1950), 333.

7. Basil, Ascetical Works, 336.

Epilogue

1. Paul R. McHugh, “Striving for Coherence: Psychiatry’s Efforts over Classification” JAMA 293, no. 20 (2005): 2526–28.

2. P. Eugen Bleuler, “Die Prognose der Dementia praecox (Schizophreniegruppe),” Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie und psychischgerichtliche Medizin 65 (1908): 436–64.

3. Walker Percy, The Moviegoer (New York: Knopf, 1961), 233. Woods Nash recently reminded me of this passage when he quoted it in his essay, “Searching for Medicine in Walker Percy’s The Moviegoer,” Literature and Medicine 31, no. 1 (2013): 114–41.