IT WAS THE END of a long day at the Public Record Office in London, and it seemed almost unfair to find two pages of an old Admiralty letterbook stuck together with wax. The last reader, perhaps 150 years earlier, had evidently been careless with his candle.
That was only one of the difficulties of digging into an event that happened so long ago. The handwriting alone could be murder. For every Joshua Barney, with his neat clarity, there were a dozen like that incorrigible scribbler William H. Winder.
Even where the written word was clear and explicit, there remained the question of how much to believe. Admiral Codrington’s daughter carefully deleted all critical references to Admiral Cochrane in publishing her father’s memoirs. Jacob Barker and Daniel Carroll were still arguing 36 years later over who saved George Washington’s portrait.
But the biggest problem of all was the sheer volume of material—mountains of file boxes, letterbooks, ships’ logs, official records, historical society publications, newspapers, periodicals, books. And still they flow: In 1971 alone three extremely pertinent biographies appeared: Ralph Ketcham, James Madison; Harry Ammon, James Monroe; Frank A. Cassell, Merchant Congressman in the Young. Republic: Samuel Smith of Maryland, 1752-1839. With such a torrent of prose, it’s impossible to list everything, but here are the sources that seemed most useful.…
Foreword
General background: Henry Adams, History of the United States during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison; Francis F. Beirne, The War of 1812; Harry L. Coles, The War of 1812; Reginald Horsman, The War of 1812; Marshall Smelser, The Democratic Republic 1801-1815; Glenn Tucker, Poltroons and Patriots; Leonard D. White, The Jeffersonians; and Henry Steele Commager’s article “Second War of American Independence,” in the June 17, 1962, New York Times Magazine, which first brought home to me the aptness of the war’s older name.
1. Sails on the Chesapeake
British fleet sighted: National Archives, M124, R65, Joseph Middleton to Charles Gordon, 8/16/14; M222, R14, Thomas Swann to John Armstrong, 8/17; Alexandria Gazette, 8/20; Norfolk Herald, 8/23; New York Evening Post, 8/22. (All dates here and elsewhere, unless otherwise noted, are 1814.)
Washington’s complacency during the early summer: supporting letters accompanying the report of the Congressional Committee appointed to investigate the capture of Washington, Annals of Congress, 1814-1815, 13th Cong., 3rd Ses.—especially letters of Armstrong, William Jones, John P. Van Ness. Also see National Intelligencer, 5/14; Niks’ Weekly Register, 6/11, 6/18. James Madison’s own misgivings: letters to Committee from Richard Rush, George W. Campbell. Madison’s defense plan: J. S. Williams, History of the Invasion and Capture of Washington; Irving Brant, James Madison, Commander in Chief, 1812-1836, the sixth volume of a truly monumental biography.
Cabinet meeting of July 1: letters to investigating Committee from Armstrong, Campbell, Jones, Monroe, Rush. Also see Armstrong, Notices of the War of 1812, Vol. 2. Failure to implement decisions taken: undated “Memorandum,” designated D21a, included among Winder Papers, Library of Congress. (Except where otherwise noted, I’ve relied on the Winder Papers at the Library of Congress, which largely duplicate the less legible file at the Maryland Historical Society.) Also see National Archives, M221, R67, “General Winder’s Report on the Defense of District 10,” 9/1; his better-known “Narrative”, of 9/26, addressed to the investigating committee; and his correspondence with Armstrong, American State Papers, Military Affairs, I. Also see E. D. Ingraham, A Sketch of the Events Which Preceded the Capture of Washington by the British in 1814.
Armstrong’s complacency: S. M. Hamilton, ed., Writings of James Monroe, Monroe to Jefferson, 12/21; Van Ness to investigating Committee; Ingraham; Williams. Winder’s gyrations can be traced from his correspondence with Armstrong.
Washington developments, August 18: National Intelligencer, 8/18, 8/19; National Archives, RV, Prisoners and Prisons, Misc., July 1814-February 1815. Box 3, #583; Record Book 217, Letterbook 4, Tobias Lear to William Pratt, 8/18; Bulletin of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Vol. 1 (1845-47), Allen McLane, “Col. McLane’s Visit to Washington, 1814”; Winder Papers, various, 8/18; letters to investigating Committee from Tobias Stansbury and Walter Smith.
Uncertainty as to British intentions: Van Ness to Committee; Charles J. Ingersoll, Historical Sketch of the Second War between the United States of America and Great Britain, Vol. 2; Library of Congress, Sam Smith Papers, Box 6, Levin Winder to Smith, 8/18. Also, Brant; Williams.
Monroe’s mission to reconnoiter the enemy: Hamilton, Writings, Monroe to Madison, 8/18; New York Public Library, Monroe to George Hay, 9/7; letters to investigating Committee from Monroe, Van Ness, Robert Young.
2. “Chastise the Savages”
British mood toward America, spring of 1814: London Times; Military Register; Major Barber Beaumont in Parliament 5/21, quoted in National Intelligencer, 8/15; Public Record Office (P.R.O.), WO 3/607, Henry Torrens to H. Clinton, 4/14; National Library of Scotland, Cochrane Papers 2265, R. Dundas to Sir Thos. Cochrane, 7/1; Henry Adams, Writings of Albert Gallatin, Gallatin to Monroe, 6/13. Wellington’s doubts: J. Gurwood, Wellington’s Despatches, Wellington to Bathurst, 2/22.
Evolvement of British expedition: P.R.O., WO 1/658, Duke of York to Earl Bathurst, 4/13; WO 3/607, Torrens to Sir John Murray and to Sir Henry Clinton, 4/14, 5/18; ADM 1/4229, Bathurst to John Croker, 4/26, 5/18; Bathurst to Major General Barnes, 5/20; ADM 2/1380, Croker to Sir Henry Bunbury, 4/27; Croker to Sir Alexander Cochrane, 5/19; WO 1/853, George Harrison to Commissary in Chief, 5/6. Also, Arthur R. Wellesley, 2nd Duke of Wellington, ed., Supplementary Despatches, Correspondence and Memoranda of Field Marshal Arthur Duke of Wellington, Vol. 9, York to Wellington, 4/14; Bathurst to Wellington, 5/18. Reasons for cutting back force: Cochrane Papers 2574, Melville to Cochrane, 5/22, 8/10.
Cochrane’s plans for Atlantic coast: P.R.O., ADM 1/505, Cochrane to Croker, 3/31; ADM 1/506, Cochrane to Croker, 6/20, 7/18, 7/23; WO 1/141, Cochrane to Bathurst, 7/14; Cochrane Papers 2345, Cochrane to Melville, various; 2346, Cochrane to George Cockburn, 5/27, 7/1; 2326, Sir George Prevost to Cochrane, 6/2; 2333, Cockburn to Cochrane, 7/17, 2574, Cockburn to Cochrane, 4/2, 5/10, 7/17. Also see Library of Congress, Cockburn Papers, Vol. 24, Cockburn to Cochrane, 7/17; Vol. 38, same, 4/8, 4/26, 5/26, 7/21; Vol. 45, same, 7/17.
