Stockholm, 1925. Hermann Goering, future head of the Nazi war economy, commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe and chosen successor to Adolf Hitler, was a morphine addict and refugee from German justice. His chances of recovery depended on his Swedish wife, Karin. Her wealthy family had agreed to pay for his treatment at a private clinic. After attacking a nurse he was put in a straitjacket and deposited in a lunatic asylum. There was no guarantee he would see the outside world again. However, with Karin at his side, he quit the morphine and regained his health.
This was significant, not only for the Nazi movement but also for his brother Albert. Two years Hermann’s junior, Albert loathed Hitler from day one. Had Hermann not achieved immense power, Albert’s feelings about the Nazis would have had little consequence. As it was, he saved hundreds, perhaps thousands of people across Europe from persecution, spending nearly a decade working against his brother’s regime, rescuing humble shopkeepers and heads of state, running escape routes, hauling prisoners out of concentration camps, influencing policy and assisting the Resistance.
But none of this would have been possible without Hermann. During preparations for the Nuremberg trials, Albert informed his sceptical Allied interrogators that, ‘Hermann Goering often saved his life and never tried to curtail his Samaritan activities, only cautioning him to have some consideration for his position.’1
* * *
On 8 May 1945, as the Second World War ground to a halt, Albert Goering walked into the Allied Command Centre in Salzburg and was immediately detained by the Americans. They had located a base there in response to rumours that German troops might attempt to regroup in that mountainous region and launch a rearguard action. Large numbers of soldiers were fleeing in that direction seeking safety, clogging roads already jammed with civilian refugees.
Among their number was Hermann Goering, who had set off towards inevitable capture in the style of a warlord embarking on a triumphal procession through his homeland. Surrounded by his close family and attendants, sporting his array of medals, trailing a conspicuous amount of luggage, he passed through the throngs of defeated and dispossessed, their morale momentarily lifted by the sight of the Reichsmarschall in all his brazen glory, seemingly unaffected by the disasters that had befallen him. Some 30 kilometres south of Salzburg, he was taken into custody by First Lieutenant Jerome N. Shapiro. The young American officer could not believe his luck. He had been fruitlessly scouring the region only to run into Hermann, full of bonhomie and delighted to be arrested.
When Albert turned himself in a few hours earlier he was seriously ill. Suffering from inflammation and swelling of the liver, compounded by heart problems, he had dragged himself off his sick bed in order to fulfil what he considered to be his duty. As the brother of one of the most influential men in the Third Reich he believed it essential he set the record straight at the earliest opportunity.
Both brothers regarded the Americans as potential saviours. Neither felt guilty of any crimes and expected fair treatment. They were equally mistaken, failing to grasp the victors’ determination to set a precedent for future conflicts. In Albert’s case the miscalculation was understandable given that he had resisted the Nazis in any way he could. For Hermann it was symptomatic of the degree of delusion and denial he was capable of.
Their geographical proximity when arrested was an example of the strange synchronicity that existed between them. Despite having had no contact for months, no information about each other’s whereabouts, or of their fate, both sought refuge in the familiar surroundings of their youth.
* * *
When Hermann Goering entered the world on 12 January 1893, his family had been in the service of the Prussian state for over 200 years. His earliest ancestor on record was an economic administrator for Frederick the Great. His father, Heinrich Goering, worked in the consular service. As a young man Heinrich had fought in the wars against the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the French which had made possible the unification of a disparate federation of states and principalities into a single Germany under the dominance of Prussia and its mercurial chancellor, Bismarck.
Its territorial integrity secure, the new Germany looked to expansion, eyeing jealously the global empires of its main rivals. The options available for realising Germany’s imperial ambitions were already disappearing fast as its established competitors made their own headlong dash to wrest control of the remaining bits of the map from their indigenous populations. Africa was the focus of much of this attention, having only recently been opened up to the European.
The fear that Germany might miss out altogether was not shared by Bismarck, who was always suspicious of the actual value of colonies, having declared them to be ‘good for nothing but supply stations’. But, ever the opportunist, in 1884 he seized a broad strip of West Africa, encompassing an area that today includes Namibia and Cameroon, on the flimsy pretext that Germany’s main trading outlet at Angra Pequena needed some extra protection.
