Introduction: the relevance of the past
1 For a discussion of such sociological issues see Brian Turner, Marx and the End of Orientalism (London, 1978) especially pp. 39–80, and Brian Turner, Weber and Islam (London, 1974) pp. 39–106, 137–50; Maxime Rodinson, Islam et Capitalisme (Paris, 1966) particularly pp. 19–45; Maxime Rodinson, Marxisme et Monde Musulman (Paris, 1972) pp. 95–129; Jean-Paul Charnay, Sociologie Religieuse de l’Islam (Paris, 1977) pp. 325 ff.
2 For an authoritative, modern Shī‘ī exposition of this subject see Muḥammad Ḥusayn Ṭabāṭabā’ī, Shī‘ah dar Islām (Tehran, 1348/1969) pp. 28–58 (English translation by S. H. Nasr, entitled Shi‘ite Islam (London, 1975) pp. 63–106). See also Muḥammad Jawād Maghnīyah, At-tafsīr al-kāshif (Beirut, 1968) vol. I, pp. 13–15, 88.
3 For recent Sunnī presentations of the theory of government and Caliphate see Muḥammad Abū Zahrah, Al-mujtama‘ al-insam fī ẓill al-Islām (Beirut, n.d.) pp. 154–206. Abū Zahrah was a distinguished Sunnī Egyptian scholar who, although never abandoning his strongly orthodox vision of Islam, worked for reconciliation between Shī‘īs and Sunnīs.
4 Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of the Muslim Brothers (London, 1969) p. 320. Cf. ‘Abd Allāh Al-‘Arawī (Laroui), Al īdīyulujiyyatal’ al-‘Arabiyyat’ al-mu‘āṣirah (Beirut, 1974) p. 129. A lucid account of the ideas of Khawārij can be found in Henri Laoust’s Les Schismes dans l‘Islam (Paris, 1965) pp. 36–48.
5 Muḥammad Iqbāl, Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (Lahore, 1934) p. 4; see also Muḥammad ‘Abduh, Risālat’ at-tawḥīd, 10th ed. (Cairo, 1361/1941–2) pp. 17–18.
6 See the present author’s ‘The Political Philosophy of the Ikhwān aṣ-Ṣafā’’ in S. H. Nasr (ed.), The Isma’ili Contributions to the Islamic Civilization (Tehran, 1977) pp. 25–49.
7 Abu’l Ḥasan al-Māwardī, Al-aḥkām as-sulṭāniyyah (Cairo, 1380/1960) pp. 33–4.
8 H. A. R. Gibb, Studies in the Civilization of Islam (London, 1962) (hereafter cited as Gibb, Studies) pp. 142–3.
9 Erwin I. J. Rosenthal, Political Thought in Medieval Islam (Cambridge, 1958) p. 43.
10 Dominique Sourdel, ‘L’Imamisme Vu par Cheik al-Mufid’, Revue des Etudes Islamiques, XL (1972) pp. 217–96.
11 [Abū ‘Abd Allāh Muḥammad] Ibn Idrīs, Kitāb as-sarā’ ir (Tehran, 1390/1970) p. 203; [Abū Ja‘far Muḥammad Ibn Ḥasan Ibn ‘Alī] at-Ṭūsī, An-nihāyah (Tehran, 1342/1963) p. 358. On the Shī‘ī’s view about the ‘obligatoriness of rulership’ (wujūb ar-riyāsah) see Ṭūsī’s Kitāb al-ghaybah (Tehran, 1385/1965) pp. 4 ff. For a modern version of the same view in support of ‘just, temporal government’ see Luṭf Allāh Aṣ-Ṣāfī, Ma‘al-Khaṭīb fī khuṭūṭihi’l-‘arīḍah (Tehran, n.d.) pp. 75–81.
12 [Taqī ad-Dīn Aḥmad] Ibn Taymiyyah, Minhāj as-sunnat’an-nabawiyyah fī naqd kalām ash-shī‘at’al-qadariyyah (Cairo, 1962) vol. I, p. 371. See also his As-sīyāsat’ al-shar‘iyyah (Cairo, 1951) p. 173.
13 Gibb, Studies, pp. 148–9.
14 See below, Chapter 2.
15 ‘Abd al-‘Azīz al-Badrī, Al-Islām bayn al-‘ulumā’ wa’l ḥukkām (Mecca, n.d.) pp. 156 ff.; the author also depicts the sufferings of members of the Prophet’s family, particularly Ḥusayn, Zayd and the Ja‘far aṣ-Ṣādiq, in their resistance against unjust rulers (pp. 129–49).
Chapter 1
1 Cited in Bernard Lewis’s The Origins of Ismailism (Cambridge, 1940), p. 24.
2 Henri Corbin, En Islam Iranien, 4 vols (Paris, 1971) (hereafter cited as Corbin, Islam Iranien) especially vol. I, pp. 12 ff.
3 W. Montgomery Watt, Islam and the Integration of Society (London, 1961) pp. 106–10.
4 Cited in Y. Marquet’s ‘La place du travail dans la hiérarchie isma‘lienne d’après l’Encylopedie des Frères de la Pureté’ Arabica, VIII (1961) p. 236.
5 I. P. Petrushevskii, Islām dar Irān (Persian translation by Karīm Kishāvarz) (Tehran, 1350/1971) p. 283.
6 George Makdisi, ‘L’Islam Hanbalisant’, Revue des Études Islamiques, XLII (1973) p. 242.
7 S. Husain M. Jafri. Origins and Early Development of Shi‘a Islam (London, 1979) p. 312.
8 [Abū Ja‘far Muḥammad Ibn Ḥasan Ibn ‘Alī] aṭ-Ṭūsī, al-Amālī (Najaf, 1384/1964) vol. I, p. 19.
9 Fadl Ibn Shādhān Nayshābūrī, al-Īḍāḥ (Tehran, 1351/1971) (hereafter cited as Ibn Shādhān, al-Īḍāḥ) pp. 125–6.
10 Sayyid al-Murtaḍā, Kitāb al-intiṣār (Najaf, 1391) vol. I, p. 6.
11 Muḥammad Kāẓim al-Khurāsānī, Kifāyat’al-uṣūl (Tehran, n.d.) vol. II, pp. 68–70. See also Maḥmūd Shihābī’s Taqrīrāt-i uṣūl, 7th ed. (Tehran, 1344/1965) (hereafter cited as Shihābī, Taqrīrāt) pp. 114–17.
12 Corbin, Islam Iranien, vol. I, p. xiv; also pp. 181, 186, 210; vol. III, p. 254.
13 Rasā’il ikhwān aṣ-ṣafā’ wa khillān al-wafā’ (Beirut, 1377/1957) vol. I, pp. 42–7.
14 Muḥammad Ḥusayn Kāshif al-Ghiṭā’, Aṣl ash-shā‘ah wa uṣūluhā (Tehran, 1391/1971) pp. 79–80.
15 Rasā’il, vol. III, p. 264, also p. 253.
16 Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddimah, ed. Quatremère, vol. I, pp. 305–7; see also Muḥsin Mahdī’s Ibn Khaldūn’s Philosophy of History (London, 1957).
17 [Taqī ad-Dīn Abī Muḥammad] Maqrīzī, An-niza‘ wa‘at-takhāṣum fīmā bayn banī umayyah wa banī hāshim (Leiden, 1888) especially pp. 69–71.
18 [Abu’l Qāsim Jār Allāh Maḥmūd Ibn ‘Umarl] az-Zamakhsharī, Al-Kashshāf (Calcutta, 1856) p. 959; [Nāṣir ad-Dīn Abī Sa‘īd ‘Abd Allāh Ibn ‘Umar Ibn Muḥammad ash-Shīrāzī] al-Bayḍawī At-tafsīr (Cairo, 1330/1911) vol. IV, pp. 48, 85; ‘Abd Allāh Ibn Aḥmad an-Nasafī, Madārik at-tanzīl wa ḥaqā-iq at-ta’ wīl (Cairo, 1343/1924) vol. III, p. 70.
19 [al-Faḍl Ibn al-Ḥasan] aṭ-Ṭabarsī, Majma‘ al-bayān (Cairo, 1354/1935) vol. IV, part 7, pp. 66, 67, 152, 239.
20 Corbin, Islam Iranien, vol. I, p. 80, also footnote no. 54 on the same page.
21 W. Ivanow, Studies in Early Persian Ismailism (Leiden, 1948) pp. 29–30.
22 [Abū Ja‘far Muḥammad Ibn ‘Alī] aṣ-Ṣadūq, ‘Uyūn akhbār ar-Riḍā (Najaf, 1384/1964) vol. I, p. 30.
23 [Najm ad-Dīn Ja‘far Ibn Ḥusayn] Ḥillī, Sharāyi ‘al-Islām (Persian translation) (Tehran, 1352/1973) vol. VI, pp. 1623–4.