Cochrane’s early planning for New Orleans: P.R.O., ADM 1/506, Hugh Pigot to Cochrane, 6/8; Cochrane to Croker, 6/20, 7/23; WO 1/141, Cochrane to Bathurst, 7/14; Cochrane Papers 2345, Cochrane to Melville, 3/25.
The lure of prize money: Cochrane Papers 2574, Cockburn to Cochrane, 4/2; Booth Johnson to Cochrane, n.d.; Cochrane Papers 2265, Cochrane to Sir Thomas Cochrane, 11/21; Cockburn Papers, Vol. 12, Cockburn to G. P. Hurlburt, 6/25; to Captain Watts, 7/18, 7/22; Vol. 38, Nourse to Cockburn, 7/23; Louisiana Historical Quarterly, Vol. 9, Duke of Wellington to Lord Longford, 5/22/ 1815; Hope of Luffness MSS, Major G. Brown to Lieutenant General Sir A. Hope, 4/4/1815; Niles’ Register, Vol. 8, letters intercepted by privateer Chasseur, dealing with prize money. For knowledgeable comment, see J. W. Fortescue, History of the British Army, Vol. 10, and Michael Lewis, A Social History of the Navy, 1793-1815.
First-hand accounts, France to the Chesapeake: letters and diaries quoted in C. R. B. Barrett, The 85th King’s Light Infantry; David Brown, Diary of a Soldier; Frederick Chaumier, The Life of a Sailor; George Laval Chesterton, Peace, War and Adventure, Vol. 1; G. R. Gleig, A Narrative of the Campaigns of the British Army at Washington and New Orleans, and its companion volume, A Subaltern in America; Sir Charles Napier, Life and Correspondence; United Service Journal, 1840, articles signed “an Old Sub,” entitled “Recollections of the Expedition to the Chesapeake and against New Orleans”; same, 1841, Articles signed “R.J.B.” (Robert J. Barrett), entitled “Naval Recollections of the Late War”; Sir James Scott, Recollections of a Naval Life; Sir Harry Smith, Autobiography. Special mention should go to the collection of intimate letters from Sir Edward Codrington to his wife, designated as COD 7/1 among the Codrington Papers at the National Maritime Museum.
For years bibliophiles have conducted a medievalists’ debate whether G. R. Gleig really wrote both the Narrative and the Subaltern cited above. They are anonymous and differ on minor points. All doubt is removed by Gleig’s Diary, as included in Barrett; it is obviously the source of both books.
3. Face to Face
Last-minute preparations in Washington: National Archives, M221, R67, Winder to Armstrong, 8/19; RG 45/1, Jones to John Rodgers and to David Porter, 8/19; RG 45/7, Jones to Barney, 8/19, 8/20; RG 80/1, Jones to Wharton, 8/20; Winder Papers, Armstrong to Winder, 8/19; Winder to Strieker, 8/19. Also, Winder’s “Report,” 9/1; Van Ness to investigating Committee; Armstrong, Notices; McLane; Williams.
Militia muster and departure: letters to investigating Committee from John Law, Walter Smith, Van Ness; National Intelligencer, 8/20; Baltimore Patriot and Evening Advertiser, 8/24; Niks’ Register, 8/27; Winder Papers, D23, “Minutes of Gen’l Winder’s Proceedings”; James Wilkinson, Memoirs of My Own Times, Vol. 1; McLane; Williams. For analysis of District of Columbia Militia, see Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Vol. 50, Frederick P. Todd, “The Militia and Volunteers of the District of Columbia.”
Monroe’s scouting: Monroe to Madison, 8/20, 8/21; Monroe to Winder, 8/21; Monroe to investigating Committee—all accompanying the Committee’s report. Also, National Archives, Ml24, R65, Monroe to Jones, 8/21;Winder Papers, Monroe to Winder, 8/21; New York Evening Post, 8/26.
British advance, 8/20-8/22: Cockburn to Cochrane, 8/22, included in William James, Naval Occurences of the Late War between Great Britain and the United States of America (This and James’s parallel Military Occurences are the sources for all British official letters and dispatches, unless otherwise noted.) Also, Barrett; David Brown; and other British accounts cited above. General Ross’s doubts: Gleig; Ingersoll; Scott; Ross’s dispatch of 8/30; Baltimore Patriot, 5/29/1849; John S. Skinner’s account. Also see J. Ralphe, The Naval Biography of Great Britain, Vol. 3, with material probably provided by Cockburn himself.
Destruction of Barney’s flotilla: Cockburn to Cochrane, 8/22; Niks’ Register, 11/5; Baltimore Patriot, 8/24; William M. Marine, The British Invasion of Maryland, 1812-1815; Mary Barney, Biographical Memoir of the Late Joshua Barney; Hulbert Footner, Sailor of Fortune; William James, Naval History of Great Britain, Vol. 6. Also, Chesterton; Scott.
American movements, morning of 8/22: National Archives, M221, R67, “Statement by General Winder,” 9/1; Winder Papers, “Minutes of General Winder’s Proceedings”; Major George Peters to J. S. Williams, 5/24/-1854, quoted in Williams; letters to investigating Committee from Winder, Benjamin Burch, Monroe, John Law, Hanson Catlett, Walter Smith; National Intelligencer, 8/23; McLane; Williams. For Monroe’s warning to Madison, 8/22, 9:00 A.M., see data accompanying investigating Committee’s report. Some confusion has arisen because this warning is misdated in Armstrong’s letter of 10/17 to the Committee.
Panic in Washington: saving records and property: American State Papers, Misc., Vol. 2; National Archives, RG 45/350, Mordecai Booth to Thomas Tingey, running account; RG 217, Fourth Aud. Accts., petition of Daniel Renner and Nathaniel Heath; Library of Congress, William Thornton Papers, Mme. Serurier to Mrs. Thornton, 8/20. Fear of spies: National Archives RG 217, Letterbook 70-71, John Mason to Washington Boyd; Baltimore Patriot, 8/23; Williams; Ingraham. Fear of black revolt: New York Evening Post, 8/22, 8/24; Richmond Enquirer, 8/27. Fleeing from city: New York Commercial Advertiser, 8/26; Mrs. Richard Rush to Rush, 8/21, copy at Fort McHenry.
American camp at Long Old Fields, 8/22-8/23: Gaillard Hunt, ed., Writings of James Madison, Madison to Mrs. Madison, 8/23; Letters to investigating Committee from Jones, Law, Monroe, Winder; T. L. McKenny, Memoirs and Travels; Armstrong’s Notices; Barney; Brant; Ingersoll; McLane; Wilkinson; Williams.