During the spring of 1885, Heinrich Goering was posted to Windhoek, designated capital of German South-West Africa. He was accompanied by his second wife, Fanny. His first wife had died not long before he had received the appointment, having borne him five children. Fanny, a mere nineteen years old, had captivated Heinrich with her startling blue eyes.
As Resident Minister, Heinrich was expected to create conditions under which Germans could prosper. First an accommodation had to be reached with the two dominant tribes in the region, the Herero and the Nam. Heinrich had no military support to speak of and therefore relied on their goodwill. They also controlled the cattle trade, which dominated economic activity in the province. Heinrich set about drawing up conditions that would respect their autonomy.
In exchange for the right to trade freely without harassment and control over foreign policy, Heinrich agreed to honour the sanctity of their laws, customs and property. These treaties helped secure peace for the rest of Heinrich’s stay – not that this was entirely down to his efforts. The tribes were preoccupied with a long-running war between them, while the actual number of Germans in the colony remained tiny. In any case, much of the territory under Heinrich’s management was nothing but desert. In effect he had very little to administer.
Then his young bride became pregnant. In hostile conditions of unbearable heat and dust, aggravated by poor sanitation, Fanny and her unborn child were at considerable risk. However, help was at hand. Offering good company, comfort, and his expert counsel was the doctor who became a formative influence on Hermann and Albert Goering, Hermann von Epenstein.
Epenstein was a charismatic, eligible bachelor from Berlin. Something of a playboy, he was an established figure on the international circuit that catered for the cream of European society – St Petersburg one week, Cairo the next. Though not conventionally handsome and given to corpulence, he had an imposing voice, extravagant clothing and dashing demeanour, described as ‘swashbuckling’. In acknowledgement of his service to the crown as Prussian court physician he had been ennobled, signified by the addition of ‘von’ to his name.
Not long after the birth, the Goerings returned to Europe. Sources suggest Heinrich’s departure was less than dignified. Though he had an agreement with the Herero tribe, their chief was in secret dialogue with the British in the Cape, who were keen to destabilise this new German dominion on their doorstep. With no garrison of any kind and threatened with revolt, Heinrich allegedly fled with his tail between his legs.2
Increased German involvement in the region, combined with crude racist attitudes, eventually caused the Herero people to rise up. In 1904, the German Army launched an extermination campaign against them: ‘Within the German boundaries every Herero, whether found armed or unarmed, with or without cattle, will be shot.’3 This order from General von Trotha drove the Herero into the deserts, cutting off their food and water supplies. Having left sufficient time for them to die of ‘natural’ causes, troops were sent in to finish off the survivors.
* * *
Heinrich’s diplomatic career had reached a critical juncture. His next appointment, a posting to Haiti, was a definite step down. Haiti had been in Germany’s sphere of influence for centuries as a minor trading centre and there was some talk of it as a springboard into South America, but formal occupation was ruled out and policy was restricted to occasional sabre-rattling in defence of German interests. The job was an exercise in killing time.
Once again his young wife packed her bags for a tropical destination. While they were there Hermann was conceived. For health reasons Fanny went home and booked into the exclusive Marienbad clinic. A couple of days after Hermann was born Epenstein arrived to check on their progress. Within a week he had decided to become Hermann’s godfather. Fanny rejoined her husband and Hermann was left in the care of a Bavarian family in the small town of Fürth.
Three years later, Heinrich had completed his duties in Haiti and faced the prospect of early retirement. His finances were in a poor condition. Civil service pay was meagre in comparison to other professions. To serve the state was reward enough. His reunited family based themselves in Berlin. It was here that Heinrich began to unravel. He began drinking heavily to dispel the melancholia that enveloped him. Just fifty-six, he appeared much older.
Epenstein took this as his cue to ride to the rescue. He offered to take the whole family under his wing and provide for their needs. Whether his generosity was prompted by the start of his affair with Fanny, is hard to establish. It did coincide with the birth of Albert Goering in March 1895. This inevitably raises the question: was Epenstein Albert’s biological father?
The consensus of many who knew them was that Albert was Epenstein’s son. They cite the facial resemblance between them – both were dark haired and shared a Central European physiognomy while Hermann was fair and blue eyed – and the glaring differences in personality between the brothers.
