HAVING mastered the basic techniques of rock climbing and tried a multi-pitch ascent, you have reached a sort of crossroads. Some beginners, of course, decide the sport is not for them. though its elementary safety measures may prove useful on non-technical climbs. Others. swept away by the sheer delight of rock climbing. are affected as if a sort of revelation has changed their entire outlook on life. It has.
If you are among the converts. your beginner’s role as passive third on the rope will not last long. With the basic know-how, you will probably begin to belay the leader on easy climbs. In due time. depending on your ability. temperament, and enthusiasm, you will start leading. It is well to make your initial leads on familiar climbs that were easy for you, and to have an experienced second man. By this time. too. additional equipment. and a full familiarity with its uses for protection. are required.
Expert techniques and good judgment are best developed during a period in which you are a sort of apprentice or understudy, making diverse climbs with many Climbers. You should progress from easy to difficult climbs at your own tempo; but it will take at least one or two climbing seasons, perhaps several or many, before you reach your top potential as a climber. Whether you turn out to be an average or an outstanding rock climber remains to be seen – and has little correlation with your enjoyment of the sport. In any event, both ascent and descent are more complex than they seem from the comparatively carefree tail end of the rope.
A roped climbing party routinely is made up of either two or three people, preferably two on rock. More than three is such a time-consuming and cumbersome number that it can be justified only by an emergency. For instance, when two ropes are on the same route, the parties occasionally join because of unexpected climbing difficulties, storm, or indisposition.
The Three-Man Rope
A rope of three may be chosen for reasons such as companionship, extra safety on some climbs, photography, instruction, or shortage of rope leaders. The third man, of course, is not necessarily inexperienced. He may be an alternate leader who swings leads with the fellow at the other end. The least experienced person may have been tied into the middle for extra protection on a traverse. In such cases, the usual climbing order is changed: the third joins the others at each belay stance to take his turn at leading, or to belay the leader if the second is a beginner.
Three climbers may tie into a 150-foot rope. If such a rope is not available, or if the climb requires long leads, two shorter ropes are used. The middle man ties into the end of the rope that goes to the leader, leaving an end about thirty inches long which is joined to the second rope. The knot should be within a few inches of his body; thus it cannot interfere when carabiners are reached.
The Two-Man Rope
Two on a rope climb about twice as fast as three. There is less rope handling and general maneuvering. Speed is not, of course, the primary aim of climbing; but it is essential on long or difficult routes, and smooth, fast climbing is sheer pleasure.
On two-man ropes, the order of climbing may take two forms. (1) The two climbers may be of equal or nearly equal ability. Since both want to lead, they take turns on alternate pitches; or, one may be an intermediate climber who leads the less difficult sections. In either case, the leader brings the second up to his ledge. There the second adds whatever hardware he needs from the belayer’s assortment to his own supply. He then leads the next pitch. Besides giving both climbers a chance to lead, this procedure minimizes transfer of hardware, changing belay positions, and rope handling. (2) The two may be climbers of unequal abilities, or two who form an almost permanent team that almost always climbs together with one leading and the other second. An example of such a rope is a husband-wife team, in which the woman usually climbs second.
On two-man ropes, the second performs all the functions of the third, as well as those specifically the obligation of the second man, whose primary activity is belaying the leader.
Both the rope leader and the second man should have a thorough understanding of each other’s duties and responsibilities in order to climb as a team with the greatest safety, efficiency and pleasure.
Generally the rope leader has served a stint as second while gaining the climbing experience and personal insight needed for competent leading. Sometimes he is a climber of such agility, drive, and daring that he never spent much time as second-man “apprentice” climber. However, every leader at least occasionally climbs as second with his peers, and hence not only can fulfill the functions of second man, but also knows how far he must and can trust his second.
The second man may be a climber of such knowledge, dependability, and competence that, whether he leads or not, he knows exactly what the leader is doing, and how to coordinate his own efforts. Or he may be a climber of limited experience who does not yet possess the self-confidence, desire, or ability to lead. He may fit somewhere in between.
The word “leader” commonly has two connotations. The term may refer to a climber with sufficient experience and judgment to take charge of a group, regardless of whether he goes first on the rope. It may also refer to the rope leader, whether or not he is qualified to make decisions for the group. Actually leaders usually fall into both categories. When they don’t, the distinction is perfectly clear on a climb. The leader’s position is one of challenge, and of risks that do not ordinarily apply to his followers. He also has duties and responsibilities, which include a knowledge of what he himself as well as others can climb safely.
Selecting the Route
In choosing a route, the leader should consider the whole party’s abilities and desires. If he picks a route too hard for the party, the climb may turn into one long session of coaxing and cajoling, or a retreat. True, many neophytes can climb much harder things than they think they can; but also true, only the really dedicated are encouraged by discovering this the hard way. The rope leader also has to figure out move by move which holds, cracks, faces, gullies, ridges and ledges will “go.” The leader’s route-finding ability improves with experience, first on known and then on unfamiliar routes.