Winder’s “victory plan,” skirmish of 8/23, and American retreat to Washington: National Archives, Winder’s “Report,” 9/1; Winder Papers, “Minutes of Gen’s Winder’s Proceedings”; Peter to J. S. Williams, 5/24/1854; letters to investigating Committee from Burch, Laval, Law, Walter Smith, Stansbury, Winder; Barney’s official report, 8/29, included in John Brannan, Official Letters of the Military and Naval Officers of the United States during the War with Great Britain. (Unless otherwise noted, Brannan is the source used for all American official reports of battles and engagements.) Also see Baltimore Patriot, 8/27; Armstrong, Notices; Ingersoll; McKinney; McLane; Williams.
Mission to Cochrane for authority to move on Washington: Scott.
4. Sleepless Hours
Colonel George Minor’s search for arms: letters to investigating Committee from Minor, Henry Carberry; Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Vol. 4, account of James Ewell. Also, Ingersoll; Ingraham. Winder’s movements: various Winder letters, statements, and reports cited above; Barney’s official report, 8/29; Peter to J. S. Williams, 5/24/1854; letters to investigating Committee from Burch, Laval; Baltimore Patriot, 8/27; National Intelligencer, 9/10. Armstrong’s attitude: Campbell to investigating Committee; Hamilton Writings, Monroe to Jefferson, 12/21; Jacob Barker, Life of Jacob Barker. Also, Brant; Williams.
Stansbury’s camp at Bladensburg: letters to investigating Committee from Monroe; William Pinkney; Stansbury; Joseph Sterett. Also, H. T. Tuckerman, The Life of John Pendleton Kennedy; Baltimore Patriot, 8/27, 9/5, 9/6; Armstrong, Notices; Ingersoll; McLane; Wilkinson; Williams. British camp, Ross’s doubts finally resolved: “Old Sub”; Ralfe; Scott; Sir Harry Smith.
5. Time Runs Out
Morning conference at Winder’s headquarters: Hunt, Writings, Madison’s “Memorandum—Aug. 24, 1814”; Historical Society of Pennsylvania, U. C. Smith Collection, Williams Jones Papers, “Memorandum of Occurences on the 24th August, 1814”; Rush to J. S. Williams, 7/10/-1855, quoted in Williams; Barney’s official report, 8/29; Booth’s running account to Tingey; various Winder letters and statements cited above; letters to investigating Committee from Armstrong; William Beall; Campbell; Hanson Catlett; Jones; Monroe; Rush; William Simmons. Also Armstrong, Notices; Barker; Ingersoll; Wilkinson; Williams.
Madison’s exchange with Armstrong en route to Bladensburg: Library of Congress, G. W. Campbell Papers, Rush to Campbell, 11/2; Madison to Campbell, 11/2; Campbell to Madison, 12/15; Madison’s “Memorandum”; letters to investigating Committee from Armstrong, Campbell, Rush. Also, Barker; Ingersoll; Williams. Monroe’s redeployment of Stansbury’s troops: letters to investigating Committee from Pinkney; Stansbury; Sterett. Monroe never publicly took responsibility, but privately conceded his role—see Monroe to George Hay, 9/7, cited above.
British march to Bladensburg: Cockburn’s official letter, to Cochrane. Also, Barrett; Gleig; “Old Sub”; Scott; Sir Harry Smith. Decision to attack immediately: Ingersoll; Sir Harry Smith.
6. Bladensburg
First-hand accounts, American side: Winder’s official report, 8/27; various other Winder letters, statements and reports, cited above; Barney’s official report, 8/29; Library of Congress, Jenifer Sprigg to J. Hughes, 8/25; Peter to J. S. Williams, 5/24/1854; Rush to J. S. Williams, 7/10/1855; Madison’s “Memorandum”; letters to the investigating Committee from all participants previously cited; Maryland Historical Society, John Strieker Papers, reports from Henry Thompson and other scouts to Strieker, 8/24; Thornton Papers, statement by William Elliot, 3/11/1815.
Also, New York Commercial Advertiser, 8/27, 8/31; New York Evening Post, 9/2, 9/5; Philadelphia General Advertiser, 8/29, 8/31; Georgetown Federal Republican, 8/30; National Intelligencer, 9/9; Norfolk Herald, 8/30; Niles’ Register, Vol. 7 Supplement, pp. 159-160, containing undated letter from Barney.
Later recollections in books: Tuckerman, J. P. Kennedy’s account; Marine, Henry Fulford’s and John Webster’s accounts; Mary Barney, Biographical Memoir, Commodore Barney’s account; Charles Ball, Slavery in the United States: Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Charles Ball. For the unseemly flight of Barney’s aide George W. Wilson, see Footner; also Jones Papers, Barney to Jones, 9/7.
First-hand accounts, British side: Cochrane’s dispatch, 9/2; Ross’s dispatch, 8/30; Cockburn’s official letter to Cochrane, 8/27. Also see David Brown; Gleig; “Old Sub”; Scott; Sir Harry Smith; Barrett, for letters of R. Gubbins and J. J. Knox; Ingersoll, for recollections of Colonel William Wood; Magazine of American History, Vol. 4, Horatio King, “The Battle of Bladensburg,” for later recollections by Gleig.
A minor riddle involves the strength of British artillery at Bladensburg. The generally accepted figure is three guns, but strong evidence indicates no more than one gun reached the field in time for the battle. See Chesterton; Scott; Cockburn to Cochrane, 8/27.
General commentary: Benson J. Lossing, Pictorial Field Book of the War of 1812; Charles G. Muller The Darkest Day: 1814; Neil H. Swanson, The Perilous Fight; Andrew Tully, When They Burned the White House. Also, Adams (especially for his devastating indictment of Winder); Ammon; Brant; Coles; Fortescue; Ingersoll; Tucker; Wilkinson; Williams.
The Thomas Barclay affair: National Archives, RG 217, John Mason Letterbook, running correspondence 9/8-10/11; P.R.O., ADM 1/3767, Barclay to Commissioners for Transport Service, 12/3.
7. Ordeal by Fire
Fleeing the President’s House: Dolley Madison to Lucy Todd, 8/23-8/24, included in L. B. Cutts, Memoirs and Letters of Dolly Madison; Katharine Anthony, Dolly Madison, Her Life and Times; A. C. Clark, Life and Letters of Dolly Madison; Paul Jennings, A Colored Man’s Reminiscences of James Madison; Anne H. Wharton, Social Life in the Early Republic. Also, Barker; Brant; Ingersoll; Lossing. Saving the portrait of George Washington: Daniel J. Carroll, letter to the editor, New York Herald, 1/31/1848; Jacob Barker to Carroll, 2/8/1848; Dolley Madison to R. G. L. de Peyster, 2/11/1848; and Barker to Carroll, 5/5/1848, all included in Barker’s Life.
