Accelerometers, 30, 32, 34, 37, 97, 149–150
Accuracy of GPS, 5, 86–95
Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), 124–125, 176
AGM-114 Hellfire, 130, 131
Air Force, US, 71, 76f, 82, 179f. See also GPS Joint Program Office; Project 621B
Atlas-F boosters and, 94
521-B plan, 168
GPS and, 16, 84, 116, 164, 173, 175, 180 (see also Air Force bases)
launching satellites, 53
Navy and, 58, 180
targeting bombs and, 181
technology developed by, 16, 180, 183
Air Force bases, 66, 130, 153
Schriever Air Force Base, 146, 147, 179f, 183
Vandenberg Air Force Base, 57, 183
Airlines, 33. See also Korean Air Lines Flight 007
Al Qaeda, 131
Antheil, George, 62–63
Apollo, 31, 37, 66
Apollo missions, 37, 65–66, 69, 129, 150
Apollo spacecraft, 31, 65–66
Apple Inc., 133, 134, 174
Apple Newton, 134
Aquila, 130, 131
Assisted GPS, 140, 174
Atlas-F (SM-65F Atlas), 53–55, 57, 58f, 94, 95, 180
Atomic clocks, 10, 50, 81f, 170, 185
first commercial, 56–57
in Galileo satellites, 165
in GLONASS, 157
in ground stations, 70
LORAN and, 48, 162
Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) and, 50–53, 77
NTS-1 and, 53, 56–57, 73
NTS-2 and, 77
overview, 55–56
Automatic dependent surveillance–broadcast (ADS–B), 121
Availability of positioning information, 5
Babbage, Charles, 14
Ballistic missile–carrying submarines, 37, 38. See also Submarines
Ballistic missile guidance, 31, 68, 76, 183. See also Inertial missile guidance
Ballistic missiles. See also Atlas-F; LGM-30 Minuteman; MGM-29 Sergeant; Missiles
3-D navigation for, 47
drift and, 37
LORAN and, 47
V-2 ballistic missile, 6, 30–31
Battle of 73 Easting, 90
BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, 9, 154, 168, 169
Galileo and, 154, 162, 168, 169
Bell Telephone Laboratories (Bell Labs), 64
Black box (systems), 77, 80, 82, 85, 96, 175
Block I satellites, 54, 88, 94, 111
Block II satellites, 94, 111
Block IIR satellite, Delta Rocket launching a, 156f
Block III satellite(s), 116
artist’s conception of a, 167f
Bombs
accuracy, 45–47, 86, 175, 181 (see also Accuracy of GPS)
laser-guided, 114–115, 130
radar-targeted, 181
Buckley, William F., Jr., 106–107
Burrell, Gary, 110
Butterfield, Frank, 60f
Cable News Network (CNN), 114
Carousel system. See Delco Carousel
Carrington Event, 148
Cavity magnetron, 25
Cell phone location capabilities, 174
Cell phones, 133, 140, 159, 175
CDMA and, 64–65
costs, 138
development of, 3, 127–128, 185
GPS and, 3, 115, 128, 137, 140, 174
overview, 127–129
privacy, tracking, and, 136–138
Cell phone signals, jammers that block, 150, 152–153
Cell phone towers, 128, 136, 137, 140
Cell phone triangulation, 137–138, 140
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 131
Cerf, Vint, 124–125
Cesium, 56, 57, 73
Cesium-based clocks, 73
Challenger, 54, 94
Cheney, Dick, 114, 115
China, 168
satellite navigation systems, 123, 159, 168–169, 180 (see also BeiDou Navigation Satellite System)
Chronometers, 13, 22, 106, 107. See also Clocks
accuracy, 13
Army Air Corps Navigation, 12f
calibration and, 22
definitions, 193n7
Harrison, 12, 84
quartz oscillators and, 19
selection of, 13
on ships, 10–13, 22
traditional mechanical, 19
World War II–era aircraft navigator’s, 16f
Circular error probability, 86, 87
Civil–military dilemma, 166, 173–177