Equipment for the Climb
The leader should know, or find out, enough about the prospective climb to choose the needed equipment. Previous knowledge, friends’ advice, or a guidebook will indicate the length, difficulty, and nature of the route – all of which influence what ropes, slings, and hardware should be taken. Extra gear is usually provided in case poor weather or other unpredictable conditions should make the climb harder than expected. Necessary food, water, and clothing should be included. Every member of the rope should have a piton hammer on his person, plus a couple of slings and at least one piton and carabiner.
Unique Problems of the Climbing Leader
The most obvious difference between the leader and those following on the rope is that he lacks the almost perfect protection of an upper belay. He climbs with the rope below him. The rope itself creates quite a downward pull, especially when friction is greatly increased by corners of rock, carabiners, etc. Further, it may catch, or the belayer may fail to pay it out properly and thereby cause a downward jerk. The major hazard is that if the leader falls at all, he will, if unprotected, fall at least twice the distance between his stance and his belayer.
It is quite true that the born leader glories in the exultation and the challenge of what he is doing. But he also prides himself on his competence, which includes safe climbing. He gets used to the pull of the rope and compensates for it. He adapts his climbing to the abilities of the second. And he makes use of pitons or similarly employed protective devices to prevent too long a fall.
Every reliable climbing leader gets a feel for what he can climb without falling. Considerable experience on a variety of climbs cultivates this feel. When the rock above looks as if a fall might occur – and preferably before his position gets really shaky – the leader looks for a suitable crack, if possible one above him. He drives a piton into the crack, snaps a carabiner into it, and snaps the rope into the carabiner. He is now protected to the extent that if he is below his piton, he is essentially as well protected as if he had a standard upper belay. When he has climbed above the piton, he can theoretically fall only twice the distance between himself and the piton. The principle of piton protection is shown in Figure 3-1.
After placing his first piton of the pitch, the leader should signal to his belayer to make sure he is aware that the pull will now come up instead of down. The belayer should also be notified of additional protection placed (unless, of course, he can plainly see or hear the procedure), so he can take it into account in belaying. Other protective devices used by the leader with the same effect as pitons are bolts, slings, and nuts for special circumstances. These are discussed later in this chapter, under Choosing and Caring for Equipment.
When to Place Pitons
The need for a piton depends largely on the relationship between the climber’s experience and ability, and the difficulty of the route. As a beginning leader, you may place them at six-foot intervals along the entire route if you so desire; but when you find out how much time and energy are required, you probably won’t want to. Nonetheless, while learning, you should use more protection than a more experienced climber. It is a most appropriate safeguard.
The size and experience of the belayer are also considered. The more pitons, the more friction, and the more effortlessly a fall can be held. The probable landing place if you fall, and the type of fall that might occur, also influence the location and number of pitons placed. A fall into a rather gentle trough or onto a ledge would not place as great stress On the piton as a free fall, but the climber is more likely to be injured if he strikes something than if the fall is free. Try to place pitons so solid landings are avoided. On traverses, pitons afford both the leader and the last on the rope protection from long, swinging pendulum falls. Do not feel limited to using pitons only where previous’ climbers did: use more (or less) if you feel like it.
How and Where to Place Pitons
Driving pitons is a craft, a skill, an art, on which the climber’s life may hang. In a piton fall, the shock of the falling man hits the marl himself, the rope, the carabiner, the piton, and the belayer almost simultaneously. The force exerted on the piton and carabiner is twice the force of the fall itself, since it is the sum of both the fall and the belay that stops it. A poorly placed piton may be jerked violently from its crack and alter the entire sequence of protection (for the worse). As in other aspects of technical climbing, much experience is necessary toachieve expertise in piton-craft: but a few pointers will help the beginner begin.
Reduced to its simplest and most ideal conditions, the method of placing a piton when need arises consists in first finding a properly located crack that appears to narrow gradually for several inches behind its opening. Pick a crack to fit one of your pitons, or more likely a piton to fit the crack. Horizontal pitons (which have the eyes set at right angles to the blades) can be used in any thin cracks. Vertical (flat) pitons are less versatile (and may not even be carried) . They are suitable only for narrow cracks that do not have offset edges, and that slope no more than thirty degrees from the probable direction of fall. Wider cracks require angles, and still larger openings take bongs. Various pitons in place are illustrated in Figure 2-9.
The eye of the piton should be downward unless an offset, bulge, etc., prevents. Angles and bongs should have the open side downward in horizontal cracks, and sideways in vertical cracks. Select a piton of such thickness that preferably three-quarters (and not less than half) of the blade length can enter the crack before driving. Soft rock requires long pitons. While driving, listen to each hammer blow. If the rock is good, and crack and piton compatible, each blow will ring on the piton with an increasingly high pitch; a dull, hollow sound often indicates a poor piton. The piton should go in hard, and if possible up to the eye (leaving enough room to insert the carabiner). Pitons must be sound. Secondarily, they should not be overdriven, for removal becomes timeconsuming and often impossible. Test with a medium blow in each direction, parallel to the crack. If the piton is questionable, clip in carabiner and rope, and test it further by jerking on the rope from a safe spot.