Abandoning the city: Hamilton, Writings, “J. M. Notes Respecting the Burning City in 1814,” n.d.; Madison’s “Memorandum”; Jones’s “Memorandum”; Booth’s running account to Tingey; various Winder letters and statements; letters to the investigating Committee from Catlet, Jones, Laval, Monroe, Simmons, Tingey.
Also see Tingey to Jones, 8/27, included in the Committee’s supporting data; New York Historical Society, Mary Hunter to Susan Cuthbert, 8/30; Library of Congress, Michael Shiner, “Journal”; Maryland Historical Society, John Webster to Brantz Mayer, 7/22/1853; Anne H. Wharton, Social Life in the Early Republic, “Miss Brown’s” account; Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Vol. 19, Mrs. William Thornton’s Diary; same, Vol. 24, John P. Ness’s bill for whiskey given to exhausted soldiers. Eyewitness newspaper accounts: Baltimore Patriot, 8/27; Richmond Enquirer, 8/27; Georgetown Federal Republican, 8/30, 9/20; New York Commercial Advertiser, 9/3, General comments: Armstrong, Notices; Ingersoll; Lossing; Williams.
British entering the city: Gleig; Scott; Cockburn to Cochrane, 8/27; Royal United Services Institute, Military Extracts, Vol. 2, account of Captain Bennett, 4th Foot; James, Naval History; Ingersoll; Ingraham. Watched by local citizens: Baltimore Patriot, 8/30, 8/31, 9/6; Georgetown Federal Republican, 8/30; Norfolk Herald, 8/30.Also see Booth; Ewell; Mrs. Hunter; Shiner.
Burning the Capitol: Saul K. Padover, Jefferson and the National Capital, Benjamin Latrobe to Jefferson, n.d.; Horatio King, “The Battle of Bladensburg”; Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Vol. 24, Hallie L. Wright, “Sketch of Elias Boudinot Caldwell”; American State Papers, Misc., Vol. 2, letters dealing with loss of House records and Library of Congress; London Times, 9/29. Also see Hunter; Ingersoll; Lossing; Scott; Williams. Moving up Pennsylvania Avenue: London Times, 9/29. Chester Bailey’s account; Georgetown Federal Republican, 9/16, William P. Gardner’s account; New York Historical Society, John W. Taylor to Mrs. Jane Taylor, 10/8; Margaret Bayard Smith, Forty Years of Washington Society; James, Naval History.
Burning the President’s House: Archives des Affaires Etrangères, Correspondence Politique, Etats Unis, Louis Serurier to Talleyrand, 8/27 (copy in Library of Congress); United Service Journal, Part I (1829), Ross to “Ned,” 8/30 c; letters of participants in London Morning Post, 10/2; Courier, 10/3; and R.U.S.I., Military Extracts, Vol. 5. Also see Barrett; Chesterton; Gleig; Ingersoll; Scott; Sir Harry Smith; Margaret Bayard Smith. Supper at Mrs. Suter’s: Ingersoll; McLane; Scott. Visiting National Intelligencer offices: New York Commercial Advertiser, 8/29; London Times, 9/29; Records of Columbia Historical Society, Vol. 7, Maud Burr Morris, “Life of Pontius D. Stelle.” Also see Ewell; Ingersoll; Margaret Bayard Smith; Taylor to Mrs. Taylor.
Events of 8/25. Death of John Lewis: Ingersoll. Saving the Patent Office: New York Commercial Advertiser, 9/10, William Thornton’s account; Ingersoll. Potomac bridge burned: John Morton to investigating Committee; Codrington Papers, COD 7/1, Codrington to wife, 8/31; Ingersoll; Williams. Explosion at Greenleafs Point: Baltimore Patriot, 8/31; New York Evening Post, 9/13; Niks’ Register, Vol. 7 Supplement, pp. 149-150; P.R.O., WO 1/141, 9/2, casualty figures; Ingersoll; Scott. The great storm: Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Vol. 3, Mrs. V. C. Moore, “Reminiscences of Washington”; Vol. 12, A. C. Clark, “The Abraham Young Mansion.” Also Ewell; Gleig; Ingersoll; Shiner; Wharton; Tingey to Jones, 8/27; Horatio King, “The Battle of Bladensburg.” Loosely called a “hurricane” or a “tornado,” the storm was clearly an exceptionally violent thunder squall—see logs of British ships in Potomac and Patuxent.
British withdrawal: Barrett; Chesterton; Ewell; Gleig; “Old Sub”; Scott; Sir Harry Smith; Ross’s dispatch, 8/30; Catlett to investigating Committee; Philadelphia General Advertiser, 8/31, 9/20. British desertions: P.R.O., WO 1/141, 9/1, official returns. Seizure of Dr. Beanes: see Norfolk Herald, 9/6, for account attributed to “a gentleman just from Marlborough”; and Tucker for similar account taken from Baltimore Federal Gazette.
8. Shockwaves
American Army scattered: National Archives, M221, R64, McLane to Armstrong, 8/27; R67, Winder to Armstrong, 8/25; Sam Smith Papers, Box 6, Winder to Strieker, 8/25, 8/26; Thompson to Strieker, 8/25; Box 14, Daniel Parker to Sam Smith, 8/27; Winder Papers, Stansbury to Winder, 8/26 (sic); Monroe, “Notes Respecting the Burning City”; J. L. Daggs, “Autobiography,” copy at Fort McHenry; letters to investigating Committee from Walter Smith; Sterett. Also see Barker; McKinney; Margaret Bayard Smith; Sprigg; Webster; and various statements and reports of General Winder.
The government in flight: The Madison’s movements are convincingly traced in Brant Supporting correspondence: Booth’s running account to Tingey; Ingraham, Madison to Monroe, 8/26; Hunt, Writings, Madison to Mrs. Madison, 8/27; Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Jones Papers, Madison to Jones, 8/27. Also see Georgetown Federal Republican, 8/30; New York Commercial Advertiser, 8/31; Monroe, “Notes”; and Margaret Bayard Smith.
Shambles in Washington: National Intelligencer, 8/31, 9/24; New York Commercial Advertiser, 8/31, 9/10; Tingey to investigating Committee; National Archives, M179, R30, James Blake to Madison, 8/27. Also see Ingersoll; Jennings; Shiner; Mrs. Thornton’s Diary.
Alexandria captured: American State Papers, 16, Military Affairs, 1; John Hungerford to Monroe, 9/6; and to investigating Committee; Norfolk Herald, 9/2, 9/30; Richmond Virginia Patriot, 9/10; New York Evening Post, 9/5, 9/13; P.R.O., logs of Aetna, Devastation, Erebus, Euryalus, Meteor, Seahorse; ADM 1/507, 8/29, list of prizes taken at Alexandria; Gordon’s official letter to Cochrane, 9/9; James, Naval History; Napier.