For Hermann and Albert it was never an issue. Both were well aware of the nature of their godfather’s relationship with their mother. As a close family friend observed, ‘Everyone accepted the situation and it did not seem to trouble Hermann or Albert at all.’4 As far as they were concerned they were united as siblings. Even years later, when it would have been incredibly convenient for Albert to claim his ‘real’ lineage, he resolutely stuck with the Goering name.
* * *
Epenstein divided his time between two medieval castles. Castle Veldenstein was a stone fortress built on a cliff high above Neuhaus, a beer-producing town about forty kilometres north of Nuremberg. The original buildings may well have been constructed as early as 918 but the castle only entered the historical record in 1269. Epenstein bought it in 1897 for 20,000 marks. He spent the next seventeen years and 1.5 million marks restoring its former splendour. Today the castle is host to a successful hotel and restaurant business.
His other acquisition was Castle Mauterndorf, built around the end of the first millennium, former home of the local feudal lord, situated to the south of Salzburg and just east of Innsbruck. An imposing structure, set deep in the mountains, the castle towers over the small village that carries its name. Epenstein took over in 1894 and began redecorating. Nowadays the castle is a medieval theme park, with its own tour guides and adventure activities.
The Goering family went back and forth between both castles, often having Veldenstein to themselves for long periods. At Mauterndorf, Epenstein installed them in lodgings built in the grounds. They were free to roam except when Epenstein entertained visitors. Then only Fanny was allowed to show her face, taking the part of lady of the manor, which in effect she was, while the others remained elsewhere. She would then retire to Epenstein’s bedchamber and not return to her family until the next morning.
Given that Epenstein’s lavish dinner parties were almost a nightly occurrence, this embargo made Heinrich a virtual exile. He retreated further into depression and alcoholism, resigned to the fact that his wife was his benefactor’s mistress. At a glance it seems odd that there was not some kind of scandal. The rise of mass media had created a public arena for salacious gossip, and tales of the sexual misdemeanours of the ruling class were guaranteed to shift newspapers. The courts then dealt with the sensational litigation that followed the headlines.
Prince Philip Eulenberg, former ambassador to Vienna and one of the Kaiser’s closest friends, was accused by a newspaper of being part of a homosexual clique that operated at the highest level of society. The libel trial lasted two years, 1907–9, and held the nation’s interest every sordid step of the way. It revealed, among other things, details of orgies held at an elite cavalry officers’ club in Berlin. The Goerings were spared this kind of indignity. Their domestic arrangement barely raised an eyebrow.
Epenstein, Fanny and Heinrich maintained their masquerade for nearly fourteen years. Then, in 1912, Epenstein fell hopelessly in love with Fraulein Lilli, an engaging beauty in her twenties who knew exactly how to twist him round her little finger. At sixty-three years old the confirmed bachelor was ready to marry. Lilli left him little choice, refusing to succumb until her wedding night. Heinrich and Fanny were unceremoniously ejected from their quarters in the spring of 1913, the old man mumbling darkly about this ‘betrayal of friendship’.
At the time Hermann was nineteen and Albert seventeen. Neither boy was there to witness the end of the affair. Hermann had just received a regimental commission and Albert was away at school. A few months later Heinrich died. He was already ailing and the shock of moving to a rented house in Munich in such degrading circumstances was enough to kill him. He was buried in the grand Waldfriedhof cemetery.
Though there was some bitterness felt towards Epenstein in the immediate aftermath, particularly by Hermann, the family crisis was quickly overshadowed by the advent of the First World War. The damage was soon repaired. Lilli was just as keen as Epenstein to maintain contact with his godchildren. When Hermann was granted convalescent leave from his fighter squadron in 1916 he chose to spend it at Mauterndorf.
* * *
Though not born to it, Epenstein flaunted his newly earned aristocratic pedigree with all the energetic enthusiasm of a self-made man who had reinvented himself in the pursuit of respectability. For Epenstein was Jewish. This was not an absolute block on advancement, but Epenstein still decided to become a Roman Catholic.
The pitfalls of being a successful Jew were exemplified by the life of the financier Bleichröder. As Bismarck’s personal banker he helped pay for the wars that delivered unification and, in 1872, was the first Jew ever to add the coveted ‘von’ to his name. Bleichröder also backed Bismarck’s overseas expeditions. In 1885, at the same time that Heinrich Goering was Resident Minister in Windhoek, Bleichröder set up the German South-West African Colonial Company to handle commerce in the region. However, his wealth left him open to bribery. A legal battle that lasted throughout the 1880s began with an accusation by a wronged mistress, who felt entitled to a share of his fortune. She took him to court. The case was dismissed but the scandal sheets got a whiff of it and made sure the whole thing snowballed into an anti-semitic witch hunt, orchestrated by state officials who wanted to charge Bleichröder with perjury. Though he avoided another trial, the mud-slinging continued right up to his death in 1893.