Civil–military disagreements, 163
Civil–military executive committee, 167, 177
Clinton, Bill, 116, 174, 176
Clocks. See also Chronometers
installed on satellites, 50, 51, 53
Coarse/acquisition (C/A) code, 79, 84–87
Coast Guard, US, 117, 118, 153, 183
Code-division multiple access (CDMA), 64–65, 134, 158, 159, 170
Communications Act of 1934, 152
COMPASS. See BeiDou Navigation Satellite System
Compass, magnetic, 10, 91, 93, 96–97, 136
Cooper, Martin, 128
Coordinating Efforts to Prepare the Nation for Space Weather Events (executive order), 148
Costs, 53–55
Coverage, 99, 113, 114
of BeiDou, 168, 169
cell phone, 137–138
in China, 168, 169
global, 5, 9, 29, 30, 47, 50, 51, 53, 73, 79, 99, 168, 169
of GLONASS, 157–158
at high latitudes, 157–158
of LORAN stations, 28
NRL and, 51, 53
of Omega, 29, 30, 99
of Transit, 47, 48
in United States, 48, 117, 119
WAAS and, 121
Currie, Malcolm, 59, 179–180
Cut-off, point of, 31
Dassoulas, John, 39f
Day-Timer, 135
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), 124, 125, 130, 149, 155
Defense Department. See Department of Defense
Defense Navigation Satellite System (DNSS). See Navstar
Delco Carousel, 33–35, 96–97, 149
Delta II, 54, 94, 156f
Delta II launches, 54, 94
Department of Defense (DoD), 3, 124, 173–174
Brad Parkinson and, 175, 177, 180
C/A code and, 85
civilian signals and, 105, 166
finances, 82, 155
GPS and, 90, 125, 155, 166–167, 173–174, 177, 180
satellites and, 82, 114
selective availability (SA) and, 105, 117, 166
Transit and, 48, 84
Department of Energy, 94
Desert Storm, Operation, 111, 113, 114, 131
Difference engine, 14, 15
Differential GPS (DGPS), 117–120, 119f, 153–154, 174, 183
Coast Guard and, 153
near waterways and harbors, 153
spoofing and, 153
Dilution of precision, geometric, 83
Direct-sequence spread-spectrum coding, 61, 79, 138. See also Spread-spectrum coding
Doppler effect/Doppler shift, 38, 40, 42, 43, 48, 72
Doppler technique, 49
Draper, Charles Stark, 31
Drones, 129–133
Easton, Roger
GPS architecture and, 175, 180
key insight of installing clocks on satellites, 50, 51, 53
photograph, 74f
EGNOS (European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service), 122, 163, 169
Elliptical orbits, satellites in, 50
eLORAN, 142, 149
Emergency telephone number. See 911 emergency calling system
Energy, Department of, 94
Engines, 131. See also Difference engine
point of cut-off, 31
Ephemeris and Doppler data, 70–72
European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service. See EGNOS
European Space Agency (ESA), 164, 165, 167
Federal Aviation Agency (FAA), 82–84, 88, 101, 120, 163, 167
Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 139, 152, 153
Filofax, 134–135
Finnair, 33
Frequency-division multiple access, 158–159
Gabriel, Ken, 149
Galileo (global navigation satellite system), 9, 154
BeiDou and, 154, 162, 168, 169
funding, 15
future of, 162
GLONASS and, 15, 142, 154, 159, 162
GPS and, 142, 162–169
GPS contrasted with, 165
overview, 162–166
Garmin Corporation, 110–111
Garmin GPSMAP 64-SC with GLONASS reception, 160f
Garmin products, 111, 159
Gee, 26
General Atomics MQ-9A Reaper. See Predator
Geometric dilution of precision, 83
Getting, Ivan, 47, 48
GIOVE (Galileo In-Orbit Validation Element) satellites, 165