Of course, actual conditions are not always ideal. Either piton or crack may have been misjudged. If the piton goes in too easily or sticks out so far that a fall might lever it out of its crack, remove it and try it in another spot, or use it for temporary protection while a different piton is placed elsewhere.
If your position makes it imperative to hold on with one hand, place your piton with the other. Until you become adept, attach your retriever to the eye of the piton to prevent dropping it, stick it in the crack, and gingerly let go. Start hammering with the gentlest of taps. If it falls out, try again. The retriever can be removed when the piton is well started. Try to position a series of pitons in a reasonably straight line to minimize rope friction.
The quality of the rock may preclude really good piton placement. Clean, sharply fractured granite is the prototype of perfect piton rock. Even here, be on the lookout for blocks or flakes, sometimes astonishingly big, that tend to move with the leverage of one or more pitons, the crack widening or an entire section coming loose. Decomposed granite, sandstone, brittle volcanic rock, shattered limestone, or other types of rock that do not fracture cleanly or are unsound, cause the prudent climber to regard his degree of protection with suspicion. However, determined and experienced climbers have devised methods of compensating for poor piton rock in several ways. They may nest a whole cluster of pitons in an unlikely little hole, place pitons very close together, treat them with inordinately gentle care, place a “hero loop” (short nylon sling) around a protruding piton close to the rock instead of through the eye, or employ various other types of protection. Such methods are best deferred until you have gained a good deal of experience.
Re-using Pitons
The last man on the rope removes the pitons, passing them along to the leader. This is done for several reasons. On long routes or remote climbs, the weight must be considered. Just the right piton might be needed several times on the same route. Thrift enters in. Climbing ethics suggest leaving the rocks in their natural state, and also requiring other parties to place their own pitons.
Pitons are not always removed. On some routes frequently climbed by club groups, pitons may be left in place to save wear and tear either on the cracks or on beginning leaders. In such cases, repress your joy at “finding” a piton to add to your collection, and leave it in. However, pitons are often left either because they would not come out. or the last man lacked the strength, will, and persistence to get them out ; these are fair pickings. Pitons found in place should never be used for protection without testing them. They frequently become unsafe or loose from corrosion of the metal or because the crack has widened due to various natural factors such as freezing of water, cyclic temperature changes, and the like. At times, two ropes are on the same route, and by pre-arrangement the first rope may leave the pitons in place to save time or to assist a less experienced rope; the last man on the second rope takes them out and passes them up to the first rope.
Carabiner Handling
The use of carabiners is much less complicated than that of pitons. Usually the carabiner is hooked into the piton eye. Then the rope is snapped into the carabiner. The easiest way to put the carabiner into the piton eye is to hold it with the gate-opening up and towards the rock. Push the gate against the piton so the gate opens and the carabiner slips into the eye. Then invert the carabiner so the gate is outward from the rock and facing down, to prevent accidental opening against the rock.
Be sure the rope from below runs through the carabiner in a direction that will permit it to run free when you are above it. If a piton is placed in a deep recess, or well to one side, or in some other position that causes the rope to bind or pull over a sharp edge, make a chain with two or more carabiners or use a good sling as a link between two carabiners, to allow the rope to run more freely. Carabiners are useful in countless ways, but should not be used so lavishly that you run out of them before completing the pitch.
Rope Problems
In leading, the first man should keep an eye on the rope behind him, as the second often cannot see all the rope. If it catches in a crack or over a point, the leader should throw the rope to try to loosen it. Sometimes both first and second must work together on this. Toward the end of the pitch, the friction may become so great that the rope has to be hauled up a few feet before each move. Once out of sight of the second, keep him informed of your activities to aid in smooth rope handling. If you need temporary support on the rope, possible when it is running through a carabiner at your level or above, call “Tension!” If a fall seems imminent, warn the belayer.
Pitches where the holds are scanty or lacking, but the cracks are good, may be ascended with the use of pitons, carabiners, and slings for aid and assistance. A long sling tied with two or three loops in it for footsteps may be linked by a carabiner to a high piton. Used occasionally on moderate climbs, such aid makes the climbs easier (and is avoided by most climbers for this very reason). Another type of aid involves the use of mechanical ascenders such as Jumars for climbing fixed ropes. Direct aid, used extensively on very high-angle climbs, is an advanced and specialized technique for such routes as sheer, almost holdless walls. Leaders and seconds tend to work up gradually to this sort of thing.
The rope, pitons, and carabiners are useless in team climbing without the skills of the second man. The leader relies upon his second to respond quickly and properly to his needs and signals, to handle the rope smoothly and expertly, and to catch him in case he falls either with or without pitons in place. The second has an assortment of duties, of which by far the most important is safeguarding the leader. For this responsibility, he should be prepared by instruction and practice. Figure 3-1 shows the second giving one type of belay for holding a leader fall, and will clarify the following discussion.
Types of Leader Falls
There are two distinct types of leader falls: ( 1) From above, without pitons or similar protective devices in place. Techniques for holding the fall are variations on those used in an ordinary upper belay to allow for the much greater jolt. (2) From above, after a piton or sling is in place and the rope connected to it with a carabiner. The essential difference to the belayer is that he receives an upward, rather than a downward, jerk. This type of fall is known as a “piton fall.”