Epenstein side-stepped such prejudice and was not alone in seeking total assimilation, despite legislation passed in 1871 that removed the last legal restraints on the Jewish community in Germany, which then numbered around 600,000 people, about 1 per cent of the population. During the nineteenth century over 22,000 converted to Christianity. Epenstein never looked back. He remained a dedicated Roman Catholic for the rest of his life, making great show of his devotion.
Though the Goerings were Protestant, the brothers’ main exposure to the ritual of weekly worship was through Epenstein. Every Sunday, either at Mauterndorf or Veldenstein, he led a parade of pious observance, taking his extended family and guests to Mass at the village church where rows of pews were reserved for them. Hermann had little interest in religion. He paid his respects to a generic God and avoided churches. A British Tory MP later observed that, ‘There is something un-Christian about Goering, a strong pagan streak.’5 Sentenced to death at Nuremberg, Hermann did not seek absolution from the prison chaplain, or forgiveness from the Almighty. Instead he ‘launched into a tirade on the homosexuality of the Catholic clergy’, and the affairs of ‘the priests and the nuns. The nuns are “brides of Christ” you know, what a set up!’6 Albert took religion seriously and grew up to adopt a broad spiritual awareness based on tolerance and fundamental humanism: ‘I am a Protestant by confession, but I have been in Orthodox churches, in synagogues, I have been to Buddhist and Brahmin services, and it does not make any difference to me. There is only one God.’7
* * *
Daily life at Mauterndorf resembled that of a medieval court. The castle staff were expected to bow and scrape before their master. The arrival of food was signalled by a blast on a hunting horn. On special occasions Epenstein would hire a band of minstrels and musicians to play in the gallery of the main hall. He strode round his domain wearing regal costume, issuing commands, laying down the law: ‘We had to stand to attention while he was talking to us and we were not allowed to address him without permission.’8
Hermann was seven when his family moved to this world of turrets and dungeons, and already obsessed by tales of ancient Germanic heroes and their exploits. The dramatic setting made a lasting impression on him; as his sister Olga remarked years later, ‘You must come and see Castle Veldenstein, then you will understand him better.’9 He quickly took to re-enacting skirmishes with Roman legions.
Epenstein encouraged Hermann’s natural inclination towards adventure. When he was only five Epenstein gave him a hussar’s uniform. As soon as Hermann was old enough to hold a gun he joined Epenstein on hunting trips into the forests to stalk game. He was a natural, and in later years, when he had the necessary power and wealth, he would indulge his passion for the sport on a grand scale.
Hermann was also a particularly fearless climber, intent on scaling the area’s most dangerous peaks. Aged ten he took on the sheer cliff face that Castle Veldenstein had been carved out of. Three years later he reached the peak of the 3,800-metre-high Gross Glockner by the most hazardous route available. Hermann showed a barely concealed contempt for the risks involved: ‘I have no fear of heights. They stimulate me. Besides, any danger is worthwhile if you reach the top of the mountain. You know you will have a view few men will ever see.’10
In 1906, aged thirteen, Hermann was enrolled at Karlsruhe military academy, after Epenstein had pulled a few strings to get him into this exclusive training camp. The Army was virtually a state within a state, commanding huge respect and influence. Though the Army had doubled in size between 1880 and 1913, the aristocracy’s monopoly on leadership remained intact. On the eve of the First World War, 48 per cent of all German infantry officers were nobles. This proportion rose to 80 per cent in the cavalry. By securing a place for Hermann at the academy Epenstein had given him the best possible start towards a distinguished career. Hermann repaid his efforts by excelling. He became an ‘exemplary pupil’. An unruly, difficult child in all the conventional schools he had attended, Hermann had finally found an environment which inspired him and drove him to achieve.