Global Positioning Systems Directorate. See GPS Joint Program Office
Global System for Mobile communications. See GSM
GLONASS
funding, 15
Galileo and, 15, 142, 154, 159, 162
GPS and, 142, 157–159, 162
history, 10, 157, 159
improvements in, 123, 159, 167f
interoperability, 162
overview, 157–158
receivers and, 154, 157, 160f
GLONASS satellites, 157–159
GPS (Global Positioning System), 1–3
accuracy, 5, 86–95
criteria for evaluating, 5–6
first, 5
full operational capability, 116, 123
future of, 185
how it works, 80, 81f
inventors of, 177, 179–181
origins of the basic architecture of, 124
social construction of, 77, 78f, 79–80, 81f, 82
terminology, 60–61, 141
GPS constellation, 77, 78f
GPS III satellites, 154–155
GPS Joint Program Office (JPO)
Brad Parkinson and, 57, 60f, 82, 84, 181
C/A code and, 85
costs, finances, and, 82–84
and development of GPS, 47, 57
established in 1973, 73
FAA and, 82–83
military and civilian participants in, 60f (see also specific individuals)
NTS-1 and, 57, 66, 73
GSM (Global System for Mobile communications), 65, 133, 134, 159
Gulf War, 111, 113–116, 125. See also Operation Desert Storm
Battle of 73 Easting, 90
jamming in, 148–149
radar-targeted bombs used in, 181
receivers used in, 111, 112f, 113, 116, 164
Gyroscopes, 30–33, 37, 97, 149
Harrison, John, 12–13, 51
Hayes, Vic, 138
Hellfire missiles. See AGM-114 Hellfire
Hemispherical resonant gyro, 32
Huston, Bill, 60f
Indian Regional Satellite Navigation System, 169
Inertial missile guidance, 30–32, 47–48, 80
Inertial navigation system (INS), 25, 144t, 149, 150
Apollo, 31, 37, 66
backup to, 99, 100
drift in, 37, 97–99, 101
Korean Air Lines Flight 007 and, 96–101, 103
overview, 30–35
renewed interest in, 103, 149
switching to, 96–97
Internet, 3, 124–125
Ionosphere
signals guided by, 30
signals passing through, 22, 40, 69, 118
signals reflected by, 22, 30, 40
sunspots’ effects on, 147
Ionospheric effects, 22, 28, 86. See also Ionosphere
iPhone, 133–134, 140
Jammers, 150, 152
Jamming, 69
civilian signals over areas of conflict, 166
Galileo signals, 166
GPS signals, 65, 148–150, 154, 162
in Gulf War, 148–149
by high-powered transmitters, 65
in inertial navigation, 149
legislation regarding, 152–153
overview, 148–153
resistance to and protection from, 31, 63, 64, 79, 103, 111, 149, 153, 154 (see also Inertial navigation system)
Japan, 122, 123, 169
Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), 63–65, 72
Jobs, Steve, 133, 134
Johnston, Andrew, 119f
Joint Program Office. See GPS Joint Program Office
Kahn, Robert, 124–125
Kalman filter (linear quadratic estimation), 68–69, 71, 110, 154, 184
Kao, Min, 110
Known-unknowns, 145
Korean Air Lines Flight 007, 36, 95–103
Lamarr, Hedy, 62–63
Larson, Earl, 179
Lasers, 32, 114–115, 130, 146
LGM-30 Minuteman, 47, 48, 54, 80
Lighthouses, 22–23, 171
Linear quadratic estimation. See Kalman filter
Lockheed MQM-105 Aquila, 130, 131
Loomis, Alfred, 26
LORAN (long range navigation), 47, 50. See also eLORAN
advantages, 26–27, 162
vs. European and Asian satellite systems, 162
frequencies, 28, 29
future of, 142
GPS to replace, 83, 163
history, 25–29
improving the accuracy of, 117
limitations, 47, 106
nature of, 25–28, 27f
Omega and, 25, 29
origins, 25–26
requirements, 26–27, 27f
similarities to GPS, 27–28