24 Abu’l Qāsim al-Mūsawī al-Khuī, Tawḍiḥ al-masā’il (Tehran, 1382/1962) p. 153.
25 Louis Gardet, L‘Islam (Paris, 1967) p. 88.
26 Fazlur Rahman, Islam (London, 1966) p. 35.
27 T. Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Qur’ān (Montreal, 1966) pp. 65 ff.
28 D. M. Donaldson, The Shi‘ite Religion (London, 1933).
29 F. R. C. Bagley, ‘The Azhar and Shi‘ism’, Muslim World, vol. L 2 (1960) p. 129.
30 Mullā Muḥammad Mahdī Narāqī, Muḥriq al-qulūb (Tehran, 1247/1831) p. 4.
31 Ṭāhā Ḥusayn, Min tārīkh al-adab al-‘Arabī (Beirut, 1970) vol. I, pp. 463 ff.; Shawqī Ḍayf, Tārīkh al-’adab al-‘Arabī (al ‘aṣr al-Islāmī) (Cairo, 1963) vol. II, p. 42; on the ‘Alīds’ contribution to the religious elegiac poetry, see p. 181.
32 Abu’l Qāsim ‘Alī Ibn Mūsā’ Ibn Ja ‘far Ibn Muḥammad Ibn Muḥammad aṭ-Ṭāwūs al-‘Alawī al-Kāẓimī, Muhaj ad-da‘wāt wa manhaj al-‘ināyāt, manuscript no. 284, written in 1099/1687, no pagination; Muḥammad Riḍā Ibn Amīr Muḥammad (Aāsim al-Ḥusaynī a‘-Qazvīnī, Baḥr al-maghfirat, manuscript no. 210, no date, no pagination (both manuscripts in the Caro Minasian Collection, Wadham College Library, Oxford).
33 [Jamāl ad-Dīn Ḥasan Ibn Sadīd ad-Dīn Yūsuf Ibn ‘Alī] Ibn Muṭahhar Ḥilli, ‘Minhāj al-karāmah fī ma‘rifat’al-imāmiyyah’ (hereafter cited as Ḥillī, ‘Minhāj’), text in Ibn Taymiyyah’s Minhāj as-sunnat’ an-nabawiyyah fī naqḍ kalām ash-shī ‘at’al-qadariyyah (Cairo, 1962) (hereafter cited as ‘Ibn Taymiyyah, Minhāj) vol. I, p. 132.
34 Muḥammad Bāqir Majlisī, Biḥār al-anwār (Tehran, 1301–15/1883–97) vol. VIII, pp. 253/344.
35 Ḥillī, ‘Minhāj’, pp. 140–5.
36 [Abū Ja‘far Muḥammad Ibn Ya‘qūb Ibn Isḥāq] al-Kulaynī, Uṣūl kāfī, ed. Ḥajj Sayyid Javād Muṣṭafavī (Tehran, n.d.) (hereafter cited as Kulaynī, Kāfī) vol. II, p. 216; Ibn Shādhān, al-Iḍāḥ, pp. 281–3.
37 Majlisī, quoted by Kāfī’s editor, vol. I, p. 217.
38 Ibn Shādhān, al-Iḍāḥ, p. 285. There are also quotations by Kāfī’s editor from Majlisī’s Biḥār, al-Muḥaddith al-Qummī’s Safīnat’ al-biḥār, and other sources asserting the equality of Arabs and Iranians, and on ‘Alī’s equal treatment of both, pp. 284–5 (footnote).
39 Henri Massé, Croyances et Coutumes Persanes (Paris, 1938) vol. I, pp. 166–70.
40 ‘Abd al-Ḥusayn Sharaf ad-Dīn al-Mūsawī, An-naṣṣ wa’l-ijtihād (Najaf, 1384/1964) pp. 315 ff.
41 Ibid. pp. 82–4, 103, 156; see also ‘Abd al-Jalīl Ibn Abi ’l-Ḥusayn Ibn Abu’l-Faḍl al-Qazvīnī, Kitāb an-naqḍ, ma‘rūf bi ba‘ḍ mathālib an-nawāṣib fī naqḍ ba‘ḍ faḍā’iḥ ar-rawāfiḍ (Tehran, 1371/1951) pp. 623–5.
42 Abu’l Ḥasan al-Khunayzī, Ad-da‘wat’ al-islāmiyyah ilā wāḥdat’ ahl as-sunnah wa ’l-imāmiyyah (Beirut, 1376/1956) vol. I, pp. 96–107.
43 For further specifications of these works, see above, note 33.
44 Shihābī, Taqrīrāt, p. 53.
45 Ibn Taymiyyah, Minhāj, vol. I, pp. 6–9, vol. II, p. 360; cf. M. St. Guyard, ‘Le fatwā d’Ibn Taymiyyah sur les Nosairis’, Journal Asiatique XVIII (1871) pp. 162–78.
46 Ibn Taymiyyah, Minhāj, vol. I, pp. 56–60, 75.
47 Ibid. vol. I, p. 384.
48 Ibid. vol. II, pp. 361–76.
49 Ibid. vol. I, pp. 379–85.
50 Ibid. vol. II, p. 361.
51 [Abu’l Ḥasan Ibn Muḥammad] ‘Abd al-Jabbār [Asadābādī al-Hamadānī], Al-mughnī fī abwāb at-tawḥīd wa’l-‘adl (Cairo, 1966) vol. XX, pp. 112–97.
52 Qazvīnī, Kitāb an-naqḍ, p. 625.
53 Ibn Taymiyyah, Minhāj, vol. ī, p. 28.
54 Ibid. vol. I, p. 43.
55 Ibid. vol. I, p. 27.
56 M. Molé, ‘Les Kubrawīya entre Sunnisme et Shiisme’, Revue des Études Islamiques, XXIX 1 (1961) (hereafter cited as Molé, ‘Les Kubrawīya’) pp. 61–142.
57 Ibid. p. 74.
58 Ibid. p. 99.
59 D. S. Margoliouth, ‘Nūrbakhshīya’, in Encyclopedia of Islam, 1st ed.
60 Molé, ‘Les Kubrawīya’, p. 130.
61 Ibid. p. 129.
62 Z. Thābitīyān, Asnād va nāmih-hāy-i tārīkhī va ijtimā‘ī dawrān-i Ṣafavī (Tehran, 1343) pp. 231 ff.
63 Hamid Algar, ‘Shī‘īsm and Iran in the Eighteenth Century’, in T. Naff and R. Owen (eds), Studies in Eighteenth Century Islamic History (London, 1977) pp. 288 ff.
64 Ibid. p. 292.
65 Ibid. p. 299.
66 Muḥammad ‘Abduh, Risālat’ at-tawḥīd, 10th ed. (Cairo, 1942) pp. 12–19.
67 For a definition of Salafiyyah and its political significance see below, Chapter 3, section 1. For Riḍā’s views on Shī‘īsm see his As-sunnah wa‘sh-shī‘iah (2 vols in 1) (Cairo, 1366/1947) pp. 4–49. For his earlier pro-Shī‘ī stance see ibid. pp. 14–25; also below Chapter 3, section 1.
68 Jamāl ad-Dīn al-Ḥusaynī al-Afghānī and Muḥammad ‘Abduh, Al-u’irwat’ al-wuthqā wa‘th-thawrat’ al-kubrā (Cairo, 1957) p. 242.
69 On the Shī‘ī leadership of the Iraqi revolt of 1919–20, see Farīq al-Muẓhir, Al-ḥaqā’ iq an-nāṣi ‘ah fi’th thawrat’ al-irāqiyyah (Baghdad, 1371/1952) pp. 192, 243–5; Abd ar-Raḥmān al-Bazzāz, Muḥāḍarāt ‘an al-‘Irāq min al-iḥtilāl ḥatta’l-istiqlāl (Cairo, 1954) pp. 29, 33 n. 4; ‘Abd Allāh al-Fayyāḍ, Ath-thawrat’ al-‘Irāqiyyat’ al-kubrā (Baghdad, 1963) pp. 81–2: Sayyid ‘Abd ar-Razzāq al-Ḥasanī, Al-‘Irāq fī dawray al-iḥtilāl wa’l-intidāb (?Najaf, 1354/1935) vol. I. pp. 71 ff.; Kāmil Salmān Jubūrī, Al-Kūfah fī thawrat’ al-‘ishrīn (Najaf, 1392/1972) pp. 13–14 and 229–33; and Rajā Ḥusayn Ḥusaynī al-Khaṭṭāb, Al-‘Iraqi bayn 1921 wa 1927 (Najaf, 1976) pp. 272 ff.