At sixteen he had no problem graduating to the elite Gross-Lichterfelde officer cadet school after getting excellent grades in all his academic subjects and displaying leadership qualities. In his final report it was noted that Hermann had ‘developed a quality that should take him far: he is not afraid to take risks’.11 When he left he was able confidently to say, ‘I am the inheritor of all the chivalry of German knighthood.’12
Hermann was referring to the period of expansion masterminded by the Teutonic knights. This holy order was a contemporary of the Templars and the Knights of Malta. Organised around a hard core of military monks, the knights spread from their power base in southern Germany through pagan Prussia and into the Baltic States. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries they waged a succession of wars to consolidate and extend their gains, defended by a network of castles and fortifications. Christian knights, landowners and merchants were drafted in to assist the monks as they imposed their social organisation on the natives. Their armies were constantly replenished by crusaders, mercenaries, robber barons and peasant conscripts. The Teutonic knights fell from grace at the Battle of Tannenberg, 15 July 1410, annihilated by a combined force of Poles and Lithuanians. As a military outfit they were finished. Deprived of further support for their endless war, the order withered away, only to be resurrected as one of the most potent ingredients of German nationalism. The defeat at Tannenberg became a pivotal moment in the collective memory.
In late August 1914 the Teutonic knights were finally avenged by a week-long counter-offensive against Russian armies that had advanced to the German border near the scene of the monks’ original downfall. The onslaught broke the Russian line and it collapsed. The tsar’s troops were surrounded and crushed as they tried to retreat. Such was the scale of the triumph that the German generals, Hindenburg and Ludendorff, were quick to give this series of battles a suitable name: Tannenberg.
The original battle continued to exert a hold on the German psyche. In 1927 a memorial was raised in honour of the fallen knights at a massive ceremony with speeches broadcast on the radio. It was attended by a crowd of military and political figures, including Hindenburg, who was by then president of Germany. When Hindenburg died in 1934, Hitler insisted that he was buried at the site of his most famous triumph.
To establish feudal rule across the lands of their historic enemies, purged of all undesirables, was a cherished dream of the Nazi faithful. Alfred Rosenberg, the movement’s self-appointed philosopher, wrote in his theoretical tome Der Mythus about the need for ‘an association of men, on the lines of the Teutonic Order’.13 Hitler first expressed his ideas on the subject in the second edition of Mein Kampf: ‘We take up where we broke off 600 years ago. We stop the endless German movement to the south and the west, and turn our gaze to the east.’14
In 1913, ready and willing to lay down his life for the Fatherland and hoping to die a warrior’s death, Hermann joined the Prinz Wilhelm Infantry Regiment. A year later he wrote in a letter to his sisters, ‘If war breaks out you can be sure I will do credit to our name.’15
* * *
Albert was a shy, introverted, sensitive child, given easily to tears. These were not attributes that appealed to Epenstein. Aged five, Albert was sent to a boarding school in Hersbruck to toughen him up. A young man was expected to have steel in him. At a time when over 95 per cent of German children ended their formal education at the age of eleven, Albert started attending a Realschule in Munich, a specialist form of grammar school that concentrated on scientific and technical training. The Realschulen were linked to Technische Hochschulen, tertiary level institutes with a strong reputation for academic and research excellence. By the late nineteenth century there were twelve Technische Hochschulen across Germany. Their syllabuses were geared to the needs of industry, which had quickly recognised that technological innovation, and therefore scientific education, was the key to future prosperity and success in the world economy. Each Technische Hochschule was connected to a major firm which recruited directly from the student ranks. Most courses offered on-the-job training. As long as Albert did well at Realschule he would join this new elite. Though not quite as prestigious as a military career, his chosen path was no less respectable and potentially more lucrative.
Albert was a competent, if unexceptional student. Alongside his school work, he showed enthusiasm for arts and culture. His interest was met with approval by Epenstein who believed that an appreciation of the finer things in life was vital. Even Hermann, who had no particular aptitude, developed a well-trained eye: ‘I never could paint or draw but from my earliest youth I was an emphatic lover of art. I liked bright colours such as blue, red and green.’16
Albert had a real talent for music. He was a decent pianist with a good singing voice. He shared this love with Epenstein, as did a great number of Germans. Music was everywhere, with opera houses, concert halls, academies and orchestral societies in every major town. It was a national hobby that bordered on an obsession. Albert was allowed to join Epenstein for late-night recitals at the piano where they would romp through entire operas. Albert’s affection for an impromptu sing-a-long stayed with him forever.