superiority of GPS over, 106
three-dimensional, 48
Trimble Navigation and, 106
LORAN-C, 28, 29, 142, 143t
MacKenzie, Donald, 80, 176
Magellan Systems Corporation, 109–111
receivers, 110f, 111, 113, 164
Magnetic compass, 10, 91, 93, 96–97, 136
Manpack receivers, 111, 112f, 113, 116. See also Rockwell International, military receivers
Maps, 90–93, 135
accuracy, 93, 183
army, 18, 89–91
digital, 108, 110, 115
GPS users losing familiarity with reading, 107
Mercator, 89
road, 90, 107, 141, 143t
units of measurement in, 18, 89
Marine chronometers. See Chronometers
McDonnell Douglas, 54
McMaster, H. R., 114
M-code, 154
Measurement, units of, 16, 18, 89
MEMS (microelectromechanical systems), 32–33, 149, 150
Mercator projection, 89
Metric system, 18, 89
MGM-29 Sergeant, 63–65
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), 32–33, 149, 150
Microlock, 45
Microprocessor, 3, 13
invention of, 3, 13, 126, 179, 185
overview, 125–127
Microwave-based navigation aids, 83
Microwave electronics, advances in, 56
Microwave landing system (MLS), 83, 120–121, 144t
Miles, William, 39f
Minitrack Network, 43, 45, 51–52
Minuteman. See LGM-30 Minuteman
Missiles, 80. See also Inertial missile guidance
AGM-114 Hellfire, 130, 131
air-to-air, 98
surface-to-air, in Vietnam War, 47
Mobile communication, 128. See also Cell phones
Moore, Gordon, 125–126
Moore’s Law, 126, 149
Morse, Samuel, 74
Mountain climbers, 109, 110f, 159
Mountains, 158
Mounting brackets, 113
MQ-9A Reaper. See Predator
MQM-105 Aquila, 130, 131
NAA (radio station), transmitting towers of, 21f
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), 145, 147, 164, 167, 184
National Bureau of Standards, 20
National Executive Committee for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing, 173–174
Naval Observatory, 11, 20, 184
Naval Research Laboratory (NRL)
contributions to GPS, 43, 50–55, 57, 59–60, 73, 77, 175, 180, 184
NTS-2 team at, 74f
Navigation. See also specific topics
early, 10–16
techniques of, 142, 143–144t
Navigation Technology Satellite–1 (NTS-1). See also Timation 3 satellite
atomic clocks and, 53, 56–57, 73
Brad Parkinson and, 57–58
coding, 66
Joint Program Office (JPO) and, 57, 66, 73
launching, 57, 58t, 61
overview, 56–61
Project 621B and, 59–61
Timation 3 satellite renamed, 53, 57
Navigation Technology Satellite–2 (NTS-2), 74, 80
experimental transmissions from, and the birth of GPS, 74, 76f
as first operational GPS satellites, 88
launch and deployment of, 73, 77, 180
NTS-2 team at NRL, 74f
Navstar (Navigation System Using Timing and Ranging), 60–61, 100–101
Navstar satellites, 94, 99
Navy, US, 20
Air Force and, 58, 180
equipment and technology used by, 21f, 51, 66, 82, 99
GPS and, 180–181
technology developed by, 16, 20, 29, 58, 180
timekeeping, 20
Transit and, 37, 40, 45, 48, 82
Navy Navigation Satellite System. See Transit system
Network-centric warfare, 7
Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen), 121
911 emergency calling system, 139
9/11 terrorist attacks, 131
Norden Bombsight, 181
NTS-1. See Navigation Technology Satellite–1
NTS-2. See Navigation Technology Satellite–2
Nuclear Detection System (NUDETS), 95
Nuclear weapons tests, 94
Obama, Barack, 148
Omega (navigation system), 99, 143t
accuracy, 29, 117