70 Aḥmad Amīn, Ḍuḥa ’l-Islām, 6th ed. (Cairo, 1936) (hereafter cited as Amīn, Ḍuḥa ‘l-Islām) vol. III, pp. 209, 233, 250, 267; Fajr al-Islām, 8th ed. (Cairo, 1933) (hereafter cited as Amīn, Fajr al-Islām) p. 112. For a study of Amīn’s ideas in general see Detlev Khalid, ‘Aḥmad Amīn and the Legacy of Muḥammad ‘Abduh’, Islamic Studies, LX 1 (1970), pp. 1–32. Cf. Aḥmad Amīn, My Life, translated from Arabic with an introduction by J. Boullata (Leiden, 1978).
71 Amīn, Fajr al-Islām, p. 276.
72 Amīn, Ḍuḥa ’l-Islām, vol. III, p. 221; see also pp. 226 ff.
73 Ibid, p. 244.
74 Fajr al-Islām, p. 274, footnote 1. Also Ḍuḥa ’l-Islām, vol. III, p. 247.
75 Sayyid Muḥammad Ṣādiq aṣ-Ṣadr’s introduction to An-naṣṣ wa ’l-ijtihād (above, note 40) pp. 6–44.
76 A summary of Kāshif al-Ghiṭā’s biography can be found in his Aṣl ash-Shī‘ah wa uṣūluha (above, note 14) p. 20.
77 ‘Abd al-Ḥusayn Aḥmad Al-Amīnī an-Najafī, Al-ghadīr, fi’l kitāb wa’s-sunnah wa‘l adab (Beirut, 1967). For Amīnī’s biography and views see Sayyid Ja‘far Shahīdī and Muḥammad Riḍā Ḥakīmī, Yādnāmih-i Amīnī (Tehran, 1352), and Muḥammad Riḍā Ḥakīmī (ed.), Ḥamāsih-i ghadīr (Tehran, 1396).
78 Maghnīyah is a prolific writer, and it is difficult to identify any one of his works as the definitive source for his ideas on the Shī‘īs’ differences with the Sunnīs. However, some examples of these can be found in his Min hunā wa hunāk (Beirut, 1388/1968) pp. 95–8, 158, 160, 163, 188–9, 229–36, 244–59.
79 Some of Muṭahharī’s and Sharī‘atī’s views will be discussed in Chapters 4 and 5.
80 Muḥammad Taqī Sharī‘atī, Khilāfat va valāyat az naẓar-i Qur’ān va sunnat (Tehran, 1351/1972) pp. 111–14.
81 Maḥmu Shihābī, Al-Islām wa’sh-Shī‘ah (al-imāmiyyah) fī asāsiha’ttārīkhī wa kiyānihā’l-i‘tiqādī (Tehran, 2536/1978) pp. 400–2.
82 Muḥammad aṣ-Ṣādiqī, ‘Alī wa’l-ḥākimūn (Beirut. 1389/1969).
83 Shaykh Rāḍī Āl Yāsīn, Sulḥ al-Ḥasan (Kāẓimiyyah, 1384/1965).
84 See Chapter 5, the section ‘Martyrdom’.
85 S. Husain M. Jaffri, Origins and Early Development of Shi‘i Islam, pp. 259–83.
86 Kāshif al-Ghiṭā, Aṣl ash-Shī‘ah, p. 59; Khunayzī, Ad-da‘wat’ al-Islāmiyyah, pp. 15 ff.
87 See the present author’s ‘Islam and Socialism in Egypt’, Middle Eastern Studies, IV 2 (1968) pp. 156 ff.
88 Among the examples of this ‘historical revisionism’ one should mention Ṭahā Ḥusayn’s Al-fitnat’al-kubrā (Cairo, 2 vols, 1956, 1959), Ash-Shaykhān (Cairo, 1960), Al-wa‘d al-ḥaqq (Cairo, 1960); for other examples, see notes 57, 61, 62 and 65 to Chapter 5.
89 On modern Sunnī criticisms of the Prophet’s Companions see Shaykh Maḥmud Abū Rayyah, Aḍwā’ ‘alā’s-sunnat’ al-Muḥammadiyyah (Cairo, 1958).
90 Majallat’ al-Azhar, XXX 8 (1959) supplement.
91 Two Historical Documents, Dār al-Taqreeb (Cairo, 1383) pp. 8–9. See also Muḥammad Taqī al-Qummī, Qiṣṣat’at-taqrīb (Cairo, 1960) pp. 6, 9, 11.
92 Middle East Journal, XIV (Winter 1960) pp. 452–3, entered under ‘August 7’.
93 See, for instance, the collection of statements by the ‘Ulamā’ of various schools in support of the PLO: Kibār ‘ulama’ al-Islām yuṭālibūn al-muslimīn bi da‘m mujāhidī ḥarakah ‘Fatḥ’ (Dār Abī Dharr, 1396/1976).
94 Algar, Shī‘īsm, p. 298.
95 See Yaḥyā Hāshim Ḥasan Farghal, Nash’at’al-ārā’ wa’l madhāhib wa’l firaq al-kalāmiyyah (Cairo, 1972) where he argues that Shī‘ī ideas inevitably lead to belief in Divine incarnation, and merge with the theses of the Extremists (Ghulāt) (pp. 138 ff.); Muḥammad Abū Zahrah, Al-madhāhib al-Islāmiyyah (Cairo, n.d.) especially pp. 54–7; and issues of Liwā’ al-Islām, particularly XI 5 (1957) pp. 321–9; XIII 6 (1959) pp. 339–40; XVII 3 (1963) pp. 187–201.
96 See the account of a symposium on ijtihād in Liwā’ al-Islām, XV 2 (March 1961) pp. 98–100, also XV 4, pp. 228–30 and XV 5, pp. 293–5, where Zakariyya al-Barrī argues against the individual ijtihād, but recommends its collective form.
97 A clear example of this line of thought is Amīnī’s Al-ghadīr (above, note 77), but see also Ṣayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn Ṭabāṭabā’ī, Shī‘ah dar Islām, op. cit., pp. 7–10.
98 S. Kh. (Salmān al-Khāqānī?), Ash-shī‘ah wa’s-sunnah fi’l mīzān (Beirut, 1397/1977); Muḥammad ‘Alī az-Za‘bī, Lā sunnah wa lā shī‘ah (Beirut, 1961).
Chapter 2
1 Halil Inalcik, ‘The Rise of the Ottoman Empire’ in The Cambridge History of Islam, vol. I (London, 1970) pp. 320–2.
2 T. W. Arnold, The Caliphate, with a concluding chapter by Sylvia Haim (London, 1965) (hereafter cited as Arnold, Caliphate) pp. 164–5.
3 Haim, ‘The Abolition of the Caliphate and Its Aftermath’ (hereafter cited as Haim, ‘Abolition’) in Arnold, Caliphate, p. 209.
4 Arnold, Caliphate, p. 180
5 Quoted in A. Nallino’s ‘La Fine del Cosi Detto Califfato Ottomano’ (hereafter cited as Nallino, ‘Califfato Ottomano’) in Oriento Moderno, vol. IV (1924) pp. 141–2.
6 Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London, 1961), pp. 257–8.
7 W. C. Smith, Islam in India (London, 1946) (hereafter cited as Smith, Islam in India) p. 206.
8 Nallino, ‘Califfato Ottomano’, pp. 139–41.
9 Haim, ‘Abolition’, pp. 210–18.
10 ‘Califat et souveraineté nationale’, Revue de Monde Musulmane, LIX (1925) especially pp. 3, 10, 18, 50, 53, 64, 67, and 73.
11 ‘Abd ar-Raḥmān al-Kawākibī, ‘Umm al-qurā’ in Muḥammad ‘Amārah (ed.), Al a‘māl al-kāmilah (Beirut, 1975) pp. 356–8. See also George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (London, 1938) pp. 97–8; Hazem Zaki Nuseibeh, Ideas of Arab Nationalism (New York, 1956) p. 48; Ziene N. Zeine, Arab–Turkish Relations and the Emergence of Arab Nationalism (Beirut, 1958) p. 70.
12 Umm al-Qurā, p. 365.
13 ‘Dokumente zum Kampf der Araber um ihre Unabhangigkeit’, Die Welt des Islams, VIII (1923–6) p. 99.
14 Jalāl ad-Dīn as-Suyūṭī, Ḥusn al-muhāḍarah min akhbār miṣr wa’l qāhirah (1327) vol. II, p. 24.
15 A’s Suyuti, History of the Caliphs, translated by H. S. Jarrel (Amsterdam, 1970) p. 500–1.
16 Aziz Ahmad, Studies in Islamic Culture in the Indian Environment (Oxford, 1964) (hereafter cited as Ahmad, Islamic Culture) pp. 62–3.
17 Smith, Islam in India, p. 198. The Khilafatist movement was, in fact, more radical and more militant than the Congress (p. 220).
