ON a full mountain ascent, the techniques and judgments you have previously learned meld together, and you gain in climbing maturity on each climb. Every ascent differs from every other. None turns out exactly as planned. But there is a similarity of pattern in both success and disaster that establishes the wisdom of knowing what you are about. Your immediate goal is reaching the summit. Getting there and back safely and with finesse is competent mountaineering.
You usually start getting ready for the following day’s climb as soon as the climbing camp is established.
Making Up the Ropes
A club or large private party usually camps where several peaks or various routes are accessible. Avoid having more than one or two ropes on the same route, especially on rock, where parties cannot spread out for efficient travel and for protection from loose rocks. The group leaders consult individuals as to wishes and abilities; ropes are made up so each includes a leader equal to the route and others to round out a safe party. If two ropes are to be on the same climb, the strongest and fastest goes first. Small private parties, of course, have already chosen the rope members and the route.
Studying Routes
If the route is unfamiliar or somewhat indefinite, and is visible from camp or from a high point nearby, it should be studied and restudied by the entire party. A closer inspection, and often a view from a new angle, is obtained of the general line to the summit. Note key points along the route, step-by-step details, and possible alternatives going either up or down. These factors are often hard to assess when you are on the route, due to foreshortening.
Planning the Departure Time
For all but the shortest climbs and the most experienced parties, plan to start early. Climbs have a way of taking the entire day, and even more. You should plan to arise as soon as you can see, or even earlier so as to leave camp as early as visibility permits. An hour usually elapses between getting up and leaving camp. Also calculate how many hours will probably elapse between departure and return. Some of the elements to consider are the length of the climb in elevation gain; the altitude itself; what proportions of the climb are technical and non-technical; overall difficulty; how long it has taken previous parties (and who they were) ; and the size, speed, and condition of the present party, especially the slowest person. In general, experienced climbers are faster than neophytes on technical work, and a small group is faster than a big one. Allow extra time for stops and for the unexpected. Roughly half of the ascent time should be allowed for the descent.
An exceptionally early start is sometimes advisable due to other conditions. For instance, an established weather pattern of afternoon storms in the area may make it desirable to complete the route before they are due. It is not unusual to set forth on a glacier climb around midnight, as sometimes a portion of the route must be covered before the sun strikes it, or afternoon snow conditions may promise to be particularly bad.
Getting back to camp early in the day does no harm; in fact, it is a delight. Returning in time to cook dinner before dark is highly desirable. Being caught out in complete darkness is inconceivably time-consuming, and sometimes stops you (cold!)
Organizing for the Climb
The bare necessities that must be left till morning take quite long enough; do all you can the night before. Make up your pack, putting in everything not needed overnight (add the rest next morning). Include climbing equipment, food, maps, flashlight, first aid kit, water bottle, extra clothing, dry socks in a plastic bag, and camera (if desired). Remove odds and ends from your pockets, and put things in that you will need in the early morning and on the climb: sunburn dope, lip balm, dark glasses, knife, handkerchief, compass, mittens, watch, toilet paper, band-aids, folding cup.
If you plan to leave a note in camp regarding your route, write it. Sort out the breakfast things, and put the rest of the food away. Sleeping in part of your clothing makes getting up a little less obnoxious. Go to bed early. After a long backpack, insomnia is unlikely, and bed is the best place to keep warm.
There is always one dependable (but unpopular) climber who wakes up by the appointed hour and rouses the others. Before getting up, inspect the weather. Storm, or clearly impending storm, rules out climbing. Good or indecisive weather compels you to arise. A climb is often approached in uncertain weather that turns out to be beautiful before tbe technical part is reached. The atmosphere around camp is usually silent and glootny before dawn as climbers groggily perform their chores; the thought of climbing may seem distasteful or even ominous at that hour.
When to Stay in Camp
Weather influences the plans of the whole party. Indisposition is a personal matter, though it may indirectly affect your friends. If you are really ill, do not go; even using willpower, you could not fail to be a liability on the climb. If you just “don’t feel very good,” say so but start out; very often you recover after an hour or so. If not, you can turn back alone while still on easy ground close to camp, but not trying to go may cause regret.
Leaving Camp in Order
To make sure of finding all in good order when you return to camp, leave it so. Put all food away. Leave sleeping bags loosely rolled under the shelter and on top of the mattresses. If you have only a ground sheet, roll everything up in that and weight the wad down with rocks. Place rocks on odds and ends such as spoons and soap and anything that might blow away or be carried off by industrious varmints.