Practice in Belaying the Leder
In spite of all the effort going into protection, leaders seldom fall off in actual climbing. You may go through your entire climbing career without once having to field a leader. However, if a fall comes, the demands on the belayer are so severe, and his reaction so important, that holding leader falls should be one of the techniques practiced diligently before it is actually needed. Otherwise, you can hardly conceive of the jolt you may get – or, surprisingly, how well you can hold the fall when you know how. Though you might succeed unrehearsed, it is one thing that you should not count on learning “as you go along.”
Two or three people can practice the technique with simple setups such as a very sound piton and carabiner above an overhang, or from the lowest limb of a suitable tree. One climber, pretending to be a falling leader, can jump off while another tries to hold him. Unfortunately, the faller may be let down too far by an inexperienced belayer. A safer method (although in some respects more trouble) is to replace the climber with a dead weight, such as a log, a large tire, or a bucket of concrete that has a bent reinforcing bar embedded in it for attaching it to the rope. The object need not be as heavy as a man. For one thing, unlike a living body, it does not absorb part of the shock of the fall; and for another, more slack can be safely accumulated in the rope. This system is best used for a group or club, as several people are needed to haul the weight back up after each “fall.” For practicing with a dead weight, use an old rope retired from active climbing.
The learning belayer must be positioned and anchored safely beyond the line of fall of the weight. Except for this precaution the techniques are much the same as on a climb.
Belay Stance of Second Man on Climb
In the selection of belay spots, there are several considerations. (1) Exposure to rock or leader fall. If there is any choice (and sometimes there is not), be to one side of the line of ascent, lest a dislodged rock or the climber himself put you out of commission by falling on you. (2) View of the leader. If possible, sit where you can watch the leader. This facilitates proper rope handling. When you can no longer see him, be especially attentive in listening for signals. (3) Direction of rope going up to leader. Pick a position from which the rope runs as directly as possible to the leader’s proposed line of ascent. Ask him which way he intends to go, if it is not obvious. (4) Direction of possible leader fall. Consider carefully where he would fall, and how the force of the fall would come on you. If the force would be downward, try to sit or stand so the greatest force of the fall would be directly down between your well-braced legs. The direction of fall determines which will be the holding hand in the belay. If the fall would be to your right, the right hand should guide the rope and the left hand do the holding-and vice versa. Thus the friction of the body always intervenes between the fall and the holding hand. If the braking hand is unavoidably close to the cliff, holding it between your legs sometimes prevents its being jerked against the rock (in rock climbing, the skin over the knuckles is usually the first to go). The route may change direction so that the holding hand has to be switched to the opposite side, or the belay position altered. In either case, signals must be exchanged to indicate that the leader is momentarily in a spot where he can remain un belayed while the change is made.
Anchoring the Belayer
For giving an upper belay, you frequently can find a good place to sit from which you couldn’t be dislodged. For a leader belay, tie yourself on unless you have a very superior spot, such as a wide ledge with excellent bracing for the feet, or a tree or point of rock that can be straddled with passable comfort. Anchoring is especially advisable for a belayer who is small compared with the leader. If the leader was anchored while bringing you up, use his anchor point. Otherwise establish your own. Sometimes an anchor can be arranged by placing a sling around bush, tree, or point of rock, and fastening your waist loop to the sling with a carabiner. Often a piton has to be placed for an anchor. Drive it as low as possible, preferably close by and behind you. Put a carabiner in the piton and tie in, sometimes with a sling but usually with a section of the climbing rope. If the anchor point is within reach or close by, tie an overhand loop in a bight of the rope, and insert it in the carabiner. The anchor should be long enough so it is fairly taut, but allows you to sit comfortably. If the anchor point is farther away, place the rope leading from your waist through the carabiner; adjust the length of the anchor and tie a bight of the rope into your waist loop with one or two overhand knots. When the anchor piton is above, and particularly sound, the leader sometimes runs his climbing rope through the same carabiner to protect the belayer from the direct shock of a fall. Do not unanchor till the leader has called “Belay on!” from the next belay spot.
Position of Rope for Holding Leader Fall
For a downward pull, sit down if the belay spot permits. At times you have to belay from a place barely large enough for your feet, and you half-stand, half-lean against the cliff (well anchored, of course). If you think the belay rope could be jerked off your hips by a downward pull, place it above the anchor rope. Otherwise it is better to have it run under the anchor. After the leader has placed one piton, a fall might result in a very severe upward jerk on the belayer. An inexperienced belayer, or one small in size, may find it expeditious to place the belay rope under his buttocks in expectation of such a fall. If he is in a standing or half-standing position, he can essentially sit in the rope, ready to drop his full weight into it to take the initial shock. This position is often employed on practice climbs when a dead weight is to be held. However, most experienced belayers simply give the leader a belay around their hips or under their shoulders. The shock of the fall is usually lessened by the friction of the rope going through several carabiners; the force is seldom directly upward on a real climb, and this is the safest position to be in if the pitons come out. True, the rope might be jerked up under the armpits; some climbers lessen the possibility by running the belay rope through a carabiner in the waist loop when they are giving a leader belay around their hips.