Washington recovers: Serurier to Talleyrand, 8/27; New York Commercial Advertiser, 9/10, Thornton to “the Public”; National Intelligencer, 9/10; Monroe to George Hay, 9/7; Monroe’s “Notes”; Library of Congress, Joseph H. Nicholson Papers, Box 7, Monroe to Nicholson, 9/21. Armstrong forced out: Ingraham, Armstrong to editors of Baltimore Patriot, 9/3; Madison, “Memorandum,” 8/29; New York Historical Society, Nicholson to Mrs. Gallatin 9/4; Library of Congress, Campbell Papers, Armstrong to Madison, 9/4. Also see Barker, Brant, Ingersoll, McKenney. Efforts to block British squadron on Potomac: Niles’ Register, 10/1, official reports of Perry, Porter, and Rodgers; logs of Erebus, Euryalus, Seahorse; Gordon to Cochrane, 9/9; Napier. Sir Peter Parker killed: Baltimore Patriot 9/5, 9/6; T. H. Palmer, Historical Register, Vol. 4, Philip Reed to Benjamin Chambers 9/3; Henry Crease’s official letter to Cochrane, 9/1; Sir George Dallas, Biographical Memoir of the Late Sir Peter Parker.
The warning that might have saved Washington: Maryland Historical Society, Winder Papers, A69, “Friend” to Madison, 7/27/14.
America reacts: National Archives, M124, R65, Henry Fulton to Jones, 9/6; Ml79, R30, John Jacob Astor to Monroe, 8/27; M221, R60, J. A. Coles to James Monroe, 9/11; R65, Sam Ringgold to Armstrong, 8/27; R66, John Sterett to Armstrong, 8/30; M222, R13, Richland Citizens Committee to War Department, n.d.; Library of Congress, Rodgers-Macomb Papers, Minerva. Rodgers to John Rodgers, 8/25; M. E. Bartgis, “Journal,” copy at Fort McHenry; Pierre Irving, Life and Letters of Washington Irving. Newspapers: Boston Daily Advertiser, Repertory; New England Palladium; New York Evening Post, Commercial Advertiser, Gazette and General Advertiser; Norfolk Herald; Philadelphia General Advertiser, United States Gazette; Richmond Enquirer. See Lossing for the grog-spliced schedule of the Philadelphia volunteer diggers.
British decision to leave Chesapeake: P.R.O., WO 1/141, Cochrane to Bathurst, 8/28, 972; Cochrane Papers 2345, Cochrane to Melville, 9/3; 2450, Cochrane to Sir Thomas Hardy, 9/4; Cochrane to Cockburn, 9/5; Malcolm Papers, MAL/103, Cochrane to Malcolm, 9/4; Codrington Papers, COD 6/4, General Memorandum to entire force, 9/4. Also see Scott; Sir Harry Smith.
9. Focus on Baltimore
Intitial panic: Nicholson Papers, Nicholson to Mrs. Gallatin, 9/4; Marine, Henry Fulford’s account; Annie Leakin Sioussat, Old Baltimore, David Winchester to James Winchester, 8/25; Library of Congress, Rodgers Family Papers, Rodgers to Jones, 8/27; National Archives, RG 45/464, Porter to Jones, 8/27. Also, New York Commercial Advertiser, 8/27, 8/29; New York Evening Post, 8/27, 8/29.
Sam Smith takes over: Samuel Smith Papers, Resolution of Committee of Vigilance and Safety, 8/25; Levin Winder to Smith, 8/26; Smith to Armstrong, 8/27. Frank Cassell’s biography gives Smith long-overdue recognition, but the General was not an easy man to live with: Library of Congress, Monroe Papers, Joseph Nicholson to Monroe, 9/1, and Paul Bentalou to Monroe, 9/24, copies of both at Fort McHenry; Winder Papers, Tilghman to Winder, n.d.; Singleton to Winder, 9/10; Smith Papers, T. M. Forman to Smith, 10/3; Maryland Historical Magazine, Vol. 40, R. H. Goldsborough to wife, 9/21.
Smith-Winder controversy: National Archives, M221, R67, correspondence of Smith, Winder, and Monroe, 8/26-9/11. This is generally, but not always, duplicated by letters in Smith and Winder Papers. Analyzed in Maryland Historical Magazine, Vol. 39, Ralph J. Robinson, “Controversy over the Command at Baltimore.”
Baltimore mobilized: Sam Smith Papers, Boxes 5 and 6, various; National Archives, M221, R59-60 (help pouring in); M222, R12, Committee of Vigilance to War Department, 10/11 (money raised); Maryland Historical Society, the Reverend James Stevens to Mrs. Julian Pernell, 9/29; Forman to wife, various; Baltimore Patriot, August-September; New York Evening Post, 9/5. Also, Maryland Historical Magazine, Vol. 2, F. M. Colston, “Battle of North Point”; Vol. 39, W. D. Hoyt, Jr., “Civilian Defense in Baltimore,” extracting the minutes of the Committee of Vigilance and Safety; Vol. 54, Franklin M. Mullaly, “The Battle of Baltimore”; S. Sydney Bradford, “Fort McHenry, 1814.” Additional details: Cassell; Marine; Swanson.
Key-Skinner mission: National Archives, M625, R77, John Mason to John S. Skinner and Francis Scott Key, 9/2; Mason to Skinner, 9/2; Mason to Ross, 9/2; Skinner to Mason, 9/5; Ross to Mason, 9/7; M179, R30, Skinner to Monroe, 9/2; RG 217, Mason Letterbook 95, Mason to Colonel Thornton, 9/12 (sic). Also, Marine, Levin Winder to Ross, 8/31; Maryland Historical Society, Key to John Randolph, 10/5; Library of Congress, Key to “My Dear Mother,” copy at Fort McHenry; Roger B. Taney Papers, Taney to Charles Howard, 3/17/1856; Baltimore Sun, Skinner to editor, 5/29/1849. Mission received by British fleet: P.R.O., logs of Royal Oak, 9/6; Tonnant, 9/7; Surprize, 9/8; ADM 50/87, Malcolm’s Journal, 9/6; ADM 50/119, Codrington’s Journal; Cochrane Papers 2336, Malcolm to Cochrane, 9/6; National Maritime Museum, MS 64/044, Malcolm to Barclay and to Mason, 9/6.
Name of Key’s boat: extensive research by Ralph J. Robinson, Baltimore magazine, January 1955, suggests that the vessel was Ferguson’s sloop President, and this is pretty much accepted by P. W. Filby and Edward G. Howard, Star-Spangled Books. But to one student of riddles, it’s not that simple. For instance, Robinson made much of the fact that Skinner did use the President in December 1813, and his expense account submitted in 1817 lists $545 paid to B. Ferguson “for the use of his vessel”—in the singular. All very well, but Ferguson’s receipt for the very same payment is “for the use of our packets”—in the plural.