Identifying Campsite
Your camp may be so distinctively situated that· you can spot it even from the summit. Or it may merge into the landscape. Each climber should fix its location firmly in his mind in relation to major landmarks, tree line, stream courses, etc. Further, when leaving camp, construct one or more unmistakable cairns at conspicuous spots to indicate that camp is near. Look back from time to time and implant its location in your mind.
From high camp there is usually an extension of the approach before roped climbing begins. This may be over meadows, moraines, easy slabs, snow-filled basins and chutes, and increasingly steep slopes of tumbled talus blocks.
Talus
These slopes consist of rock fragments which have piled up below cliffs, ·usually in gullies that fan out at the bottom. The blocks often start at about house or car size, and as you climb diminish to fist or pea size. The larger pieces are usually well consolidated (but watch out for the occasional rocker); the smaller ones on steep slopes tend to be very loose. Nimble leaping and long steps are required for the first; use your axe for balance or feel, but keep the loop off your wrist. On the loose parts, choose the better consolidated sections if you can. The axe is helpful as a staff. Adjacent snow slopes are generally far preferable to the talus unless they are too icy for the equipment you have available. A route along the foot of the cliff,. where you can use occasional handholds, is often easier than the center of the gully. On loose talus where occasional rocks roll down in spite of reasonable care, the group should spread out horizontally so no one is directly below another person. If this is impossible, they should keep close together so falling rocks cannot gain momentum.
Pace
As when backpacking, the climber should not push himself to go faster than breathing and leg muscles permit. Leg movements and breathing do not always coincide on steep going, as momentum is often necessary for a smooth move, with a pause to catch your breath after making the move. A slow start does not mean you will be slow all day, but increasing elevation naturally imposes limitations on speed. Each climber should proceed at his own optimum rate on non-technical ground, but the faster ones should be sure to keep in touch with the slower ones.
Rests
Usually the first hour requires a pause to tighten boot laces, remove surplus garments, etc. When the sun comes up, another rest is justified for putting on sunburn goop and dark glasses. Within a couple of hours, the first lunch will be needed. Tank up on water at every opportunity, as it is likely to be scarce or absent later. Be sure to fill the water bottle before you run out of streams. Use each stop to scan whatever you can see of the route. Make all stops brief. The extra hours may be badly needed at the end of the day.
The real climb begins when you rope. From now on, you are not climbing as separate individuals but as a team, each responsible for himself and the others.
When to Rope
Obviously the rope is needed when steep and exposed cliffs begin, or when the party steps out on a glacier. Less obviously, you should rope for borderline rocks which may be fairly easy, but are so loose or so exposed that a slip could not be stopped. If you want to tie on before the others do, say so; it is false pride to climb unroped if you feel insecure.
Reorganizing Equipment
At the roping-up point, arrange all equipment for technical climbing. On climbs where all ice and snow ends at the point where rock work begins, cache crampons and axes in a spot where they will be protected from falling rocks, such as under a slight overhang; ascertain that they cannot fall off, and be sure you can find them on the way back. If they will be needed above, take them along.
Carrying the Ice Axe on Rock
The axe is sure to be an awkward object to carry while rock climbing. No matter what you do with it, it gets in the way. If it will be unused for long stretches, attach it to the back of the rucksack or stow it head-down in the sack. If the axe will be needed intermittently, stick it through your waist loop, belt, or pack straps (beware of removing the pack before the axe!). Or let it hang from your wrist by the wrist loop, and ignore it as it scrapes along. While you are belaying, lay it carefully aside if it will be safe.
The climbing itself, whether on rock, snow, or both, is essentially what you have been doing in practice areas. Psychologically it differs because it is part of a larger enterprise. The remoteness of your location heightens the sense of adventure, independence, and accomplishment. It also demands sharpened techniques, caution, and attention to natural surroundings. Several features of high-mountain conditions differ, at least in emphasis, from those in more accessible climbing areas.
Continuous Climbing on Rock
Easy and more difficult climbing often alternate on intricate high-mountain routes. After the rope is put on, it is usually removed only for very long easy stretches. On portions that do not require a belay, except perhaps for reasons of exposure, the climbers remain roped but all climb at the same time. The leader holds one or- two coils in his hand. The second and third are each responsible for the rope in front of them. They coil enough so there a’ re ten to fifteen feet between climbers. Each must be considerate in adapting his pace to that of the others on terrain of uneven difficulty. The climbing may be such that a slip could occur but could be easily held by the otherli’ immediately bracing themselves to take the minor shock. If one climber wants an upper belay, he should request the man ahead to stop and take up rope.
Route Finding
Routes in practice areas often are rigidly defined and become very familiar. On far peaks, where routes are not well known and have many variations, the rope leader must find the way to the summit and also choose among alternative pitches. Sometimes considerable scouting is required to locate a key pitch. If possible, the leader should stay well within the climbing capacities of everyone on the rope.