Dynamic Belay
When the leader takes a long fall before the rope catches him, it often is held with the so-called dynamic (or running) belay. The instant the fall occurs, tighten your belay hand on the rope, and simultaneously bring the belaying hand across your body toward the opposite side to increase rope friction. As the force of the fall comes on you, the rope should run a little through your hands and over your body, and the person falling should be brought to a quick but not joltingly sudden stop. A “braking” stop is easier on every link of the protective chain, and on the falling climber. It is somewhat like braking a car to a fast stop, compared with an instantaneous stop caused by running into a wall.
The amount the rope should run depends on the length, force, a d location of the fall. It also depends upon the type of rope in use. The standard nylon climbing rope is fairly eiastic, but a long fall cannot and should not be held without the rope running a few feet while the friction caused by the belay and other factors stops it. With major changes in equipment, techniques often change, sometimes controversially. Some advanced rock specialists use the recently developed “dynamic ropes,” which have so much built-in stretch that letting the rope run at all appears redundant.
Do not get the idea that any rope should run just for the sake of running. The sole aim of the belay is to stop the fall. If the rope runs too far, the belayer may lose control of it or get severe rope burns on his hands; and the falling climber may strike a ledge or outcrop before he can be stopped. The technique of holding leader falls must be practiced diligently under the supervision of experienced climbers before it is ever needed.
Factors Influencing Severity of Leader Falls
A piton fall is not necessarily very severe or hard to hold. It varies with a number of quite predictable factors: (1) How far the leader falls. (2) Whether the fall is free or slowed by the friction of the man sliding along the rock. (3) How many carabiners the rope runs through; the more carabiners (especially if they are not in a straight lirie), the more friction. There is no rope-running when holding falls where the carabiner setup generates much friction.
Other Duties of the Second Man
Be sure the rope runs smoothly. While paying it out, allow a couple of feet of slack between you and the leader, so if he moves suddenly he won’t get a jerk. If the rope has been laid in a loose pile (less apt to cause kinks than laying it in a coil as it is taken in), it usually goes up freely. But it is well known that ropes have a perverse will of their own about snarling and catching. Use your “feeling” hand to keep at least several feet of rope free of tangles. If one hand is insufficient, or you can’t undo it fast enough, tell the leader to stop climbing while you straighten out the snarl.
Notify the leader as to the approximate amount of rope left when he has quite a bit of it out; this gives him a clue as to when he must find the next belay spot. On difficult routes, you might tell him when the middle mark goes by; certainly you should start signaling when there are about thirty feet left (estimate; don’t try to measure). The leader is now far away; call loudly, “Thirty feet,” “Twenty feet,” “Ten!” – and repeat until you have an answer. Be awfully emphatic when you get down to five; if there is no rope left, a dynamic belay is impossible. Occasionally a leader who has almost or just reached a belay stance with no rope to spare will request you to unanchor, or even move if you safely can, to give him a few feet more.
The second man, of course, removes the hardware and usually carries the pack if he is end man.
Special Problems of the Middle Man
If there is a third on the rope, the second man has additional functions. He alternately belays the leader and the third and has to keep the two climbing ropes separate. This problem is not acute unless all three persons are on the same spot, in which case the two ropes should be laid on separate piles (preferably one on each side of the middle man), and the other climbers should help in the rope handling. As middle man you may find yourself wound up a few times in both ropes unless you are careful to take off each belay the same way you put it on (over the head or over the feet). It’s more confusing than amusing.
When climbing in the middle, you suffer the same drag of the rope behind you that the leader does (but at least you have an upper belay). When you come to a carabiner. take out the rope in front, and place the rope behind in the same carabiner – running in the same direction, too. This gives the third man a direct upper belay even if the route winds back and forth, and is particularly necessary on traverses. If friction is great and protection of the third man does not require the rope to go through all the carabiners, remove some of them. Mention it to the third so he won’t overlook the pitons, or take the pitons out yourself.
What goes up must come down is a truism applicable to a happy climbing party assembled on top of cliff or spire. There are several modes of descent (not all possible choices for every climb).
Walking Down
Usually the easiest and fastest, if an easy way exists.
Climbing Down
Direct and quick on fairly easy climbs, either by the route of ascent or a different known route. Climbing down is also an excellent way to gain experience before it is forced upon you, as it is often more difficult than climbing up and requires somewhat different techniques. It is difficult to see where you are going and where to place the feet, and your anatomy is not so well suited to going down as up even though gravity is with you. Face outwards as long as you can; when necessary, turn sideways to use the holds and still watch for footholds; and when you get to steep places where you have to face the cliff to make use of the holds, combine feeling with your feet and occasional looks. In down-climbing, the leader goes last to protect the party. His second should place pitons below difficult spots for the leader’s safety. The first person down should consult the others, if he has any doubt about the route.