British decision to attack Baltimore: Cochrane Papers 2329, Sir Peter Parker to Cochrane, 8/30; 2345, Cochrane to Melville, 9/17; Codrington Papers, COD 6/4, Letterbook, orders to Asia, 9/7; COD 7/1, Codrington to wife, 9/10, 9/13; also see Ralfe, Scott, Sir Harry Smith. Temporarily diverted to Potomac: logs of Royal Oak, Surprize, Tonnant and other ships of fleet, 9/7-9/9; COD 7/1, Codrington to wife, 9/10. Heading back up the bay: ships’ logs; Gleig; COD 6/4, Letterbook.
Baltimore reacts: Maryland Historical Society, the Reverend James Stevens to Mrs. Julian Pernell, 9/29; Severn Teackle to Philip Wallis, 9/23; Mendes I. Cohen, recollections as told to B. I. Cohen; George Armistead to wife, 9/10. Also, Baltimore Sun, 9/13/1847, recollections of Thomas Beacham, copy at Fort McHenry; Rogers-Macomb Papers, Solomon Rutter to John Rodgers, 9/11; National Archives, RG45, Report of H. S. Newcomb, 9/18; log of U.S. sloop-of-war Erie; John Strieker’s official report, 9/15; National Intelligencer, 9/13, 9/14; Philadelphia General Advertiser, 9/13; National Advocate, 9/14; United States Gazette, 9/16; New York Evening Post, 9/17; Commercial Advertiser, 9/19. Also, Lossing, Marine, Sioussat, Swanson.
10. North Point
First-hand accounts, American side: Strieker’s report, .9/15; Smith’s report, 9/19; Sam Smith Papers, various; Maryland Historical Society, L. Hollingsworth to Ann Hollingsworth, 9/13; Baltimore Sun, 10/31/1846, account by “one of the Forlorn Party”; 9/13/1847, account by the Reverend Thomas Beacham. Contemporary newspapers with first-hand accounts: United States Gazette, 9/16, 9/19; New York Evening Post, 9/17; Commercial Advertiser, 9/19; Georgetown Federal Republican, 10/7; Niles’ Register, 9/24.
First-hand accounts, British: Cockburn’s official letter to Cochrane, 9/15; Arthur Brooke’s dispatch, 9/17; Cochrane’s dispatch, 9/17; Cochrane Papers 2345, Cochrane to Melville, 9/17; Niles’ Register, 10/27, account by unidentified British officer. Also see Barrett; Gleig; “Old Sub”; Scott.
Death of Ross: Ralfe’s authorized biography of Cockburn is as close as we are likely to get to a first-hand account by the Admiral himself. Other details: P.R.O., WO 3/608, Torrens to Vansittart, 11/11; ADM 1/509, John Lambert to Cochrane, 2/18/1815; log of Royal Oak, 9/12; Cochrane Papers 2345, Cochrane to Melville, 9/17; William Stanhope Lovell (Badcock), Personal Narrative of Events; New York Public Library, Gordon Gallie MacDonald, MS account; London Examiner, 10/23. The question remains, who fired the fatal shots? Contemporary sources usually gave the credit to Daniel Wells and Harry McComas of Captain Aisquith’s rifle company. Later authorities were skeptical, contending that Ross was killed not by rifle but by musket fire. Yet most British sources—including Cochrane’s private letter of 9/17 to Melville—say that the General was indeed killed by a rifle.
General comment on the battle: Beirne; James, Military Occurences; Lossing; Marine; Muller; Ralfe; Sioussat; Swanson; Tucker.
Cochrane’s advance up the Patapsco: logs of Surprize and other vessels involved; Codrington Papers, COD 6/1, Codrington to Joseph Nourse, 9/12; “R.J.B.” (Robert J. Barrett) account; James, Naval History. Cochrane’s communications with the army ashore, discovered among his papers in Edinburgh, throw fresh light on British plans and problems: Cochrane Papers 2329, Cochrane to Ross, 9/12; Cochrane to Brooke, 9/12; Brooke to Cochrane, 9/13, 12:30 A.M.
Last-minute preparations at Fort McHenry: The block ships were not mere hulks, but mostly sound vessels that meant a real sacrifice—see National Archives, Fiscal Division File No. 6; Report No. 70, accompanying HR 412, 20th Cong. 2nd Ses. Armistead’s fears: Smith Papers, Armistead to Smith, N.D.; Winder Papers, Nicholson to Winder, 9/12. Passwords: Rogers-Macomb Papers, Rutter to Armistead, 9/12. The flag: Mary-Paulding Martin, The Flag House Story; Victor Weybright, Spangled Banner.
11. Fort McHenry
Bombardment during the day, British accounts: logs of 15 of the 16 ships that participated (none could be found for Rover); Cochrane’s dispatch, 9/17; Codrington Papers, COD 6/3, Codrington to fleet carpenters, 9/13; “R.J.B.” (Robert J. Barrett); “Old Sub”; E. Fraser and L. G. Carr-Laughton, The Royal Marine Artillery, Vol. 1; James, Military Occurences; James, Naval History. Cochrane’s mounting frustration: Cochrane Papers 2329, Cochrane to Cockburn, 9/13. American accounts: Armistead’s official report, 9/24; Nicholson to Monroe, 9/18, copy at Fort McHenry; and at Maryland Historical Society, see Teackle to Wallis, 9/23; James Piper to Mayer, 4/17/-1854; M. I. Cohen account. Also see Niles’ Register, 9/24; J. Thomas Scharf, Chronicles of Baltimore; Lossing; Marine; Sioussat.
British land operations. Plans and hopes: Cochrane Papers 2329, Brooke to Cochrane, 9/13. Advance to the American lines: Brooke’s dispatch, 9/17; Cochrane’s dispatch, 9/15; Barrett; Chesterton; Gleig; Ralfe; Scott. American countermeasures: Strieker’s official report, 9/15; Sam Smith’s official report, 9/19; Lossing; Sioussat; Swanson. Naval diversion requested: Gleig; Scott. Decision to withdraw: Cochrane Papers 2329, Brooke to Cochrane, 9/14; Cockburn’s official’ letter to Cochrane, 9/15; Ralfe; Scott; Smith Papers, James McCulloh, Jr., to Smith, 9/14 (sic). Retirement: Chesterton; Gleig; “Narrative of North Point by a British Officer,” copy at Fort McHenry.
Ferry Branch diversion: Cochrane Papers 2329, Cochrane to Captain Charles Napier, 9/13; Elers Napier, Life and Correspondence of Admiral Sir Charles Napier; James, Military Occurences; John S. Skinner, account in the Baltimore Sun, 5/29/1849. As seen from American side: Armistead’s official report, 9/24; Rogers’s official report, 9/23; Lieutenant H. S. Newcomb’s report, 9/18; John A. Webster to Brantz Mayer, 7/22/1853; also Webster’s undated account at Pratt Library, Baltimore; Philadelphia National Advocate, 9/19.