Loose Rock
In popular rock climbing areas, the rock is generally good to begin with, and over the years most loose chunks have been removed by assiduous “gardening.” The high mountains always have some loose rock, usually a lot, and sometimes so much that you wonder how they stand at all. You . must learn to climb on or over it without sending fusillades down on those below or losing your own balance. Step fastidiously on ledges. Keep an eye on the rope. Move chunks lying in especially precarious positions, and lay them carefully in more secure places. Choose your bel y stances to avoid being in the line of fire from the climbing route. Test all holds, first gingerly and then more firmly. In climbing past an especially unstable rock, avoid even touching it. Learn which loose holds can stand certain pressures without being dislodged, and which are adequate for balance in conjunction with firmer holds.
Climbing Miseries
Rock climbing in particular is usually pursued most ardently under pleasant conditions. When climbing on high peaks, you must be prepared to suffer cheerfully through quite an array of discomforts. You are nearly always either too hot or too cold. Temperatures vary radically with the wind and from sun to shade. Rock climbing in gloves is almost impossible, so expect to climb part of the time with cold hands; wear mittens or gloves for belaying. Between the dry mountain air and lack of water, thirst may be acute. Drink any water you come to, eat available snow and icicles, and stuff snow into your water bottle before it is empty. Otherwise, forget your thirst – until the moment after the climb when you come to that first welcome stream. Huffing and puffing and a touch of malaise are normal; ignore them. The glorious surroundings, and the concentration required by the climbing, help to keep your mind off your troubles. The hours fly by. Eventually you reach the top.
Summits have great individuality. They range from mildlooking snow humps to soaring pinnacles. The true summit of a peak is nearly always marked with a cairn (if not, perhaps you have realized the climber’s dream: a first ascent). Usually there is a register in which to record your arrival. It may be anything from a rusty tobacco can to an imposing castaluminum box placed by a climbing club. The ideal summit includes warm sunshine, a far view in every direction, and plenty of time to relax, eat, study the map, and read the register with its comments both historic and funny. True, not all are ideal; and in any event, watch the time and the weather. You are on top of the mountain, but the climb is just half over; you must return to camp.
Though all your plans and efforts have been focused on reaching the top of the mountain, it occasionally becomes manifest that you must turn back before reaching your goal. Such decisions are the responsibility of the leader; but mountain climbing (except with guides) is pretty democratic. The leader is apt to consult his companions, who usually feel free and eager to express opinions whether consulted or not. A rope must stay together, even if there is disagreement. On a technical climb no one should ever be left alone or leave the party, although two ropes of recognized competence can make independent decisions.
There are several major reasons for not completing an ascent.
Time
When you compare the length of time the climb has taken you with the estimated time for the descent, it may be evident that you must turn back short of the top if you are to get off the difficult portion by dark. Too late a start, a slow party, photography, lingering for fun, and miscalculation are among reasons for running out of time.
Weather
Do your best to predict the weather before going into an area, especially in ranges noted for bad weather. Consider the weatherman’s five-day forecasts (for what they are worth). Find out what you can about weather patterns in unfamiliar ranges by asking for local opinions. As mountains attract and make their own weather, look long and hard at the sky during the day. The approach of unquestionably bad weather is a good reason to turn back. Rain and snow make both climbers and climbing conditions miserable, and can be dangerous. Lightning in particular is a strong incentive for getting below peaks and ridges with all speed consistent with safety.
Illness and Injury
Real illness from altitude or other cause, while rare, necessitates descent while the victim can still travel. A minor accident which might have both a physical and a psychological effect is often a good reason for retreat. If there is plenty of time and the weather is good, the party can rest and think it over before the final decision is made.
Descending is easier and faster than going up because you are not working against gravity. But there are problems as well as advantages. The party usually retraces the route of ascent, except when there is a familiar route that is known to be easier. If the first man down is not sure of the route, he should consult the leader. Unfamiliar descent routes that appear temptingly easy in the upper portions often lead to serious difficulties below. A long climb up again may result.
Caution on Descent
More accidents occur on the descent of long climbs than on the ascent. The reasons include the following: (1) The party often has a false feeling of overconfidence, elation, and relaxation after a successful ascent. (2) The climbers are tired. Both judgment and physical abilities may be impaired. (3) The party is in a hurry to get back to camp. (4) Conditions may be worse. The weather may be threatening, the air cold, and the light poor. Extra care should be practiced.
