The Inuit
It is well-known that Roald Amundsen professed an intimate knowledge of working with Polar dogs and that he included in his crew two members who were expert dog drivers with previous experience in sledging expeditions – Sverre Hassel and Helmer Hanssen. But it is a little known fact that Amundsen actually attempted to hire two Greenlandic Inuit to care for his 100 dogs during his Norwegian Antarctic Expedition – during the sea voyage from Norway to Antarctica and possibly during the South Pole expedition itself. His correspondence with the Greenland Trading Company (Amundsen Letters of Correspondence) bears out this surprising fact and makes for a startling discovery.
In a letter dated February 7, 1910, 1 sent to the Greenland inspector, Amundsen broached this new topic not mentioned heretofore – a topic that would bring new headaches to Jens Daugaard-Jensen and that now seems quite perplexing, in light of Amundsen’s self-perception as a dog expert and his predilection for self-reliance.
In this letter, Amundsen raised the question of requesting two “Eskimos” from Greenland to be provided as a part of his expedition. The question was posed in passing in a letter that confirmed the agreement of the date and location (mid-July in Kristiansand) for the delivery of the 100 dogs from Greenland. This new inquiry regarding hiring two people as well unleashed a whole new series of letters, requirements, and complications that Amundsen most likely did not foresee.
Though it was not detailed at the time, one can only conjecture that Amundsen’s initial request for two Inuit from Greenland was made for the purpose of handling the 100 dogs. Amundsen later never mentioned this request in any of his writings – not in his expedition diaries, not in his official book, not in his lectures, and not in his autobiography. The request implies an alarming lack of confidence on Amundsen’s part regarding his ability to take care of the dogs during their transport south to the Antarctic and possibly even during their time in Antarctica. Perhaps he was not so certain that he would be able to keep the dogs healthy and alive as they crossed the equator. And perhaps he suspected that he would need help handling his dog team once on Antarctic ice. The request itself was interesting, as was its outcome.
Upon receiving Amundsen’s request for two Greenlandic Inuit, Daugaard-Jensen conferred with the director, Carl Ryberg. Daugaard-Jensen’s initial response to Amundsen was (a) to warn him of the difference of the Greenlanders’ culture, especially in regard to money and the special care that one must take in carrying out employment dealings with them; (b) to seek Amundsen’s assurance that the two Inuit would be treated equally as part of the crew and would be well taken care of; (c) to question the length of time for the expedition and how these two people would be returned home; and (d) to preview to Amundsen the long list of detailed questions that he would have to answer about the route of travel, tasks performed, crew makeup, payments made, and life insurance guaranteed in order to gain this type of permission (which seemed quite rare and difficult indeed) from the Danish State authorities. “I am worried because … [having money] is not their way of living,” wrote Daugaard-Jensen to Amundsen regarding the Greenlanders, in a letter dated February 10, 1910. 2 “But I will try [to arrange this], because it is you – I know you will take good care of them.”
Hence there ensued a new series of letters written between the two men, wherein Amundsen answered Daugaard-Jensen’s specific questions – though not very specifically, at first. The explorer began with vague, general answers and then became more and more specific as the inspector repeated more and more of the questions.
In a letter dated February 12, 1910, 3 Roald Amundsen, through his brother Leon – who wrote and signed the letter on behalf of “my brother” Roald – replied that yes, the Greenlanders would be employed in the same manner as the rest of the crew, but he did not specify exactly what type of work they would do. Regarding the route, he said the plans were to sail south from Norway, around South America, up to San Francisco, across the Bering Strait, and then on to the Polar Ocean – but he did not mention anything about stopping in Antarctica, of course, as the South Pole destination at this time was a secret. He did say, however, that the expedition would last for 5 years.
Daugaard-Jensen replied on February 15, 1910, 4 with more questions to Amundsen’s answers, expressing reservations about the extended length of time that these two men would be away from their homes. He politely queried Amundsen about the full crew member status for the Greenlanders, the method of payment, details about life insurance, and other matters. “The Greenland people are not used to questions like these, so we have to take care of them,” he told Amundsen.
Amundsen’s response on February 17, 1910, 5 was finally forthright regarding the exact job that these two Inuit men would perform. “The main purpose for me is to have people who are fully accustomed to dogs during the first part of the trip ‘round to San Francisco,” he wrote. “I’m willing to arrange for them to come back home safely from San Francisco.” Amundsen went on to talk about the importance of the two Greenlandic people to take care of the dogs.