Key’s experiences: he was some eight miles down the river; the weather was stormy; and Armistead said the bombardment continued till 7:00 A.M., over an hour after sunrise. Under the circumstances, it has been asked whether Key really saw what he wrote. Subject to minor poetic license, the evidence suggests he did:
The logs of the British ships Ramilles, Thames, and Trave—all anchored near Key’s boat—independently note watching the fort under bombardment.
The British ceased fire at 4:00 A.M., then resumed only occasional fire from several of their ships until 7:00 A.M., when they stopped altogether. See logs, Aetna, Cockchafer, Devastation, Hebrus, Meteor, Terror. The fort’s return fire seems to have ceased by 4:00 A.M.
John S. Skinner’s account, Baltimore Sun, May 29, 1849, corroborated Key and is remarkably accurate on other counts when checked against British sources.
Oddly enough, three years of research have unearthed only one first-hand account that refers to the flag without apparent knowledge of “The Star-Spangled Banner.” It is the article by “R.J.B.” (Midshipman Robert J. Barrett) of the Hebrus, appearing in the United Service Journal, April, 1841. Describing the squadron’s withdrawal from Fort McHenry, Barrett recalled, “As the last vessel spread her canvas to the wind, the Americans hoisted a most superb and splendid ensign on their battery.…”
This raises an intriguing possibility. At the time Armistead bought the big flag from Mary Pickersgill, he also bought a smaller “storm flag” for $168.54. During the windy, rain-swept night of the bombardment, could he have substituted this storm flag; then in the early morning again hoisted his big flag in triumph as the British retired? Was it the storm flag—and not its famous counterpart—that Key actually saw?
Key’s return and publication of “The Star-Spangled Banner”: P. W. Filby and Edward G. Howard, Star-Spangled Books, which clearly supersedes earlier research in this area. For contemporary accounts of Key’s return, see Severn Teackle to Philip Wallis, 9/23; New York Evening Post, 9/20; Gazette and General Advertiser, 9/20; Philadelphia United States Gazette, 9/21. The Frederick-town Herald, 9/24, seems to be the first paper that specifically attributes the song to Key. For additional background, see Skinner’s account; Taney to Howard, 3/17/1856; Ralph J. Robinson, “The Birth of the National Anthem,” Baltimore magazine, December 1953; O. G. T. Sonneck, The Star-Spangled Banner; George J. Svejda, History of the Star Spangled Banner from 1814 to the Present.
America reacts: New York Commercial Advertiser, 9/16; Norfolk Herald, 9/20; Salem Register, quoted in Baltimore Patriot, 9/27. British withdrawal: logs of ships mentioned; Cochrane’s “victory message,” Codrington Papers, COD 6/4, 9/16; Cochrane’s dispatch, 9/17; Cochrane Papers 2345, Cochrane to Melville, 9/17.
12. Britain Struggles with Herself
British reaction to the capture of Washington: P.R.O., WO 3/608, Torrens correspondence in general, 9/27-10/1; Cochrane Paper 2574, various, 9/28-10/2; correspondence of Lord Liverpool and other leaders included in Wellington’s Supplementary Dispatches, Vol. 9, especially Liverpool to Wellington, 9/27. Newspapers: Courier, Evening Star, Examiner, Morning Chronicle, Morning Post, News, Public Ledger and Daily Advertiser, Sun, Times. Periodicals: Bell’s Weekly Messenger, Cobbett’s Weekly Register, Military Register, Naval Chronicle, Spectator, Statesman. Decision to reinforce Cochrane: P.R.O., WO 6/2, Bathurst to Ross, 9/28, 9/29; WO 3/608, Torrens to Ross and to Cochrane, 9/30.
The impact at Ghent: For over-all analysis, both here and later, I’ve leaned heavily on two splendid books: George Dangerfield, The Era of Good Feelings; and Bradford Perkins, Castlereagh and Adams. For incidental detail, I’ve depended greatly on the correspondence of various American participants: Charles F. Adams, ed., Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Vol. 3; Worthington C. Ford, ed., The Writings of John Quincy Adams, Vol. 5; James F. Hopkins, ed., The Papers of Henry Clay, Vol. 1; Henry Adams, ed., Writings of Albert Gallatin, Vol. 1; American Historical Association, Annual Report, 1913, Vol. 2, “Papers of James Bayard”; Count Gallatin, ed., The Diary of James Gallatin. Two useful magazine articles: American Heritage, December 1960, Fred L. Engelman, “The Peace of Christmas Eve,” and Maryland Historical Magazine, Vol. 66, Chester G. Dunham, “Christopher Hughes, Jr., at Ghent, 1814.”
British reaction to Baltimore and Lake Champlain: P.R.O., WO 3/608, Torrens correspondence, various, especially letter of 11/26 to Marquis of Tweedale; Wellington’s Supplementary Despatches, Vol. 9, Liverpool, to Castlereagh, 10/21; Torrens to Wellington, 11/3; also newspapers and periodicals noted above.
Growing pressure for peace: debates in Parliament as reported regularly by the Times; files of Morning Chronicle, Statesman, Cobbett’s Weekly Register, and other critics of the war; also Wellington’s Supplementary Despatches, Vol. 9, Liverpool to Castlereagh, 10/28, 11/2, 11/18, 12/23. For the government’s efforts to enlist Wellington’s support, and the Duke’s own influence for peace, see Francis Bickley, ed., Report on the Manuscripts of Earl Bathurst, Wellington to Bathurst, 11/4; Wellington’s Supplementary Despatches, Vol. 9, Liverpool’s correspondence with Wellington and Castlereagh, 11/4, 11/7, 11/9, 11/13, 11/18.
The peace treaty signed: published writings of Adams, Bayard, Clay, Albert Gallatin, James Gallatin. Also see Dangerfield; Dunham; Perkins. Reaction in London: Wellington’s Supplementary Despatches, Vol. 9, various, but especially Liverpool to Canning, 12/28; also newspapers and periodicals cited above. Treaty ratified, and sent to America: P.R.O. ADM 2/1381, Croker correspondence, 12/27-12/30; ADM 1/4360, Admiralty orders, 12/27; WO 6/2, Bathurst to Pakenham, 12/27; Cochrane Papers 2574, Melville to Cochrane, 12/27.
Through the years there has been speculation that Anthony Baker’s instructions included a provision aborting the treaty if he received word of a British triumph at New Orleans. This is not so. Baker’s orders clearly show his authority was limited to securing Washington’s unconditional ratification: P.R.O., FO 115/23, Bathurst to Baker, 12/30; FO 5/105, Bathurst to Baker, 12/31. Nor could he have had special unwritten instructions on this point, for it made no difference who delivered the treaty. On the chance Baker might not reach America, a spare copy was sent to General Sherbrooke in Canada, to be forwarded to Washington by any messenger of his choice: ADM 1/4360, orders of 12/27.