Techniques of Descent
If the climbing is at all steep, the leader comes down last to protect his party. In the high mountains the party is more apt to climb down than rappel. Routes are often poorly adapted to rappelling, and rope handling is very timeconsuming when climbing and rappelling frequently alternate . On steep, difficult pitches that are particularly uninviting to climb down, a rappel may be preferred. Take special care in selecting the rappel point. Be sure the rope does not send down loose rocks; the first man down should remove any rocks that might easily be dislodged. More frequent belays may be advisable on the descent than on the ascent, and the rope is often kept on longer.
Descending Scree and Talus
On the way up, fine gravel and coarse dirt, known as scree, was probably avoided because of its instability. On the way down, scree should be sought out, as it forms chutes that you can slide, run, or shuffle down. The talus is just about as tedious on the descent as on the ascent, and maybe more so. Certainly, muscles used on the long descent cry out in protest next day. The large talus blocks often seem easier than in the morning, in contrast with the technical climbing.
Travel After Dark
On long climbs (perhaps because you disregarded your calculations to make the peak), you may be benighted. On technical terrain, climbing after dark is so dangerous that you should normally stop till morning. On non-technical ground, you can campward “plod your weary way.” Go as fast as you can while you can still see, as progress is very slow after dark. Vision adjusts well in gradually failing light, and there is often enough light with moon, stars, snow, and pale rocks to continue without using the flashlight. On cloudy nights, in the woods, or on rather tricky footing, the time comes when you have to use the flashlight for safety. Once it is turned on, you usually must continue to use it because in the sharp contrast of dark and light, your vision no longer adjusts to dim light. Travel by flashlight on uneven ground brings up a new set of inconveniences to slow down the long trek, especially because there is usually only one light per party. At least during night travel a climber makes the character-building discovery that, although his knees are literally buckling with exhaustion, he can keep right on going for as many hours as need be.
As used by climbers, the term “bivouac” means to spend a night out on the technical part of the climb. Planned bivouacs are made by expert climbers on long difficult routes which take more than one day; they carry special equipment such as down clothing, extra water, and (on vertical cliffs) hammocks to sleep in. This type of route is beyond the scope of advanced beginners and intermediate climbers. A bivouac as described here means to spend the night out on snow or rock without planning to.
Preparation
In one sense there is no preparation for an unplanned stay. In another sense, seasoned climbers always have provisions in their packs for just such emergencies: dry socks, mittens, a stocking cap, an extra sweater or wool shirt, extra food. Bivouacking in a storm is a serious matter, and should be assiduously avoided, but a plastic sleeve or sheet can mitigate the ordeal. If caught out, put on all your clothing before you get chilled; if you wait too long, you may not even be able to get into it.
Choosing a Bivouac Spot
Unless you are racing darkness and it is nip and tuck whether you can get off the difficult climbing by dark, you should pick out a passably comfortable place before the last minute.
On snow, find bare rocks to sit on if you can. If it is windy, get some sort of shelter from the wind; a hole dug in the snow can help and sometimes a shallow crevasse is found. Use your equipment for insulation. You can sit on the rope. Take special care of your feet; the toes are usually the first thing to freeze. Remove your crampons, as they conduct heat away from your feet. Socks worn all day are damp from perspiration if from nothing else; now is the moment for the dry .socks you have carried on so many trips. Wiggle your toes very frequently. Feet can be put in the rucksack for insulation, or you and your friends can take turns warming each other’s feet under clothing.
On rock, look for a ledge big enough so you can move around, or at least big enough so you can sit or even lie down in reasonable comfort. If the ledge is at all skimpy, anchor yourselves and all your equipment; and periodically during the night check the knots of your waist loops. Huddle together for mutual warmth. Take turns in the middle unless one person particularly needs that extra bit of warmth. It is strange but true that you probably will sleep part of the time. It will be a long, cold night, devoid of physical comfort. It will also be a rather wonderful night, with a view you will never see again under similar circumstances. Even your mutual sufferings will be hilarious in retrospect.
Resuming Descent
In the morning, allow for the fact that you are pretty well petrified from the cold and the cramped position. Do not start right down as soon as you can see. Move around if it is safe; stretch and eat a little. If you are facing east, wait until the sun reaches you; it comes early on the heights. Descend with extreme caution until you are off the exposed part of the route.
As you pack out, you will look back with satisfaction and pleasure at the peak, which already seems far away. You will trace the route with your eyes, and relive the adventure in your mind and muscles. Sooner or later someone you meet will ask how much “they” paid you to make the climb. You will laugh and say you weren’t paid anything. But it isn’t quite true. Nobody could (or would) buy your hard-earned skills, the risk, and the work involved. But knowing you reached the summit is a private glory beyond price.