So here we gain the full measure of Amundsen’s priority and concern for this expedition: first and foremost, he wanted the dogs to be well taken care of – and perhaps trained – by those who were the most knowledgeable and experienced with sled dogs, the Inuit. Because he was staking his South Pole discovery on the Greenland dogs who would take him there, for this reason, he was willing to assume the responsibility of taking two Greenlandic indigenous people with him to take care of these sled dogs.
But what may very well have seemed curious to Daugaard-Jensen was the fact that Amundsen wanted the two dog specialists to be with the dogs only on the way down south (around South America) and back up north to San Francisco, not on to the Arctic for the actual North Pole expedition. This seemed to be short of goal, although possibly Daugaard-Jensen may have believed that Amundsen only wanted the two workers for the sea journey portion of the trip – that is, down the Atlantic past the equator and then back up the Pacific across the equator and on to San Francisco.
But dropping them off in San Francisco – can this be right? How could it be so? Amundsen knew that he was going to stop in Antarctica on his way back up to San Francisco! So, he must have wanted the two Greenlanders specifically for the trip from Norway to the South Pole, and then he would drop them off in San Francisco when the expedition had returned north from the South Pole.
Technically, Amundsen told the truth when he said the two dog experts would accompany him during the first part of the trip, for he did plan to proceed from San Francisco on to the Arctic and then to the North Pole as the second part of the expedition; however, the omission of the part about stopping in the Antarctic along the way is a rather large one. For, little did Daugaard-Jensen know that all the action would take place in the south – that the dogs’ true mission, and hence the Greenlanders’ as well, lay at Ninety Degrees South. The journey down there, past South America, and then on to the Antarctic and the South Pole itself – this crucial leg of the journey was being withheld from the information given to Daugaard-Jensen.
This begs the question: where, truly, would Amundsen have dropped off these two people? If, as he said, they would disembark in San Francisco, that would not take place for at least 2 years. His true plan called for him to overwinter in Antarctica, staying there from 1911 to 1912 and leaving from there during the beginning of the year 1912 before ever reaching San Francisco. Would not 2 years be a long time for these individuals to be away from their homes? Perhaps he planned for them to remain on the ship during the winter he spent in Antarctica – but the Fram would winter close by, near Argentine waters, and traveling such a far distance in the opposite direction toward North America seems unlikely, given the time constraints for returning to Antarctica to pick up the wintering party. One may propose that possibly he was really planning to drop them off in Madeira, the tropical island near mainland Portugal, where Amundsen had secretly scheduled a stop on his way down south. But that would be too soon to relinquish the services of the Inuit, as the biggest challenge for the dogs during the sea journey would be crossing the equator, which is further south than Madeira.
Amundsen himself said in his official book, The South Pole: An Account of the Norwegian Antarctic Expedition in the “Fram,” 1910–1912 (Amundsen 1912, vol. 1: 59–60): “From the very beginning I saw that the first part of our expedition, from Norway to the [Ice] Barrier, would be the most dangerous section. If we could only reach the Barrier with our dogs safe and well, the future would be bright enough.” Looking at this statement in retrospect, especially in light of his private request for two Inuit workers, it takes on new meaning: first, that Amundsen most likely thought of bringing two Greenlandic experts to look after the dogs for that “most dangerous section” of their trip from Norway to Antarctica and, second, that it was truly amazing that he and his crew were able to bring these northern dogs successfully to the southernmost continent without having the help of two experienced native Greenlanders, from the dogs’ native land, to take care of them.
The Greenland Trading Company’s response to Amundsen regarding his proposition that the Greenlanders be dropped off in San Francisco was a positive one – but possibly only because Daugaard-Jensen seemed under the impression that this part of the journey would only require a year’s absence. “I think it would be possible to get two people to go to San Francisco,” wrote the inspector in a typewritten letter dated February 23, 1910. 6 “This means that they would leave from Greenland together with the dogs in the middle of June this year [1910], then come back the middle of July 1911 [via San Francisco] to Copenhagen, then from there return to North Greenland.” In actuality, this portion of the trip, as Amundsen had planned it, would extend to the middle of 1912, thus necessitating 2 years that the two people would be away. Amundsen, however, did not enlighten the good inspector as to this fact.