13. “The Dawn’s Early Light”
British planning for New Orleans: P.R.O., ADM 1/506, Cochrane to Croker, 6/20; ADM 1/4360, Croker to Cochrane, 8/10; Cochrane to Croker, .10/3; WO 6/2, Bathurst to Ross, 8/10; Cochrane Papers 2574, Melville to Cochrane, 7/29, 8/10. Failure on flatboats: ADM 1/508, Cochrane to Croker, 12/7; Cochrane Papers 2343, Middleton to Croker, 9/7; 2330, comments by Cochrane, pp. 28-36. Collapse of security: Adams, Writings, Gallatin to Monroe, 8/20; National Archives, M6, R7,-Monroe to Jackson, 9/5; Niles’ Register, 11/5; Edward Nicolls to Jean Laffite, 8/31; Proclamation, Nicolls to “Natives of Louisiana,” 8/29; ADM 1/508, Cochrane to Croker, 12/7; Cochrane Papers 2326, Cochrane to Melville, 12/29/1815.
Jamaica to Gulf Coast: Wellington’s Supplementary Despatches, Vol. 10, John Keane, “A Journal of the Operations against New Orleans”; Malcolm Papers, MAL/104, squadron list; Cochrane Papers 2348, Cochrane to Croker, 12/16. Also, Barrett; Chesterton; Codrington; Gleig.
Advance to the Mississippi: J. S. Bassett, ed., Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, Vol. 2, Jackson to Monroe, 12/10; National Archives, M222, R12, Jackson to Monroe, 12/13, 12/16; Marquis James, Andrew Jackson, Border Captain, quoting Jackson to Monroe, 2/18/1815; Thomas ap Catesby Jones, official letter, 3/12/1815; Nicholas Lockyer to Cochrane, 12/18; Cochrane’s dispatch, 1/18/1815; Keane’s “Journal”; Keane’s official letter, 12/26; Cochrane Papers 2330, n.d., Captain Robert Spencer’s memorandum on payments to guides. On American failure to block Bayou Bienvenu, see James; Louisiana Historical Quarterly, Vol. 44, Carson I. A. Ritchie, “The Louisiana Campaign.”
Operations, 12/23-1/8/1815, American accounts: Jackson’s official reports, 12/27, 12/29, 1/8/1815, 1/9/1815, 1/13/1815; Daniel T. Patterson’s official reports, 12/28, 1/13/1815. Also see Niles’ Register, 2/11/1815, 2/18/-1815, and the Vol. 8 Supplement for letters from various American participants; Louisiana Historical Quarterly, Vol. 9, “A Contemporary Account of the Battle of New Orleans by a Soldier in the Ranks”; A. Lacarriere Latour, Historical Memoir of the War in West Florida and Louisiana.
British accounts: Keane’s official letter, 12/26; Keane’s “Journal”; Thornton’s official letter, 1/8/1815; John Lambert’s dispatch, 1/10/1815: Cochrane’s dispatch 1/18/1815; Cochrane Papers 2336, Malcolm to Cochrane, 12/27; 2330, Pakenham to Cochrane, 12/28; 2265, Cochrane to Sir T. Cochrane, 12/29; Hope of Luffness MSS, G. Brown to Sir A. Hope, 4/4/1815; Royal Fusiliers Museum, Corporal James Brierly, MS, “Observations, Notes etc. Whilst on Service”; Niles’ Register, 5/20/1815, extracts from letters in British press; Blackwood’s Magazine, September 1828, Captain R. Simpson, “Battle of New Orleans”; Louisiana Historical Quarterly, Vol. 9, “General Court-Martial for Trial of Lt. Col. Thomas Mullins” (transcript); Military Register, 9/20/-1815, findings of Mullins court-martial; Louisiana Historical Quarterly, Vol. 44, account by Alexander Dickson edited by Carson I. A. Ritchie; Hugh F. Rankin, The Battle of New Orleans, a British View, account by Charles R. Forrest; Naval Chronicle, Vol. 33, account by unidentified officer with Thornton’s force, 1/30/1815; J. H. Cooke, Narrative of Events in the South of France and of the Attack on New Orleans; J. S. Cooper, Rough notes of Seven Campaigns; W. Surtees, Twenty-five Years in the Rifle Brigade; G. Wrottesley, Life and Correspondence of Sir John Burgoyne. Also, Barrett; D. Brown; Chesterton; Codrington; Gleig; “Old Sub”; Harry Smith.
For general comment: Charles B. Brooks, The Siege of New Orleans; Samuel Carter III, Blaze of Glory; Jane L. de Grummond, The Baratarians and the Battle of New Orleans. Also, Coles; Fortescue; Horsman; Marquis James; William James, Military Occurences; Latour; Lossing; Tucker; and the fine analysis by Carson I. A. Ritchie in Louisiana Historical Quarterly, Vol. 44, cited above.
Peace treaty ratified in Washington: P.R.O., FO 115/24, Baker to Castlereagh, 2/19/1815; Georgetown Federal Republican, 2/14/1815, 2/16/1815; National Intelligencer, 2/16/1815; Niles’ Register, 2/18/1815; Gaillard Hunt, Life in America One Hundred Years Ago. Also, Anthony; Brant; Jennings; Ketcham; Lossing; Nicolay; Perkins; Tucker. Celebrations: Niles’ Register, Supplements to Vols. 7 and 8 contain many local accounts.
British reaction: Cockburn Papers 25, Cockburn to Edmund Palmer, 2/8/1815; Codrington Papers, COD 7/1, Codrington to wife, 2/13/1815; Cochrane Papers 2584, Sir Thomas Cochrane’s “Journal,” 2/8/1815. Abandoning the Indians and blacks: P.R.O., ADM 1/508, Cochrane to Malcolm 2/17/1815; WO 1/143-1/144, Nicolls correspondence, various dates. Wrangle over prize money: P.R.O., PC 1/4109, 5/29/1817, 4/3/1818; National Maritime Museum, Robert Ramsay to William Ely Cook, 2/7/1817.
Meaning to America: James Bayard, quoted in American Historical Association, Annual Report, 1913, Vol. 2, Bayard to R. H. Bayard, 12/26; Gouverneur Morris, quoted in New York Times Magazine, 6/17/1962, H. S. Commager, “Second War of American Independence”; peace announcement, quoted from Niles’ Register, 2/18/1815; Louis Serurier, quoted in Brant. For over-all thoughts and conclusions, I’ve been especially impressed by Brant, Coles, Commager, Dangerfield, Horsman, Perkins, and Smelser, all previously cited.