costs, funding, and, 99, 163
frequencies, 29, 30, 100
vs. GPS, 83, 100, 101, 120, 163
ground stations and, 50
history, 25, 120
overview and nature of, 25, 29–30
OnStar, 150
Operation Desert Storm, 111, 113, 114, 131
Packard, David, 58–59, 82
Parkinson, Bradford W., 59, 84, 85
Air Force and, 57–58, 175
C/A code and, 84, 85
Defense Department and, 175, 177, 180
Joint Program Office (JPO) and, 57, 60f, 82, 84, 181
Marconi Award, 179–180
NTS-1 and, 57–58
photograph, 60f
on uses of GPS, 181
P code, 79, 85, 106, 112f, 116
Percy, Charles H., 99
Persian Gulf War of 1991. See Gulf War
Personal organizers, 134–135
Pioneer 10, 72
Predator (General Atomics MQ-9A Reaper), 130–133
Project 621B, 48–51, 49f, 53, 59, 62
coding, 60, 61, 77
NTS-1 and, 59–61
Project RAND (Research ANd Development), 6
Proximity fuzes, 42–43
Pseudo-random codes and sequences, 64–67, 127
Pseudo-random signal, 70
Pseudo-satellites, 66, 88
P(Y) code, 85
Quartz clocks, 20, 68
Quartz oscillators, 19–20, 26, 28, 38, 51, 52, 55
Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), 122, 169
Rabi, I. I., 56
Radio, 20, 22–25
software-defined, 127
VHF, 97–98
Radio jamming. See Jamming
Radio stations, 20, 21f, 22
WWV, 20, 22, 41, 52
Ramos, Nayibe, 179f
RAND reports, 6, 7, 45
Reagan, Ronald, 99
announcements regarding GPS, 100, 101, 103, 125, 176
Korean Air Lines Flight 007 and, 98
Receivers, 41, 66–69, 71–73, 81f, 109, 110, 130, 135, 137, 139–140, 153–155. See also Rockwell International, military receivers
accuracy, 87, 88, 90–93, 112f, 116
Brad Parkinson on, 85
on cell towers, 128
coarse/acquisition (C/A) code and, 85
coding system for transmitting data to, 59
costs, 54, 82, 155
demand for, 111
differential GPS (DGPS), 118, 154
FAA and, 82, 83
frequencies and, 40, 45, 51–52, 63, 69
GLONASS and, 154, 157, 160f
in Gulf War, 111, 112f, 113, 116, 164
hyperbolic lines replaced by solid-state electronic, 28
linked to transmitters, 150
LORAN, 28, 29
Magellan, 110f, 111, 113, 164
Manpack, 111, 112f, 113, 116
Microlock, 45
microprocessor and, 127
Microtrack, 51–52
pinpointing the location of, 42
portable, 111, 183
portable handheld, 111, 113
Rockwell International military, 76f, 93, 106, 111, 112f, 113
selective availability (SA) and, 86, 87
signal selection, 160f
spread-spectrum, 64 (see also Spread-spectrum communications)
Timation, 52
time-to-first-fix, 83
Transit and, 40
Trimble, 113, 119f, 164
in vehicles, 150
Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) and, 87, 120
Ridesharing, peer-to-peer, 136. See also Uber
Rockwell Collins, 76f
Rockwell International, 93, 95, 105
military receivers, 76f, 106, 111, 112f, 113 (see also Manpack receivers)
Rubidium-based clocks, 57, 58f, 73
Russia, 61, 136, 159, 170, 175, 180. See also GLONASS; Korean Air Lines Flight 007; Soviet Union
“Safety-of-life” feature, 165
Satellite positioning, threats to, 141–142, 143–144t, 145
Satellite positioning systems, 142, 145. See also specific topics
physical attacks on, 145–146
status of existing, 142, 143–144t
Schriever Air Force Base, 146, 147, 179f, 183
Selective availability (SA)
Defense Department and, 105, 117, 166
Gulf War and, 116
receivers and, 86, 87
September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 131
Sergeant. See MGM-29 Sergeant