18 Smith, Islam in India, p. 204.
19 Lini S. May, The Evolution of Indo-Muslim Thought after 1857 (Lahore, 1970) p. 206.
20 Ahmad, Islamic Culture, pp. 66–8. See also Ashfaque Husain, The Quintessence of Islam, 2nd ed. (London, 1960) p. 16.
21 Muḥammad Iqbāl, The Reconstruction of Muslim Thought (London, 1934) p. 150.
22 Ibid. p. 149.
23 Ibid. pp. 150–1.
24 ‘Qarār al-hay’at’ al-‘ilmiyyat’ al-dīniyyah bi’d-dīyār al-miṣriyyah fī sha’n al-khilāfah’, in Nūr al-Islām (Sha‘bān, 1350/1931) pp. 590–4.
25 For different interpretations of ‘Abd ar-Rāziq’s ideas see C. C. Adams, Islam and Modernism in Egypt (London, 1933) pp. 259–69; G. Kampffmeyer, ‘Egypt and Western Asia’, in Whither Islam? (London, 1932) p. 142; Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age (hereafter cited as Hourani, Arabic Thought) (Oxford, 1962), pp. 183–8; also note 37 below. Here we have concentrated on those elements of ‘Abd ar-Rāziq’s thought, which, despite his unconventional remarks, could have brought him nearer to religionists.
26 ‘Alī ‘Abd ar-Rāziq, Al-Islām wa uṣūl al-ḥukm, with introduction and comments by Mamdūḥ Ḥaqqī (hereafter cited as ar-Rāziq, Islām) (Beirut, 1966) p. 40.
27 Ibid. p. 46.
28 See, for instance, his book Al-ijmā‘ fi’sh-sharī ‘at’ al-Islāmiyyah (Cairo, 1947).
29 ar-Rāziq, Islām, p. 79, also p. 74.
30 Ibid. p. 118.
31 Ibid. pp. 143 ff.
32 Ibid. pp. 167–77, also pp. 191 ff.
33 Ibid. pp. 13–17, 199.
34 Ibid. p. 201.
35 Ibid. p. 82.
36 Ḥukm haya’ah kibār al-‘ulamā’ fī kitāb al-Islām wa uṣūl al-ḥukm (Cairo, 1925) pp. 29–30.
37 Shaykh Muḥammad Bakhīt, Ḥaqīqat’ al-Islām wa uṣūl al-ḥukm (Cairo, 1926) p. 446.
38 See, for instance, the postscript by the Iranian Muslim scholar, Muḥammad Riḍā Ḥakīmī to this author’s book Andīshih-yi sīyīsā-yi ‘Arab [‘Arab Political Thought’] (Tehran, 2536/1977) pp. 279–87.
39 E. I. J. Rosenthal, Islam in the Modern National State (Cambridge, 1965) p. 89.
40 Ibid. p. 86.
Chapter 3
1 Aḥmad Ṭarabayn, Al-waḥdat’ al-‘Arabiyyah bayn 1945–66, p. 133. Also A. L. Tibawi, Anglo-Arab Relations and the Question of Palestine (London, 1977) pp. 152–6.
2 For a study of Rashīd Riḍā’s idea of the Caliphate in the context of his modernism see Malcolm Kerr, Islamic Reform (Berkeley, 1966) (hereafter cited as Kerr, Reform) pp. 153–208; and Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought pp. 222–44. Here, our emphasis is on the connection between Riḍā’s theses on the Caliphate and his notion of the Islamic state.
3 Riḍā’s broad-mindedness, however, broke down when he came to deal with the Shī‘ī polemists; see above, Chapter 1, section 2.
4 In his excellent introduction to the French translation of Riḍā’s Al-khilāfah, Henry Laoust has mainly discussed the first two stages of the argument analysed here; see his Le Califat dans la doctrine de Rashīd Riḍā (Beirut, 1938) p. 2.
5 Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā, Al-khilāfah aw’ al-imāmat’ al-uẓmā (Cairo, n.d.) (hereafter cited as Riḍā, Al-khilāfah) comprising the author’s articles on the subject published in al-Manār, vols XXIII and XXIV, year 1341/1922, p. 37.
6 Ibid. p. 41.
7 Ibid. p. 40.
8 Ibid. pp. 11–13, 57–61.
9 Ibid. p. 18; see also Māwardī, Al-aḥkām as-sulṭāniyyah, p. 15.
10 Muḥammad ‘Abduh, Risālat’ at-tawḥīd, pp. 25–6.
11 Riḍā, Al-khilāfah, pp. 60, 65.
12 Ibid. pp. 6, 38.
13 See above, Chapter 2.
14 Riḍā, Al-khilafah, p. 10.
15 Ibid. pp. 30–3.
16 Ibid. p. 35.
17 Ibid. pp. 67–71.
18 Ibid. pp. 66.
19 Ibid. p. 77.
20 Ibid. p. 78.
21 Ibid. p. 79.
22 Ibid. pp. 76–106.
23 Ibid. p. 79.
24 Ibid. pp. 77, 78, 96.
25 Ibid. pp. 78, 106, 112.
26 Ibid. pp. 94, 142; also pp. 30–3.
27 Ibid. pp. 57–60.
28 Ibid. pp. 90–1: Hourani, Arabic Thought, p. 152.
29 E. I. J. Rosenthal, Islam in the Modern National State (Cambridge, 1965) (hereafter cited as Rosenthal, Islam) p. 72.
30 For Ḥusayn’s own interpretation of the criticism against his work see his Fi’l adab al-jāhilī (Cairo, 1926) pp. 7–67. On the antecedents of his work see the article by Aḥmad Kamāl Zakīy in Ṭahā Ḥusayn kamā ya‘rifuhu kuttāb ‘aṣrih (Cairo, n.d.) p. 182; also G. E. von Grunebaum, Islam: Essays in the Nature and Growth of a Cultural Tradition (London, 1955) p. 209.
31 Riḍā, Al-khilafāh, p. 90.
32 Louis Maillot, L’Introduction à l’Etude du Droit Musulman (Paris, 1953) p. 180; Y. Linant de Bellefonds, Traité de Droit Musulman (The Hague, 1965) p. 43.
33 See Chapter 5, section 1.
34 Riḍā, Al-khilafāh, pp. 91–4.
35 Ibid. p. 91.
36 Ibid. pp. 94–5.
37 Ibid. pp. 13–15.
38 Ibid. pp. 61–2.
39 See, for instance, al-Manār, vol. XII, pp. 390–6; vol. XVI, pp. 774–6; vol. XXV, p. 761, etc.
40 Hourani, Arabic Thought, p. 231.
41 Kerr, Islamic Reform, p. 176.
42 Hourani, Arabic Thought, p. 234.
43 Riḍā, Al-khilāfah, pp. 124–5.
44 E. I. J. Rosenthal, ‘Some Reflections on the Separation of Religion and Politics in Modern Islam (hereafter cited as Rosenthal, ‘Reflections ) Islamic Studies, III (1964), p. 264.
45 Richard P. Mitchell, The Society of Muslim Brothers (London, 1969) (hereafter cited as Mitchell, Brothers) p. 4. See also Ra’ūf Shalabī, Ash-Shaykh Ḥasan al-Bannā’ wa madrasatuh ‘Al-Ikhwān al-Muslimun’ (Cairo, 1978) pp. 133–9.
46 Zakariyyā Sulaymān Bayyūmī, Al-ikhwān al-muslimūn (Cairo, 1979) (hereafter cited as Bayyūmī, Al-ikhwān) p. 90.
47 Ibid. p. 90, footnote 2; also Mitchell, Brothers, p. 14.
48 Bayyūmī, Al-ikhwān, p. 91.
49 Ibid. p. 118.
50 Mitchell, Brothers, pp. 89, 99; also Anwar el-Sadat, In Search of Identity (London, 1978) pp. 22–4; for Sadat’s less inhibited accounts of the Free Officers’ relations with the Brothers, see his Revolt on the Nile (London, 1957) pp. 26 ff., 30, 43 ff., 61 ff.; also Ishaq Musa Husaini, The Moslem Brethren (Beirut, 1956) p. 118.
51 Mitchell, Brothers, pp. 151–62.
52 Editorials of the Majallat’ al-Azhar, issues of February and October, vol. XL (1968).
53 Ibid., especially the October issue, articles entitled ‘The Jewish Attitude towards Islam and the Muslims in the “Initial Era” [al-‘aṣr al-awwal]’, ‘The Jewish Role in the Hostility against the Foundation of Islam’, and ’Isrā ’īliyyat in Qur’ānic Commentaries and the Ḥadith’.
54 Nadav Safran, Egypt in Search of Political Community (Cambridge, Mass., 1961) p. 234.
55 Muhammad Ghazzālī, Min hunā na‘lam (Cairo, 1948) (hereafter cited as Ghazzālī, Min hunā) p. 49 (English translation by Isma’il el-Faruqi entitled Our Beginning in Wisdom (New York, 1975) p. 21).