Rappelling
Often the chosen method of descent. It is easy, and fun on steep cliffs free of loose rock. For absolute safety, many climbing groups recommend that all rappets be made with belays, or that at least the first man down be belayed. In reality, however, this is seldom done on actual climbs under good conditions. Often there is no spare rope available for a belay; the process is awkward and time-consuming; and too, a belay is o(little use to the last man down. Rappel techniques should be learned with a belay. On climbs, rappel safety depends on everyone, regardless of experience, exercising extreme care at every stage of every rappel. An unbelayed rappel is perfectly safe only as long as nothing goes wrong. If something does go wrong, the results are usually fatal. Many phases of rappelling on cliffs differ from the simple rappel learned on practice climbs.
Rappel Points. It is of the utmost importance that the rappel point be absolutely sound, and the rope properly attached to it. Most rappel fatalities have occurred when the rappel sling broke or came off the point. Stout trees or bushes make excellent rappel points, and really sound chockstones, protruding blocks, and flakes are good. Several safe rappel points are shown in Figure 3-2. When a suitable natural feature is lacking, a dependable piton can be used, sometimes two or three pitons spaced to divide the strain. If you cannot find a safe rappel point, you must climb down until you come to one.
The rappel must be rigged so the rope can be retrieved by pulling one end from below. Jamming or excessive friction usually occurs if the rope is placed directly around the rappel point (an exception might be a tree trunk). The connecting link between point and rope is usually a strong sling, long enough to hang free. It may have to be strung through the piton eyes, or tied around a chockstone; use a carefully tied water knot, and overhand safety knots, to retie the ends to form the loop. Sometimes the sling can just be dropped over the chosen point or flake; make very sure it will stay there. If it is long enough, it may be placed double behind the point chosen, and one side of the loop threaded through the opposite side to hang free in front. If the sling has to go over sharp edges, pad it with paper, rags, or whatever you have. Never trust an old sling found in place on the rock; it may be weak from age, or from the friction engendered by the previous rappel rope being pulled down. Don’t even trust your own slings too far; two are often rigged for double protection. Only in real desperation does the average climber use carabiners for setting rappels, since they cannot be regained.
Rappel Rope. The rappel is usually made on the doubled climbing rope. If two ropes are available, they are tied together. If there is only one climbing rope and longer rappels are planned, a quarter-inch nylon auxiliary rope can be carried.
The two halves of the rappel rope are coiled separately, and one of the coils is passed through the loop of the sling. To save wear on the middle of the rope, have slightly different portions of the rappel rope bear on the slings at different times. Each half of the coiled rappel rope is thrown outward down the cliff – one half at a time. While throwing, be sure that someone holds onto the rope so it won’t escape. Several tries may be needed to get the ends well down, especially with a light line. Some climbers throw down each half in two parts: first the upper part and then the end part. If the rope ends will not go down well, the first man rappelling has to untangle them en route, of course using only his upper hand unless he finds a ledge to stand on.
Sling Rappels. On long or steep rappels, many climbers modify the body rappel position to reduce friction. One popular technique is the sling rappel. A trustworthy sling about five feet in circumference is twisted once, into a figure eight, with the knot to one side. Place each foot in one-half of the figure eight, and pull the sling up to your crotch. It should be the right size so you can hold the two sides where they cross, and pull them up in front a few inches above your crotch. Still holding these two portions of the sling in front of you, put three carabiners over them side by side (safer, and easier on the rope, than one). Pass the doubled rappel rope through the three carabiners, and turn the middle carabiner so the three gates face in alternating directions. From the carabiners (instead of from one hip as in the body rappel) the rope goes over one shoulder and is grasped below in the opposite hand, as illustrated in Figure 3-2. Rappelling then proceeds exactly as in the body rappel. Additional padding may be required at the shoulder. A sling rappel cannot be used when two ropes are tied together unless the knot is near the rappel point, as knots will not go through the carabiners (it is a shock to discover this in mid-air).
Starting the Rappel. Be absolutely sure that you are in the rope correctly. This is sometimes confusing when you start the rappel from an awkward or precarious position, but it must be right. If you have to get into the rope above the rappel point, you must climb down below the point before actually starting to rope down.
Descending. The most experienced climber usually goes first, to straighten the ropes and select the next rappel point. Descending a known route is desirable, as it assures the rope reaching from one rappel point to the next, not always visible from above. (On the rare occasion when no stopping place can be found and the man cannot climb the rock, prusiking can be employed to re-ascend.) While the first man rappels, the others should closely watch the rappel point and sling, so they can give warning or take action if any sign of weakness occurs. When off rappel, the first man down tests the rope to make sure it can be retrieved; if it jams, the climbers above must re-arrange it. The second most experienced should come down last. To make sure the two portions of rope are not twisted around each other, he should keep a finger of the upper hand between them. A glove protects the finger but is not a requisite.
All should try not to strain the rappel point, or to dislodge rocks either with their feet or with the rope. The exact route of ascent is not necessarily the best rappel route; in fact, it is quite likely not to be. While rappelling, you tend to hang right below the rappel point, but can walk yourself readily to one side or the other to find smooth, sound portions of the cliff to descend. If you go over an overhang, give a little push or jump when your upper hand comes to the lip to prevent abrading your hand between rock and rope. When you first hang free, you may pendulum a bit to one or the other side, depending on the location of the rappel point. If a free rappel is very long, you dangle and turn gently in the air because you have no footing. Descend slowly so you don’t get too hot. And most especially here, don’t let go.
