Chapter 20 Figures of Speech
Like a piece of ice on a hot stove the poem must ride on its own melting.
Figures of speech are broadly defined as a way of saying one thing in terms of something else. An overeager funeral director might, for example, be described as a vulture. Although figures of speech are indirect, they are designed to clarify, not obscure, our understanding of what they describe. Poets frequently use them because, as Emily Dickinson said, the poet’s work is to “tell all the Truth but tell it slant” to capture the reader’s interest and imagination. But figures of speech are not limited to poetry. Hearing them, reading them, or using them is as natural as using language itself.
Suppose that in the middle of a class discussion concerning the economic causes of World War II your history instructor introduces a series of statistics by saying, “Let’s get down to brass tacks.” Would anyone be likely to expect a display of brass tacks for students to examine? To interpret the statement literally would be to wholly misunderstand the instructor’s point that the time has come for a close look at the economic circumstances leading to the war. A literal response transforms the statement into the sort of hilariously bizarre material often found in screwball comedies like Arrested Development.
The class does not look for brass tacks because, in a nutshell, they understand that the instructor is speaking figuratively. They would understand, too, that in the preceding sentence “in a nutshell” refers to brevity and conciseness rather than to the covering of a kernel of a nut. Figurative language makes its way into our everyday speech and writing as well as into literature because it is a means of achieving color, vividness, and intensity.
Consider the difference, for example, between these two statements:
Literal: The diner strongly expressed anger at the waiter.
Figurative: The diner leaped from his table and roared at the waiter.
The second statement is more vivid because it creates a picture of ferocious anger by likening the diner to some kind of wild animal, such as a lion or tiger. By comparison, “strongly expressed anger” is neither especially strong nor especially expressive; it is flat. Not all figurative language avoids this kind of flatness, however. Figures of speech such as “getting down to brass tacks” and “in a nutshell” are clichés because they lack originality and freshness. Still, they suggest how these devices are commonly used to give language some color, even if that color is sometimes a bit faded.
There is nothing weak about William Shakespeare’s use of figurative language in the following passage from Macbeth. Macbeth has just learned that his wife is dead, and he laments her loss as well as the course of his own life.
From Macbeth (Act V, Scene v) 1605–1606
Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day
To the last syllable of recorded time;
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools
The way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle!
Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player,
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,
And then is heard no more. It is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
Signifying nothing.
This passage might be summarized as “life has no meaning,” but such a brief paraphrase does not take into account the figurative language that reveals the depth of Macbeth’s despair and his view of the absolute meaninglessness of life. By comparing life to a “brief candle,” Macbeth emphasizes the darkness and death that surround human beings. The light of life is too brief and unpredictable to be of any comfort. Indeed, life for Macbeth is a “walking shadow,” futilely playing a role that is more farcical than dramatic, because life is, ultimately, a desperate story filled with pain and devoid of significance. What the figurative language provides, then, is the emotional force of Macbeth’s assertion; his comparisons are disturbing because they are so apt.
The remainder of this chapter discusses some of the most important figures of speech used in poetry. A familiarity with them will help you to understand how poetry achieves its effects.