56 Mitchell, Brothers, pp. 234–5.
57 Raf‘at as-Sa‘īd, Ḥasan al-Bannā (Cairo, 1977) pp. 83 ff.
58 Ghazzālī, Kifāḥ dīn, 3rd ed. (Cairo, 1965) pp. 133–9.
59 Ghazzālī, Min hunā, p. 25.
60 Ibid. pp. 22–3.
61 Ibid. p. 55.
62 Ibid. p. 21.
63 Ibid. p. 30–1.
64 Hourani, Arabic Thought, pp. 164–7.
65 Rashīd Riḍā, Nidā’ ila’l-jins al-laṭīf, 2nd ed. (Cairo, 1947); see also Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn (ed.), Fatāwā al-Imām Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā (Beirut, 1970); see especially his fatwās on the abuses of polygamy (vol. I, pp. 118–27), teaching literacy to women (pp. 66–7), equality between men and women in all matters except ‘private and public guardianships’ (al-wilāyāt al-‘āmmah wa’l-khāṣṣah) (vol. III, pp. 933–4), the unveiling of women’s faces (vol. II, pp. 679–83) and women’s praying in mosques (vol. II, pp. 436–7).
66 Ghazzālī, Min hunā, pp. 182–4.
67 Ibid. pp. 199–205.
68 Ibid. p. 179.
69 Ibid. pp. 176–7.
70 Ibid. p. 207.
71 For a sympathetic account of their activities and programmes, see Riḍā Gul-surkhī, ‘Fidā’īyān-i Islām, āghāz-gar-i junbish-i muṣallaḥānih dar Irān’, Iṭṭilā‘āt, no. 15843, Urdībihisht 10, 1358 (30 April 1979) (hereafter cited as Gul-surkhī, ‘Fida’īyān-i Islām’), where there is also a reference to a book by Navvāb Ṣafavī himself, entitled Barnāmih-i ḥukūmat-i fidā’īyān-i Islām (Tehran, 1329); also Muḥammad Riḍā Hakīmī, Tafsīr-i āftāb (Tehran, 1357/1977) (hereafter cited as Ḥakīmī, Tafsīr-i āftāb) pp. 231 ff.
72 Gul-surkhī, ‘Fidā’īyān-i Islām’, p. 4.
73 Ḥakīmī, Tafsīr-i āftāb, p. 234.
74 Faḍl Ibn Ḥasan Ṭabarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān (Cairo, 1354/1935, vol. III, pp. 187–8.
75 Muḥammad Ḥusayn Ṭabāṭaba’ī, Al-mīzān fī tafsīr al-Qur’ān (Beirut, 1390/1970) (hereafter cited as Ṭabāṭabā’ī, Al-mīzān) vol V, pp. 328 ff.
76 Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā, Tafsīr al-Manār (Cairo, n.d.) (hereafter cited as Riḍā, Tafsīr) vol. VI, pp. 365–6. Riḍā explains that the term ‘fighting against God’ (ḥarb Allāh) has been used four times in the Qur’ān: only in one of these it means usury, and in the rest the normal meaning of ‘resorting to arms and highway robbery’ (ishhār aṣ-silāh wa qat‘ as-sabīl) is intended (ibid. p. 356).
77 P. J. Vatikiotis, The Modern History of Egypt (London, 1969) pp. 194–5.
78 Riḍā, Tafsīr, vol. VI, p. 355.
79 Ṭabāṭabā’ī, Al-mīzān, vol. V, p. 326.
80 Riḍā, Tafsīr, p. 366.
81 The Holy Quran with English Translation and Commentary (published ‘under the auspices of Hazrat Mirza Bashir-ud-Din Mahmud Ahmad’) (Qadian, India, 1947) vol. I, pp. 622–3.
82 For personal appreciations of Maudūdī’s life and ideas see Islamic Perspectives: Studies in Honour of Sayyid Abul A‘la Mawdudi, edited by Khurshid Ahmad, Zafar Ishaq Ansari (Jeddah, 1979) especially pp. 265–89. For a critical review of the Jamā‘at’s activities see Kalim Bahaduri, ‘The Jama‘at-i-Islāmī of Pakistan: Ideology and Political Action’ (hereafter cited as Bahaduri, ‘Jama’at-i-Islāmī’), International Studies, XIV (New Delhi, 1975) pp. 69–84, where a comprehensive bibliography is also given.
83 Manzooruddin Ahmad, ‘Sovereignty of God in the Constitution of Pakistan’, Islamic Studies, IV (1965) pp. 201–33. Richard S. Wheeler, The Politics of Pakistan (Ithaca, N.Y., 1970) pp. 151 ff. Leonard Binder, Religion and Politics in Pakistan (Berkeley, 1961) (hereafter cited as Binder, Pakistan) pp. 315–44. Rosenthal, Islam, pp. 203 ff.
84 G. W. Choudhury, ‘New Pakistan’s Constitution’, The Middle East Journal, XXVIII (Winter 1974) p. 12.
85 Ibid. p. 11.
86 Binder, Pakistan, p. 75.
87 Abu’l A‘lā Maudūdī, Mafāhīm Islāmiyyah ḥawl ad-dīn wa’ d-dawlah (Kuwait, 1394/1974) pp. 146–9. For Maudūdī’s differences with the traditionalist ‘Ulamā’ see Binder, Pakistan, pp. 73 ff.
88 L. S. May, The Evolution of Indo-Muslim Thought (Lahore, 1970) (hereafter cited as May, Indo-Muslim Thought) p. 324.
89 K. K. Aziz, The Making of Pakistan (London, 1967) pp. 105–6.
90 May, Indo-Muslim Thought, pp. 324, 336–7.
91 Maudūdī, The Process of Islamic Revolution (Lahore, 1955) (hereafter cited as Maudūdī, Islamic Revolution) pp. 25–6.
92 Ibid. p. 4.
93 Ibid. p. 34.
94 Ibid. p. 4.
95 Ibid. pp. 37–55.
96 Ibid. p. 62.
97 Ibid. p. 35.
98 Ibid. p. 5.
99 Ibid. p. 22.
100 Ibid. pp. 8–10.
101 Ibid. pp. 7–8.
102 See his Islamic Law, edited by Khursid Ahmad (Karachi, 1955) p. 57; also Islamic Law and Constitution (Karachi, 1955); Political Theory of Islam (Lahore, address delivered in 1939) (hereafter cited as Maudūdī, Political Theory of Islam); Rosenthal, Islam, pp. 137–53.
103 May, Indo-Muslim Thought, pp. 336–7.
104 Maudūdī, Mā hiya’l-Qādīyāniyyah (Kuwait, 1967) p. 178.
105 Maudūdī, Al-Islām fī muwājahat ’at-taḥadiyyat’ al-mu ‘aṣirah (Kuwait, 1391/1971) pp. 229–40.
106 Ibid. p. 238.
107 Ibid. p. 240.
108 Maudūdī, Al-Islām al-yawm (Kuwait, 1973) p. 62, also pp. 49–52. See also his Mas’alah milkiyyat’al-arḍ fi’l Islām (Kuwait, 1389/1969) where he argues that it is illegal to take lands out of private hands in order to collectivise them (pp. 91–2).
109 Maudūdī, Al-Islām fī muwājahah, p. 234; see also his Islamic Way of Life (Lahore, 1955) p. 44.
110 Maudūdī, Political Theory of Islam, p. 62.
111 Ibid. p. 111.
112 Ibid. pp. 220–1.
113 Herbert Feldman, From Crisis to Crisis (Oxford, 1972) p. 73. See also Lawrence Ziring, The Ayyub Khan Era (Syracuse, 1971) pp. 46–7; and Bahaduri, ‘Jamā‘at-i-Islāmī’, p. 74, where there is also a reference to an article in Tarjumān al-Qur’ān defending Maudụdī’s decision on canonical grounds.
114 See Muhammad Asad’s The Principles of State and Government in Islam (Berkeley, 1961) especially pp. 30 ff. The crucial feature of Asad’s scheme of the Islamic state is that in identifying its principles, he relies solely on the ‘clear textual ordinances’ (nuṣūṣ) of the Qur’ān and the Tradition as constituting ‘the real, eternal sharī‘ah of Islam’. He thus excludes fiqḥ or jurisprudence, holding that “the far larger area of things and activities which the Law-Giver has left unspecified – neither enjoining nor forbidding them in naṣṣ [textually defined] terms – must be regarded as allowable (mubāḥ) from the shar‘ī point of view” (ibid. p. 13). This obviously allows considerable scope for a libertarian interpretation of Islam.
Chapter 4
1 Rifā‘ah Rāfi‘ aṭ-Ṭahṭāwī, Manāhij al-albāb al-‘aṣriyyah fī mabāhij al-ādāb al‘aṣriyyah (Cairo, 1912) p. 99. See also Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought, p. 99.