Daugaard-Jensen went on to suggest a fair wage as payment for the Inuit – 60 kroner per month. This was higher than the 50 kroner that Amundsen had proposed in a previous letter. He also insisted that all expenses be paid for food and travel and clothing. “But I want someone who understands their language to travel with them from San Francisco to Copenhagen,” he added as a condition to the agreement.
Amundsen handwrote his reply to the inspector’s typed letter on the bottom of its last page, presumably for Leon to draft and send back to Daugaard-Jensen as a letter from Amundsen: “I do not wish for the Eskimos to go on the entire trip. Therefore, I have decided that they will go only from Greenland to San Francisco. Also, I was thinking that other members of the crew who will be returning from San Francisco can take care of them. But I want the people to be in their best age.” This was signed “R,” and dated February 25, 1910.
He [Ryberg] is going through the Department of Foreign Affairs. You have asked for the allowance of two Greenland Eskimos from North Greenland to take care of the dogs. These two people should be around 25 to 35 years old, and should go with the dogs from Greenland to Norway, then go with them on the expedition with the Fram to San Francisco. Then they will go back to Copenhagen, then back to North Greenland again in the summer of 1911 with the last ship returning to Greenland. They will look after the dogs, and take part in what the rest of the crew is doing. Then return from San Francisco to Greenland.
These terms were followed by many guarantees and conditions, some of which restated payment and insurance requirements.
There is one thing I really wanted to draw your attention to. Even though you have not asked me for advice about this, I nonetheless give this advice to you. I think it would be a very smart thing to do, as part of good preparation, to have the dogs shaved – by machine – as close as possible, as soon as they come to Norway, so that they will not be too hot when they travel into the heat, and will remain unscathed through the hot weather. If you shave them immediately, their fur will grow back out again by the time the dogs reach the cold climate. Possibly you have already thought of this, but I ask you at least to consider this, and think about my advice. I ask you this because I am very fond of the dogs.
Had he an inkling, one wonders, about the impending plight of the dogs? Jens Daugaard-Jensen, who was very careful and thoughtful, seemed truly concerned about the dogs’ welfare – that they not suffer in the heat of the tropics.
Perhaps it was to placate him, or perhaps it was because he agreed with him, but Amundsen’s next letter to the inspector contained a simple reply that brought both matters of the Greenland people and the Greenland dogs to a close, as far as the correspondence is concerned. For in that next letter, dated March 9, 1910, 8 Amundsen simply replied: “Dear Mr. Daugaard-Jensen, I will write to the official government in the colony in Greenland, and I’m grateful to read that you are going to get me skilled people. I find your advice about [shaving] the dogs splendid, and I might follow your advice. Roald.” This was the most informal of all his letters. And this was the last time that Amundsen mentioned the two Inuit in his correspondence. Perhaps the informality reflects his decision made at that time to not pursue the Inuit matter further. As for the shaving of the dogs, Amundsen’s informal tone also reveals his mentally “writing off” that notion – but more would be heard about this topic later.
Daugaard-Jensen had been genuinely concerned about the proposition of Amundsen taking two indigenous people on the expedition with him. The inspector for Greenland had wanted to make sure that the native Greenlandic people were not taken advantage of, and, with Director Ryberg’s assurances about Amundsen, Daugaard-Jensen had wanted the Inuit to be fully informed and protected as to the assignment they were undertaking. He had also wanted to provide Amundsen with that which he was requesting, for the captain had a long and stellar history with the Greenland Trading Company, and the inspector wanted to provide excellent service to him wherever and whenever possible. Little did Daugaard-Jensen know that Amundsen was obfuscating – concealing the truth about the destination and duration of the expedition.
After all the lengthy correspondence and detailed terms and conditions about the two Inuit, the matter was dropped. Perhaps there exist other records or letters pertaining to this matter that have not yet come to light, but the bottom line is that Amundsen ultimately did not take two Greenlandic individuals with him to care for the dogs during his expedition. Most likely, he decided it would be too much trouble to deal with the Danish government involving his secret mission – too many questions asked, too much red tape, and too many specifics required, which he was not ready to divulge. Or possibly he decided that he did not need the dog caretakers after all, but this seems less likely, given the amount of importance he placed on the dogs. The fact of the matter is that Amundsen most definitely knew in February 1910, at the time of his request for two Inuit workers, that he was actually going to the South Pole, not the North Pole, and so he was in reality trying to get two Inuit individuals to take care of the dogs for the South Pole journey, knowing that the dogs were the most important part of the expedition and knowing that this would entail the Inuit being away longer than the inspector had planned. Amundsen did not want to answer questions, and he withheld information prior to his departure for the South. Withholding the truth (or, in other words, lying by omission) is one thing when making arrangements for supplies and provisions, but it is quite another thing when seeking international governments’ consent for hiring people and taking actions that involve those people’s wellbeing. This type of leading governments astray – regarding the route taken, the length of time away, a guarantee of return, etc., especially where it concerned indigenous people who were viewed as under the protection of a government – was dangerous. Amundsen probably realized the danger and therefore thought better of this enterprise regarding the “two Eskimos.”