Pulling Down the Rope. When the entire party is down, untwist the two strands of rope if they have become twisted around each other. The rope is retrieved by hauling on the end that has the knot below the sling (keep track of this). If there is no knot, pull the end that comes easiest. A smooth, steady, and rather fast pull is the surest way to get the rope down. Two people can pull alternately to keep it moving. When the rope end starts to fall, duck! If the rope jams and will not come after you have pulled and jerked in every direction, someone has to climb up as far as necessary to free it, or as far as he can, with or without belay. Do not trust one end of a jammed rope for support, as it can come unstuck at any time. If you cannot climb high enough to free it, cut off what you can salvage, to help on the rest of the descent.
When you start climbing second, and leading, you need and want more equipment of your own. You have studied and used various kinds of ropes, slings, and hardware, appropriate to your local type of climbing; and undoubtedly have listened to endless discussions as to the merits of each. Thus you can make a choice without depending on possibly faulty sales advice, or being unduly tempted by unneeded and poorly understood gadgets. The major items which you will probably gradually add to your gear are discussed, with attention also to care, inspection, and periodic replacement.
Climbing Rope
A good, standard American climbing rope, chosen by many climbers of average ability for all-around use, is a 7/16-inch Goldline, 120 feet long. This rope weighs about six and a half pounds. It is made of hard-lay nylon. Three-eighthsinch Goldline is used when light weight is of importance and long falls are improbable.
Ropes used by some expert rock climbers may be longer or of different diameters, either because of personal preferences or for special uses. Some climbers like the imported Perlon ropes of the so-called kernmantel construction (a fiber core covered with a colored woven sheath). Kernmantel ropes are sometimes coiled in the hand, rather than around the foot.
The rope is the most expensive single piece of equipment, and with proper care and good luck should last for several years. Before each climb, inspect it very carefully for signs of excessive wear or damage,. as evidenced by distinct changes in texture. Every bit of the rope is run through the hands and examined. Be especially thorough in inspecting club ropes, as you are unfamiliar with their previous use. Consult an experienced acquaintance if in doubt as to the rope’s safety. A worn rope, or one which has held a very severe fall, should be replaced.
A pre-cut rope probably has the ends treated before purchase. If you buy a length from a large coil, see that the ends are taped before you take it, and give them additional care before using the rope. Remove the temporary taping and melt the ends over a flame, shaping them so the diameter will not exceed that of the rope. Tape the ends with several tight turns of vinyl tape. Whipping the ends with tough, fine cord is more elegant and permanent – also more trouble. The center of the climbing rope should also be marked with vinyl tape. All ropes get to looking much like others. The ends can be bound or otherwise distinguished in such a manner or color that you (and others) can tell to whom the rope belongs. Do not mark the center of the rope with lacquer or paint, as some chemicals weaken nylon, but the few inches at each end can be treated imaginatively.
A rope which has long been in a coil has to have the kinks removed. It can be dragged full length over a clean surface, or let down over a cliff or out of a high window to unwind. The process may need occasional repetition, especially when the rope is new or has been wet. Your rope should be stored in a coil, away from direct sunlight, sharp objects, excessive heat and chemicals. It should be stored dry; if it is wet, uncoil it, let it dry, and re-coil it. Never use your climbing rope for any but its intended purpose. If it has to be moved en masse on a climb, don’t drag it in.the dirt; pick it up in a bunch, or do it up in some type of quick-carry coil. Nobody must step on it. And try to keep it out of the way of rockfall, as a nylon rope cuts easily.
Pitons
As illustrated in Figure 2-9, they vary from huge bongs to tiny rurps (“Realization of Ultimate Reality Pitons”), with many types of wafers, blades, angles, and other styles. They are made of various alloys; many are of very strong chromemolybdenum steel. Pitons are often manufactured and given special names by well-known climbers in both Europe and America. Sizes, shapes, and number needed depend on local rock conditions and the climber himself. You can identify your own by marking them with a distinctive color of paint – or, more permanently, by hammering in your initial with a steel die purchased at a hardware store.
If it is necessary to straighten bent pitons while on a climb, they can be flattened reasonably well by being hammered against a rock. However, pitons bent cold often crack. Straightened pitons must be inspected very carefully for signs of stress in the metal. The primary point of weakness is where the head joins the shaft, especially in horizontal pitons. It is preferable to wait until an anvil is available. Badly deformed pitons should be heated to an orange color, if facilities are available, before straightening. The piton may be permanently a bit weaker, due to the heat, but is less apt to crack in the straightening process. When the tips of pitons become wavy and uneven, they should be pounded flat. Any sharp corners should be filed or ground to a rounded edge.