2 On ‘Abd Allāh Nadīm’s concept of waṭan, see Angelo Sammarco, Histoire de l’Égypte Moderne (Cairo, 1937) p. 318.
3 Shaykh Ḥusayn Marṣafī, Al-kalim ath-thamān (Cairo, 1298/1880–1) pp. 2–15.
4 Sylvia Haim, ‘Islam and the Theory of Arab Nationalism’, Die Welt des Islams (New Series), IV (1956) pp. 132–3.
5 Hisham Sharabi, Arab Intellectuals and the West (London, 1970) p. 119.
6 ‘Abd ar-Raḥmān al-Bazzāz, Min waḥy al-‘urūbah (Cairo, n.d.) (hereafter cited as Bazzāz, Min waḥy al-‘urūbah) p. 199.
7 Ibid. p. 200.
8 Ibid. p. 200–1.
9 Ibid. p. 206, see also Bazzāz’s other book, Hādhih qawmiyyatunā (Cairo, 1964) p. 62.
10 Muḥammad Darwazah, Al-waḥdat’ al-‘Arabiyyah (Beirut, 1957) pp. 60 ff., also Nash’at’ al-ḥarakat’ al-‘Arabiyyat’ al-ḥadīthah (Beirut, 1949) pp. 10–14. Sāṭi‘ al-Ḥusrī, Mā hīya’ al-qawmiyyah, 2nd ed. (1963) pp. 251–7. Bazzāz, Hādhih qawmiyyatunā, pp. 238–9, where similar views by such Christian writers as Qusṭantīn Zurayq are quoted.
11 For fundamentalist denunciations of nationalism, see Muḥammad Aḥmad Bāshmīl, Al-qawmiyyah fī naẓar al-Islām (Beirut, 1960).
12 Abdu’l ‘Azīz ad-Dawrī, ‘Al-juzūr at-tārīkhiyyah li’l-qawmiyyat’ al-‘Arabiyyah’ in Dirāsāt’ al-qawmiyyah (Beirut, 1960) p. 13. For Rashīd Riḍā’s attacks on the Umayyads see his Al-khilāfah aw’ al-imāmat’ al-uẓmā, pp. 44–5, 130.
13 On the relationship between Arab nationalist and Islamic tendencies, see Aḥmad Ṭarabayn, Al-waḥdat’ al-‘Arabiyyah fī tārīkh mashriq al-mu’āṣir, 1800–1958 (?Beirut, n.d.) pp. 326–42.
14 Marcel Colombe, L’Évolution de l’Égypte (Paris, 1951) pp. 171–2.
15 Majallat’ al-Azhar, XXIV (1952) pp. 137–40.
16 Ibid. XXVII (1956) pp. 937–41, XXVIII (1956) pp. 337–44.
17 For a critical study of the ideology of Iranian nationalism in the nineteenth century see Firaydūn Ādamiyyat, Andīshi-hā-yi Mīrzā Āqā Khān Kirmānī (Tehran, 1346/1967) pp. 248–68, Andīshi-hā-yi Mīrzā Fatḥ ‘Alī Ākhūnd Zādih (Tehran, 1349/1971) pp. 109–36, Andīshi-yi taraqqī va ḥukūmat dar ‘aṣr-i Sipahsālār (Tehran, 1349/1971) pp. 160–2.
18 Shaykh ar-Ra’īs Qājār, Ittiḥād-i Islām (Bombay, 1894) pp. 74–5.
19 Murtaḍā Muṭahharī and S. H. Nasr, ‘The Religious Sciences’, in The Cambridge History of Iran (Cambridge, 1975) vol. IV, pp. 464–5.
20 Murtaḍā Muṭahharī, Khidamāt-i mutaqābil-i Irān va Islām (Tehran, 1348) pp. 40–8.
21 Ibid. p. 77.
22 Ibid. pp. 83, 122.
23 Ibid. pp. 114–16.
24 On Firdawsī’s nationalism see Mujtabā Minuvī, Firdawsī va shi‘r-i ū (Tehran, 1346) pp. 29–64.
25 Hannah Arendt, On Revolution (New York, 1963) (hereafter cited as Arendt, Revolution) p. 23.
26 [Khājah] Naṣīr Ṭūṣī, Akhlāq-i Nāṣirī (Lahore, 1952) p. 232.
27 Arendt, Revolution, p. 39.
28 Aquinas, Selected Political Writings, edited by A. P. D’Entrèves (Oxford, 1948) p. 113.
29 H. Kabir, Science, Democracy and Islam (London, 1955) pp. 7–10.
30 Ibid. p. 11.
31 Ibid. p. 15.
32 Ibid. p. 18.
33 Aḥmad Shawqī al-Fanjarī, Al-ḥurriyyat’ as-sīyāsiyyah fi’l Islām (Kuwait, 1973) p. 31.
34 Ibid. p. 34.
35 Ibid. pp. 47–48.
36 Ibid. p. 49.
37 Ibid. pp. 51–2.
38 Ibid. pp. 42–3, 124–62.
39 Ibid. pp. 69–80.
40 Ibid. pp. 50, 63, 73.
41 Ibid. p. 51.
42 Ibid. pp. 81–2.
43 Nadav Safran, Egypt in Search of Political Community (Cambridge, Mass., 1961) p. 217.
44 Ibid. pp. 220–1.
45 Ibid. p. 217.
46 Abdul-Hadi Hairi, Shī‘īsm and Constitutionalism in Iran (Leiden, 1977) p. 220. The author makes similarly critical remarks on Nā’īnī’s ideas on equality (p. 234) and separation of powers (p. 220).
47 Steven Lukes, Essays in Social History (London, 1977) p. 34.
48 Ibid. p. 41.
49 See Muḥammad ‘Abduh, A l-a‘māl āl-kāmilah, edited by Muḥammad ‘Amārah (Beirut, 1972), vol. III, p. 485. Also Sayyid Jamāl ad-Dīn al-Afghānī and Muḥammad ‘Abduh, Al-‘Urwat’ al-wuthqā (Cairo, 1957) pp. 128–34.
50 Muḥammad Ḥusayn Ṭabāṭabā’ī, Ravābiṭ-i ijtimā‘ī dar Islām, collected and translated from his Tafsīr al-mīzān by Muḥammad Javād Ḥujjatī Kirmānī (Tehran, 1348) pp. 21–42.
51 Ibid. pp. 65–7.
52 Ibid. p. 68.
53 Ibid. pp. 100–2.
54 Ibid. pp. 69, 74.
55 ‘Abd al-Aziz al-Badrī, Ḥukm al-Islām fi’l-ishtirākiyyah (Medina, 1966) pp. 122–5.
56 Ibid. pp. 142–4.
57 For studies on the crisis of liberalism in these countries see P. J. Vatikiotis, Modern History of Egypt, 2nd ed. (London, 1978) pp. 317–42; R. Cottam, Nationalism in Iran (Pittsburgh, 1964) pp. 33–50; C. H. Dodd, Politics and Government in Turkey (Manchester, 1969) pp. 107–80. For Pakistan see the notes to Chapter 3.
58 See M. H. Kerr, ‘Emergence of a Socialist Ideology in Egypt’, Middle East Journal, XVI (Spring 1962) pp. 127–45; S. Serafy, ‘Economic Development by Revolution’, ibid. XVII (Summer 1963) pp. 215–31; Fayez Sayegh, ‘The Theoretical Structure of Nasser’s Arab Socialism’, St Antony’s Papers, Middle Eastern Affairs, no. 4 (1965) (hereafter cited as Sayegh, ‘Nasser’s Socialism’) pp. 9–56.
59 Sayegh, ‘Nasser’s Socialism’, pp. 27, 35, 39–41.
60 On Nāṣir’s attitude towards Islam as a political force, see this author’s ‘The Impact of the West on Arab Nationalism’ (Ph.D. diss., London University, 1962) pp. 276 ff.
61 Gamal ‘Abdul Nāṣir, The Philosophy of Revolution (Washington, 1955) pp. 88 ff.
62 For references, see this author’s ‘Islam and Socialism in Egypt’, Middle Eastern Studies, IV (1967–8) pp. 141–72.
63 ‘Iṣmat Ṣayf ad-Dawlah, Usus ishtirākiyyat’ al-Islām (Cairo, 1965) p. 5.
64 Ibid. p. 9.
65 Ibid. p. 412.
66 Kamāl Raf‘at, ‘Khaṣā’iṣ al-ishtirākiyyat’ al-‘Arabiyyah’, in al-Akhbār (March 18, 1962).
67 Ṣalāh Mukhaymir and ‘Abduh Mikhā’īl Rizq, Fi’l ishtirākiyyat’ al-‘Arabiyyah (Cairo, 1964) pp. 110–11.
68 Some examples of this critical approach will be given in Chapter 5, under ‘Martyrdom’.
69 Ishaq Musa Husaini, The Muslim Brethren (Beirut, 1956) p. 78.
70 Patrick Seale, The Struggle for Syria (London, 1965) p. 180.
71 Muṣṭafā as-Sibā‘ī, Ishtirākiyyat’ al-Islām (Damascus, 1958) (hereafter cited as as-Sibā‘ī, Ishtirākiyyah) pp. 13, 115 ff., 59 ff.