The count was a big Wagner fan and made sure he always had excellent seats at Bayreuth, not far from Castle Veldenstein, where regular festivals dedicated to the composer took place. These were gala nights. The cult of Wagner attracted the great and good from across Europe. The young Albert would have watched sparkling carriages pull up and unload their gilded cargo – women in their extravagant finery escorted by their impeccably suited companions. The spectacle continued inside the auditorium. Performances were enlivened by spectacular sets and stunts. During some productions a real horse frolicked on stage.
Music was not their only mutual passion. Albert grew up to have a similar attitude to the opposite sex to that of his mentor. Though discreet, Epenstein was an inveterate womaniser. If a lady took his fancy he would woo her, regardless of his other commitments. He had an excellent bedside manner. How much of this he consciously passed on to Albert is difficult to gauge, as is the degree to which Albert absorbed his methods of seduction. What cannot be disputed is Albert’s own varied and busy sexual history. Married four times, he was a consummate ladies’ man: ‘He loved to have nice women around him. Everybody had a crush on him.’17
* * *
Hermann’s and Albert’s education was designed to instil core values in them that represented the moral currency of the majority of society, regardless of class, and informed the consensus of what constituted a decent citizen. Loyalty, duty, honour, a willingness to serve the greater good, selfless courage in the face of adversity: these were virtues to be exercised with absolute conviction.
The importance European civilisation placed on these notions of duty and unquestioning obedience was evident in the response that greeted the opening of hostilities in 1914. Though many were nervous at the prospect of war and the left was quick to voice its concerns, there was little organised resistance. The call to arms was answered in droves. A patriotic war was, by definition, a just one. The bonds of loyalty that wed the masses to their leaders’ suicidal policies held firm.
The code that nourished this commitment to arms was found wanting and inadequate when subjected to the horrors of industrialised, mass produced warfare. All the countries involved experienced serious repercussions.
Imperial Germany was already riven by contradictions. The ruling elite clung to the old verities and extolled them in the face of huge technological, demographic, material, political and intellectual challenges, whilst trying to exploit these for their own benefit and preservation.
The degree, scale and speed of transformation was unprecedented. Between 1870 and 1913 the German population grew by 25 million. This increase was concentrated in urban areas. While 64 per cent of Germans had lived in small rural communities of fewer than 5,000 people at the time of unification, by 1910 this figure had dropped to 40 per cent. During the same time cities and towns with over 100,000 citizens had gone from only 5 per cent of the population to 21 per cent. The social landscape of Germany had irrevocably changed.
This process was driven by economic revolution. In 1872 Germany’s GNP stood at 16 billion marks. By 1913 it had leapt to 55 billion. Agriculture was overtaken by industry. The factory worker replaced the field hand. Such a momentous shift reconfigured the division of labour and led to the thorough commercialisation and capitalisation of business practices and the emergence of a well organised working class. The aristocracy were reluctantly obliged to accommodate middle-class aspirations and relax the rules of membership.
Epenstein was as much a product of these upheavals as he was a throwback to days of yore. The very forces that threatened to topple the established order were responsible for his rise through the ranks. The loosening of feudal ties and obligations increased social mobility. Epenstein abandoned his Jewish roots and secured his status. Like many who travel upwards he had little time for reflecting on the journey. The fact that he was only able to assume the lifestyle of a medieval lord because he seized on the possibilities that modernity offered was an irony completely lost on him.
His spirited example was followed by Hermann: ‘I have come to the conclusion that there was no difference between myself as a boy and as a man. I believe that the boy had all the markings which later on appeared in the man.’18 However, as a prominent Nazi, Hermann saw fit to erase Epenstein from any discussions of his childhood. Though he inherited both Veldenstein and Mauterndorf castles, he was not prepared to publicly admit that his patron and mentor was a Jew as defined by the anti-semitic laws he had put his signature on.
Albert’s professional life was quiet, conservative and uncontroversial. Only when his brother’s political party set about destroying everything he believed in did Albert reveal the extent of his personal courage, conviction and incorruptibility: ‘When Goering was asked why he undertook all this assistance to the Jews and other victims of Nazi persecution he replied that he was completely disinterested in politics, that he loathed all oppression and tyranny, and that he was doing in some small way, everything in his power to atone for the evil and brutality of his brother and all the leaders of the Nazi regime.’19