As for the dogs, and Amundsen’s taking them under false pretenses, well, unfortunately, that was a different thing, perhaps at that time not as well-regulated – the dogs, definitely, had no say-so in the matter.
Good Greenland Dogs
In western Greenland, along the frozen coast, on the tiny islands that surrounded Disko Bay, lived good Greenland dogs who helped their Inuit families travel, hunt, work, and live. Their homes were in the three districts known at that time by their Danish names as Egedesminde, Godhavn, and Jakobshavn – today called by their Greenlandic names Aasiaat, Qeqertarsuaq, and Ilulissat.
Because of breeding and conditioning traits, theirs was a life of work pulling sledges, and they were happiest when doing so, for that was what they were born to do.
The dogs, with their double coats of fur, thick fur collars, and full curly tails, felt best when in the snow, as the cold weather was their natural climate; they would otherwise become overheated if the temperature was high or when they were in motion – and they loved to be in motion. They preferred running to sitting, and when running, they preferred to be at the front of the team. When they sat or rested, they immersed themselves completely in the act of resting, curling up tightly in the snow, and hiding their noses underneath the tips of their tails to keep warm for hours while remaining motionless.
The Greenland huskies’ long pointed noses, straight triangular pointed ears, broad heads, long jaw lines, and deep dark eyes were reminiscent of wolves’ appearance, and they definitely had the pack mentality of the Canis lupus when traveling, but their actions also showed loyalty to and protection of certain humans with whom they dealt.
These dogs were fast and strong, with incredible stamina and agility, and the ability to traverse many types of terrain over very long distances. They were so powerful and rugged looking that one would think they could withstand anything. They had delicate paws, however, and their feet, while able to negotiate the worst surfaces, could become injured irreparably.
On this west coast of Greenland, in this Spring of 1910, the puppies who had been born here 2 and 3 years prior were now adults training to work and working for their living.
Two twins, with mottled dark-and-light coats and roundish smaller-sized bodies, excelled in leadership as the leads on a sledge. They would soon come to be known as Mylius and Ring.
A handsome, large dog with a dark reddish-brown coat, large head, and black-lined eyes, rested in front of a hut, seemingly in deep contemplation. He would come to be known as Obersten (“The Colonel”).
A chocolate-cream-colored wooly female, with white markings on her belly, gently allowed children to congregate about her, keeping an eye on the youngest child lest he get in trouble. In her near future, she would be named Camilla (also spelled Kamilla).
Three young friends happily ate fish together – a young female with deep fox-red coloring, a large gray male with a wolf-like face and an impressive set of teeth, and a pure black male with white markings on his face. This trio would come to be known as Snuppesen, Fix, and Lasse (also known as Lassesen).
They were not cognizant of it at this moment, but these dogs were about to be taken away from their native land, onto a journey that would take them across the world and thrust them into the defining event of their lives – an event that would become a seminal moment in our human history.
Notes on Unpublished Sources
- 1.
R. Amundsen to J. Daugaard-Jensen, 7 February 1910, NB Brevs. 812:3:4
- 2.
J. Daugaard-Jensen to R. Amundsen, 10 February 1910, NB Brevs. 812:1
- 3.
L. Amundsen to J. Daugaard-Jensen, 12 February 1910, NB Brevs. 812:3:4
- 4.
J. Daugaard-Jensen to R. Amundsen, 15 February 1910, NB Brevs. 812:1
- 5.
R. Amundsen to J. Daugaard-Jensen, 17 February 1910, NB Brevs. 812:3:4
- 6.
J. Daugaard-Jensen to R. Amundsen, 23 February 1910, NB Brevs. 812:1
- 7.
J. Daugaard-Jensen to R. Amundsen, 6 March 1910, NB Brevs. 812:1
- 8.
R. Amundsen to J. Daugaard-Jensen, 9 March 1910, NB Brevs. 812:3:4