72 Ibid. p. 17.
73 Ibid. pp. 17–18.
74 Ibid. pp. 33–4.
75 Ḥamdī Hāfiẓ, Al-ishtirākiyyah wa’t-taṭbīq al-ishtirākī fi’l-jumhuriyyat ’al-‘Arabiyyah (Cairo, n.d.) p. 291 (quoting a speech by Naṣīr). See also Nazīh Muḥammad aṣ-Ṣādiq al-Mahdī, Al-milkiyyah fi’n-niẓām al-ishtirākī (thesis, Cairo, n.d.) p. 39; Ma‘rūf ad-Dawālibī, Naẓarāt Islāmīyyah fi’l ishtrākiyyat al-thawriyyah (Beirut, 1955); Aḥmad Shalabī, Al-ishtirakiyyah (Cairo, 1966) pp. 74–83; Muḥammad Mukhtār Amīn Makram, Ḥawl al-ishtirākiyyat’ al-‘Arabiyyah (Cairo, 1966) pp. 35 ff.
76 Sibā‘ī, Ishtirākiyyah, pp. 38, 89–100.
77 Ibid. pp. 43–65.
78 Ibid. pp. 69–85.
79 Al-mu’tamar al-awwal li-majma‘ al-buḥūth al-Islāmī [Report of the First Congress of the Association for Islamic Research] (al-Azhar, 1964) p. 331.
80 Ibid. pp. 135–251.
81 Ibid. p. 394.
82 The Resolutions and Recommendations of the Second Congress of the Association for Islamic Research (Cairo, 1965).
83 W. C. Smith, Islam in Modern History, p. 157.
84 Quṭb’s two important works in this respect are: Al-‘adālat’ al-ijtimā‘iyyah fi’l-Islām, 6th ed. (Cairo, 1964) (hereafter cited as Quṭb, Al-‘adālat) and Ma‘ālim fi’ṭ-ṭarīq (Cairo, n.d.) (hereafter cited as Quṭb, Ma‘ālim). On the point at issue see his Al-‘adālah, p. 97.
85 Quṭb, Ma‘ālim, especially pp. 52 ff., 213.
86 Quṭb, Al‘adālah, p. 292. The same theme has been developed in Muḥammad Quṭb’s Jāhiliyyat’ al-qarn al-‘ishrīn (Cairo, 1964).
87 Qṭb, Ma’ālim, pp. 120–41.
88 Ibid. pp. 1, 147 ff.
89 Ibid. pp. 154, 160; Quṭb, Al-‘adālah, pp. 36 ff.
90 Quṭb, Ma‘ālim, pp. 145–6, 185–6, 192–4, 197.
91 Quṭb, Al-‘adālah, p. 18.
92 Tafsīr-i sūrah-i Anfāl, Commentary on the verse 1 of the Sūrah ‘Spoils of War’ in the Qur’ān, clandestine publication, mimeographed (Tehran?, n.d.) p. 19, also pp. 6 and 15. This, of course, has been selected as an example from many others.
93 Ibid. p. 19.
94 Mazheruddin Siddiqqi, ‘General Characteristics of Muslim Modernism’, Islamic Studies, IX (1970) pp. 33–68. See also J. M. S. Baljon, Modern Muslim Koran Interpretation (Leiden, 1966), pp. 16 ff.
95 ‘Alī Sharī‘atī, Dars-hā-yi Islām-shināsī, duplicated by the Islamic Students. Association of Europe, the United States and Canada (n.d.) pp. 48–50 (see also On the Sociology of Islam, lectures by ‘Alī Sharī‘atī, translated by Hamid Algar (Berkeley, 1979) pp. 82 ff.
96 Ibid. p. 77.
97 Ibid. p. 78.
98 Ibid. p. 89. For Sharī‘atī’s criticism of Marxism from a religious standpoint, see, inter alia, his Insān, Islām va mak tab-hā-yi maghrib zamīn (Therna, n.d.).
99 Sharī‘atī, Dars-hā-yi Islām-shināsī, p. 95.
100 Ibid. p. 87.
101 Sharī‘atī has replied to some of his traditionalist critics in Mīz gird, pāsukh bi su’ālāt va intiqādāt, published by Ḥusayniyyah-i Irshād (Tehran, 1354/1975).
Chapter 5
1 On modern Shī‘ī views on ijtihād see Muḥammad Jawād Maghnīyah, At-tafsīr al-kāshif (Beirut, 1968) (hereafter cited as Maghnīyah, At-tafsīr) vol. I, pp. 259–60; Muḥammad Jawād Maghnīyah, Min hunā wa hunāk, pp. 261 ff. While earlier Sunnī writings in this century expressed reservations on ijtihād (Nūr al-Islām, II 3 (1931) pp. 170–3; III 4 (1932) pp. 280–8; Liwā’ al-Islām, XV (1961) pp. 220–8, 293–6), later publications supported it (Al-mu’tamar al-awwal li-majma‘ al-buḥūth al-Islāmi [Proceedings of the First Congress of the Association for Islamic Research] cited in note 79 to Chapter 4.
2 ‘Alī Dawānī, Waḥīd Bihbihānī (Qum, 1338/1959); Murtaḍā Muṭahharī, ‘Ijtihād dar Islām’, in Marja‘iyyat va ruḥāniyyat (Tehran, 1341/1962) (hereafter cited as Muṭahharī, ‘Ijtihād’) pp. 35–68.
3 Muṭahharī, ‘Ijtihād’, p. 182.
4 Maḥmūd Ṭāliqānī, ‘Tamarkuz va ‘adam-i tamarkuz dar marja‘ayyiat va fatvā’, in Marja‘iyyat va ruḥāniyyat, pp. 201–13.
5 For a daring criticism of the attitudes of the Iranian Shī‘ī ‘Ulamā’ in the modern period by an ‘insider’ see Naṣīr ud-Dīn Amīr Ṣādiqī, Ruḥāniyyat dar Shī‘ah (Tehran, 1349/1970) and the second volume of the same book, entitled Hayāhū (Iṣfahān, 1349/1970).
6 On the foundations of the ‘Ulamā’s’ power in the nineteenth century see Hamid Algar, Religion and State in Iran (Berkeley, 1969) (hereafter cited as Algar, Iran) pp. 1–25. For a theoretical discussion on the sources of their authority in general see Joseph Eliash, ‘Misconceptions Regarding the Judicial Status of the Iranian Ulama’, International Journal of the Middle East, X (1979) pp. 9–25; and the present author’s article on the ‘Ulamā’ ’s ideological contribution to the Constitutional Revolution in Yād-nāmih-i Ustād Muṭahharī (Tehran, forthcoming).
7 See, for instance, Aḥmad Kasravī, Dīn va sīyāsat (Tehran, 1348), p. 11.
8 Algar, Iran, p. 22.
9 Firaydūn Ādamiyyat, Īdeologīe-yi nadhḍat-i mashrūṭih (Tehran, 2535/1977) p. 228.
10 Ādamiyyat, Andīshih-i taraqqī va ḥukūmat, p. 159.
11 Ādamiyyat, Amīr Kabīr va Irān, 3rd ed. (Tehran, 1348/1959) pp. 417–28.
12 Niyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (Montreal, 1964) pp. 367 ff.
13 Aḥmad Kasravī, Tārīkh-i mashrūṭih-i Irān, 6th ed. (Tehran, 1344/1965) (hereafter cited as Kasravī, Tārīkh) pp. 315–16.
14 Muḥammad Bāqir Khunsārī, Rawḍāt’ al-jannāt (Tehran, 1306/1888) pp. 35–6.
15 Muṭahharī, ‘Ijtihād’, p. 45.
16 N. J. Coulson, A History of Islamic Law (Edinburgh, 1964) pp. 107–8.
17 Aḥmad Kasravī, Bi-khānand va dāvarī kunand, 3rd ed. (Tehran, 1336/1957) p. 105.
18 Abu’l Ḥasan Muḥammadī, Mabānī-i istinbāṭ-i ḥuqūq-i Islāmī (Tehran, 2535/1977) (hereafter cited as Muḥammadī, Mabānī) p. 154.
19 Muḥammad Ḥusayn Nā’īnī, Tanbīh al-ummah wa tanzīh al-millah, with introduction and footnotes by Sayyid Maḥmūd Ṭāliqānī, 5th ed. (Tehran, 1358/1979) (hereafter cited as Nā’īnī, Tanbīh) pp. 74–5.
20 Muḥammadī, Mabānī, pp. 164–70.
21 Kasravī, Tārīkh, pp. 371–2.
22 Shams Kāshmarī, Kalimah Jāmi‘ah (Tehran, n.d.) pp. 22–3; Muḥammad Gulbun, ‘Asnādī dar bārih-i-mashrūṭih-i-Irān’, Barrisī-hā-yi tārīkhī, V 3 (1349/1960) p. 159; Abdul-Hadi Hairi, Shi’ism and Constitutionalism in Iran, p. 213.