Bolts
A protective device used where protection or aid is necessary, and there are no piton cracks. Bolts are used occasionally by average climbers; and frequently by climbers doing advanced specialized types of rock climbing on smooth faces. The basic principle is to drill a hole in the rock; drive in a stud which stays in by an expansion or a contraction principle; and fasten on an exterior hanger, which takes the place of the piton eye. Bolt kits, and assorted bolt hardware, are sold in mountaineering shops. Obviously the techniques should be practiced before they are used in serious climbing.
Nuts
A fairly new protective device (unrelated to bolts) developed in England. The “nuts” now in climbing use are manufactured for the purpose, in various sizes and shapes, usually of aluminum alloy. They have a hole or holes threaded with slings or wire cable. The idea is to drop them into cracks that flare out behind the opening. Sometimes a light hammer tap is necessary to set them soundly. Clip the carabiner through the sling. Test by jerking the sling hard at every possible angle of pull. After use, the nuts are removed with an upward jerk (aided by taps with the hammer if necessary).
Carabiners
Good ones are not among the cheapest, and are sold under their manufacturers’ names. They should be chosen for strength, light weight, and smooth operation of the gate. Keep them out of dust and grit because of the gate mechanism. Never oil carabiners, as dirt sticks to oil.
Slings
Materials for slings, and many of their uses, have already been dwelt upon. Other uses include using a sling for protection instead of a piton. A really strong one can, for instance, be looped around a rock point, pulled under a chockstone, or doubled around a bush, and attached with a carabiner to the climbing rope.
Instead of tying directly to the climbing rope, some climbers wear a fifteen- to thirty-foot length of one-inch nylon webbing wound around the waist. This is called a Swami belt, and is much more comfortable than the rope in case of a fall. After winding most of the webbing around the waist, secure it with a water knot. Attach the climbing rope to the coil of webbing with a double-knotted bowline, which is tied exactly like an ordinary bowline except for making two loops (one on top of the other) instead of one, and inserting the end of the rope through both at once.
Helmets and Hats
Due to the disproportionate number of head injuries in climbing (from both falling rock and injuries sustained in falls), hard hats or helmets are now commonly seen on rock climbers. They are sold in mountaineering shops. Necessary features include a good fit; a dependable and adjustable chin strap; and particularly the manufacturer’s name, the date of manufacture, and the certification mark of the Snell Memorial Foundation to assure a specified performance in actual tests. Helmets weigh between one and one and a half pounds, and come in many colors.
A plain felt hat is preferable to climbing bareheaded. It cushions the head from minor blows, protects from sunburn, shades glasses in the rain, and keeps dirt and sun out of the eyes. A felt hat (removed from the head) is also useful as insulation against a rope burn in rappelling.
Clothing
It is often far hotter or colder on the rocks than on the ground; season, climate, storm, and whether the climb will be in sun or shade, should be allowed for. Kletterschuhe, if tight enough for rock climbing, are miserable for hiking; take extra boots and socks on long approaches. Comfort and safety are of value, but fashion too has a place. Corduroy knickers are the New Look on the rocks. But, alas, rocks are so abrasive that climbers, at least in the United States, are the world’s worst-dressed sportsmen.
Miscellaneous
Carry a pocketknife. Supply sunglasses if needed. If you wear prescription glasses, make sure they cannot fall off.
Naturally rock climbing is most popular in areas where the rock is beautifully adapted to the sport – Yosemite-type granite, for instance. In popular areas, routes are so well established that they all have names, usually descriptive, alarming, whimsical, or humorous in nature. As an intermediate climber who is beginning to fend for himself and take responsibility for others, you will, if possible, gravitate to such places. Otherwise you will make do with what you have. Perhaps a rock is a rock is a rock. Certainly you are hooked when you begin to trace out routes on every rock you see.
In non-mountainous areas, there are bluffs, palisades, cliffs, ravines, quarries, boulders, and even road cuts where you can sharpen your techniques. With or without good climbing nearby, you may yearn to travel to other areas, usually places you have heard about, read about, or seen pictured. With modified techniques and equipment to suit the place, every area has its own appeal.
Extra care is required on unfamiliar or unclimbed routes, when you are a long ways from help, and when the weather is adverse. The climber functions less efficiently in extremes of heat, wind, and cold. Sudden changes in weather can transform conditions from good to bad instantaneously. Wet or snowy rocks are infinitely more difficult and dangerous than dry ones. Weather may force a retreat. Other reasons for turning back despite the strong urge to finish a climb include incompetence, fright, unwillingness or illness in the party, unexpected route difficulties; and an “off day” for the leader.
Probably the most common reason for giving up a climb is lack of time to finish it before dark. In deciding whether to go on or retreat, remember that it may be quicker to finish the climb if the top is nearer than the bottom, if the climbing ahead is known to be easier than that behind, and if there is a way to walk down.
Roped climbing and rappelling in the dark are very dangerous. If night overtakes you on the cliffs, tie on well in as good a spot as you can find, and stay put till daylight. And when setting out next morning, compensate for the long hard night by using extra care.
When you become adept at all this, you will no longer be a beginner, or even an advanced beginner. You may be well on the way to becoming a specialist and an expert in rock climbing. And sooner or later you may begin to think of rock climbing as only one branch of the complex sport of mountaineering, which has other types of terrain to offer.