Sextants, 13, 15, 17f, 106, 107
Shift register, 67
Skylab, 1
SLGR (“small lightweight GPS receiver”), 111, 113. See also Trimble Slugger
Smart bombs. See Bombs, laser-guided
Smartphones, 133–136
SM-65F Atlas. See Atlas-F
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, 43
Smithsonian Institution, 14
Software-defined radio, 127
Solar radiation, 146–148
Solar storm of 1859, 148
Soviet Union, 163. See also Russia
during Cold War, 10, 30, 31, 41–42, 47, 95–96 (see also Korean Air Lines Flight 007)
copied American technology, 158
GLONASS and, 10, 123, 157–159
nuclear weapons tests, 94
Sputnik and, 41–42
Transit and, 41–42, 47
Vietnam War and, 47
“Space Club,” 170
Space Shuttle, 1, 54, 83, 93, 94, 120, 158
Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, 54, 94
Spoofing, 111, 153–154
Spread-spectrum coding, 110, 162, 170
direct-sequence, 61, 79, 138
Spread-spectrum communications, 62–70
drawbacks, 64, 65
Spread-spectrum signals, 148
Sputnik, 41–43
“Sputnik in reverse,” 42
Submarines, 37, 45, 63
nuclear, 31–32, 149
Transit and, 37–38, 40–41, 48
Sunspots, 146, 147
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), 125
Tenner, Ed, 135
Timation
NRL and, 51–53, 180, 184
objectives, 51
Timation 1 satellite, 52–53
Timation 2 satellite, 52–53
Timation 3 satellite, 53, 56–57, 58f. See also Navigation Technology Satellite–1
Timekeeping, 16, 20, 68. See also Chronometers; Quartz clocks; Quartz oscillators
Tizard Mission, 25–26
Tracking and privacy, 136–141
Transit system (satellite), 37–38, 39f, 143t
contrasted with GPS, 72
Defense Department and, 48, 84
frequencies, 38, 40, 41, 52, 61
how it worked, 38, 40–45
limitations, 47, 48, 82, 106
Navy and, 37, 40, 45, 48, 82
origins, 37, 41
submarines and, 37–38, 40–41, 48
from Transit to GPS, 38, 45–53, 164
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), 125
Trimble, Charles, 107, 109
Trimble Navigation, 106, 107, 109, 111, 113
Trimble receivers, 111, 119f, 164
Trimble Slugger (SLGR), 111, 113
Tuck, Ed, 109
Uber, 136, 174–175
United States government contributors to GPS as it is used today, 183–186
Units of measurement, 16, 18
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system, 90
Unknown-knowns, 147
Unknown-unknowns (“unk-unks”), 145
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). See Drones
Usability, 6
User equipment, 5
USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republic), 30, 42, 157. See also Russia; Soviet Union
Vandenberg Air Force Base, 57, 183
Vanguard satellite, 43
Variable-time fuzes, 42–43
VHF omnidirectional range. See VOR
VHF radio, 97–98
Vietnam War, 28
accuracy of bombs in, 45–47, 181
VLF Transmitter Cutler. See NAA
VOR (very high frequency (VHF) omnidirectional range) stations, 23–25, 24f, 25, 34, 83, 143t
range, 25
V-2 ballistic missile, 6, 30–31
Weems, Philip Van Horn, 15
Whittaker, Jim, 109, 110f
Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), 121, 174, 183
accuracy, 87, 163, 169
EGNOS and, 163, 169
GPS and, 120, 121, 169
receivers and, 87, 120
Wi-Fi, 136
cell phones and, 137–138
coding for, 64, 138, 158
costs, 138
tracking and, 138
Wilhelm, Pete, 53, 74f, 180
Wireless phones. See Cell phones
World War II, 15, 16f, 42, 56, 62, 64, 114, 166, 181
LORAN and, 25, 27f, 28
WWV (radio station), 20, 22, 41, 52