23 Kulaynī, Kāfī vol. I, pp. 87–8.
24 See, for instance, Ḥajj Mīrzā Muḥammad Ḥasan Āshtīyānī, Kitāb al-qaḍā (Tehran, 1327/1948) p. 7.
25 Ruḥullāh Musavī Khumaynī, Ṇāmih ī az Imām Kāshif al-Ghitā’ (Tehran, 1356/1977) pp. 116–18.
26 Nā’īnī, Tanbīh, pp. 80–5.
27 See note 11 to the Introduction.
28 Kalimāt’ al-muḥaqqiqīn, a collection of thirty treatises on land-tax, of which five are known as Kharājiyyāt (Tehran, 1315/1897) pp. 95–7.
29 Muḥaqqiq Sabzavārī, Rawḍat al-anwār-i ‘Abbāsī (Caro Minasian Collection, no. 47, Wadham College Library, Oxford) p. 9.
30 Nā’īnī, Tanbīh, p. 13.
31 Ibid. pp. 46, 57–8.
32 For classical Shī‘ī treatment of taqiyyah see Fayḍ Kāshānī, Kitāb al-wāfī (Tehran, 1357/1938) vol. I, part 3, pp. 121–4; [Muḥammad Ibn al-Ḥasan] al-Ḥurr al-‘Amilī, Wasā’il ash-shī‘ah (Cairo, 1377/1957) vol. I, p. 108. E. Kohlberg, ‘Some Imāmī–Shī‘ī Views on Taqiyya’, Journal of American Oriental Society, XCV (1975) pp. 395–402. See also notes 39 and 42 below.
33 H. Corbin, En Islam Iranien (Paris, 1971) vol. I, pp. 6, 30 ff., 117.
34 ‘Alī Tehrānī, Taqiyyah dar Islām (Tehran, 1352/1973) pp. 6–7, 45, 54–6, 80.
35 Ibid. pp. 26–8.
36 Ibid. p. 34.
37 Ibid. p. 30. See also Ibn Idrīs, Kitāb as-sarā’ir (Tehran, 1390/1970) p. 203.
38 Tehrānī, Taqiyyah, pp. 54–79; Magnīyah, At-tafsīr, vol. II, pp. 41–5, vol. IV, p. 556; ‘Abd ar-Razzāq al-Ḥasanī, Ta‘rīf ash-Shī‘ah (Sidon, 1352/1933) pp. 53–4.
39 Ibn Idrīs, Kitāb as-sarā’ir, pp. 160–1.
40 Sayyid Aḥmad Ṭayyibī Shabistarī, Taqiyyah, amr bi ma‘rūf wa nahy az munkar (Tehran, 1350/1971) pp. 79 ff., 170.
41 Ibid. pp. 100–134, 164–170.
42 Ibid. p. 101. See also Shaykh Muḥammad Ḥasan an-Najafī, Jawāhir al-Kalām (Tehran, 1392–8/1972–8) vol. XXI, pp. 352–410.
43 Murtaḍā Muṭahharī, Dah guftār (Tehran, ?1356/1977) pp. 65–6.
44 Muḥammad Mukrī, Shāhnāmih-i ḥaqīqat, quoted in Shāhrukh Miskūb’s Sūg-i Sīyāvush (Tehran, 1351/1972) pp. 87–9. Also consult Sīmīn Dānishvar’s novel Sauwishūn (Tehran, 1348/1969), where, at the end, the mourning for Ḥusayn merges with that for Siyāwush, pp. 275, 300.
45 R. Strothmann, ‘ta’zīya’ in Encyclopedia of Islam, 1st ed., p. 712.
46 A. J. Wensinck, A Handbook of Early Muhammedan Tradition (Leiden, 1960) p. 250.
47 [’Abū Ja‘far Muḥammad Ibn ‘Alī] Ibn Bābūyih, ‘Uyūn akhbār ar-riḍā, ed. S. M. Lājevardī (Qum, 1377/1957) pp. 299–300.
48 Mullā Muḥammad Mahdī Narāqī, Muḥriq al-qulūb (Tehran, 1247/19. .) (hereafter cited as Narāqī, Muḥriq) p. 4. For Narāqī’s life and work, see Sayyid Jalāl Ashtīyānī’s introduction to Qurrat’ al-‘uyūn (Tehran, 1357) pp. 51–6.
49 Ṣadr ad-Dīn Vā‘iẓ Qazvīnī, Rīyāḍ al-quds, 2nd ed. (Tehran, 1377) vol. II, pp. 113–14.
50 [’Abū Ja‘far Muḥammad Ibn Ḥasan Ibn ‘Alī] aṭ-Ṭūsī, al-Amālī (Najaf, 1384) vol. I, p. 6.
51 Narāqī, Muḥriq, p. 4 (a).
52 Jean Calmard, ‘Le mécénat des représentations de ta‘zieye’, in Le Monde Iranien et l’Islam (1974) pp. 76, 119.
53 Abū Bakr Ibn al-‘Arabī, Al‘awāṣim min al-qawāṣim (Cairo, 1387/1967) pp. 231, 233) (hereafter cited as ‘Awāṣim).
54 Ibn Khaldūn, The Muqaddima, translated by F. Rosenthal (New York, 1958) vol. I, p. 443.
55 See Khaṭīb’s footnotes, for instance, on pp. 32–4 of ‘Awāṣim.
56 ar-Risālah, IV 146 (1355/1936) pp. 613–15. There might have been other writers before Māzinī who discussed Ḥusayn’s drama from a modernistic standpoint. In 1932, for instance, an issue of the periodical al-Muqtaṭaf (V 80, p. 627) carries a brief review of a book by ‘Alī Jalāl al-Ḥusaynī Bey, entitled Al-Ḥusayn ‘alayhi’ s-salām published by the Salafiyyah Press, praising it as an impartial study, but the present author was unable to see this book.
57 ‘Abbās Maḥmūd al-‘Aqqād, ‘Ḥusayn abu’sh-shuhadā’’ in Islāmiyyāt (Cairo, 1959) pp. 41–9, also pp. 10–11.
58 Ibid. p. 52.
59 Ibid. p. 79, also p. 71.
60 Ibid. pp. 80–1.
61 ‘Abd ar-Raḥmān ash-Sharqāwī, al-Ḥusayn thā’iran, al-Ḥusayn shahīdan (Cairo, 1969); on Ḥusayn’s modest political aims see vol. I, p. 60; on the upsurge of popular feelings in his movement, see vol. I, p. 211; for his soliloquy, see pp. 66 ff.
62 Aḥmad ‘Abbās Ṣāliḥ, ‘Aṣ-ṣirā‘ bayn al-yamīn wa’l-yasār fi’l-Islām’ in al-Kātib, IV (1965) pp. 49, 50, 52.
63 al-Liwā’ al-Islām, X 6 (1956) pp. 364–8.
64 Ibid. XIX 10 (September 1965) pp. 645–58.
65 Khālid Muḥammad Khālid, Abnā’ ar-rasūl fī Karbalā’ (Cairo, 1968) p. 35.
66 Ibid. p. 34.
67 Ibid. pp. 196–200.
68 E. W. Lane, An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians (London, 1871) vol. II, pp. 148–54. The author describes how the anniversary of Ḥusayn’s martyrdom gives rise to joyous festivals in Cairo.
69 Ni‘matullāh Ṣāliḥī Najaf-ābādī, Shahīd-i jāvīd (Tehran, 1349/1970) (hereafter cited as Najaf-ābādī. Shahīd-i jāvīd) pp. 12, 89, 91, 93.
70 Ibid. p. 8.
71 Ibid. pp. 95–108.
72 Ibid. pp. 120–36.
73 Ibid. p. 108.
74 Ibid. p. 109.
75 Cf. Shaykh Ṣadūq, Uyūn akhbār ar-Riḍā, p. 226; Kulaynī, kafī, vol. I, pp. 322 ff.
76 Najaf-ābādī, Shahīd-i jāvīd, pp. 246–339.
77 Khumaynī, Ṇāmih ī az Imām Kāshif al-Ghitā’, pp. 181 ff.
78 See, inter alia, ‘Abd aṣ-Ṣāḥib Sayyid Muḥammad Mahdī Murtaḍavi, Javāb-i ū az kitāb-i ū, ya pāsukh-i shubahāt-i shahīd-i jāvīd (Qum, 1350/1970); Sayyid Ḥasan Ḥujjat, Valāyat va ‘ilm-i Imām (Tehran, 2535/1977); Muḥammad Mulīmī. Valāyat az dīdgāh-i marja‘iyyat-i Shī‘ah (Tehran, 2535/1977).