Notes

THE PREQUEL TO THE PILGRIMS

¹ “Pilgrim Fathers,” Oxford English Dictionary; definition C2.

² John Stowe and Edmund Howes, Annales, or a General Chronicle of England, begun by John Stow: continued and augmented with matters Forraigne and Domestique, Ancient and Moderne, unto the end of this present yeere (London, 1631), 605.

1. WAXING COLD AND IN DECAY

¹ W. K. Jordan, Edward VI. The Young King. The Protectorship of the Duke of Somerset (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1968), 402–3.

² John Norden cited in Christopher Hibbert, The English: A Social History, 1066–1945 (London: HarperCollins, 1987; paperback, 1994), 173.

³ P. J. Bowden, “Wool Supply and the Woolen Industry,” The Economic History Review, n.s. 9, no. 1 (1956): 44–58; 45.

⁴ David Loades, England’s Maritime Empire: Seapower, Commerce and Policy, 1490–1690 (London: Longman, 2000), 15–16.

⁵ Martin Rorke, “English and Scottish Overseas Trade, 1300–1600,” The Economic History Review, n.s., 59, no. 2 (2006): 265–88; 274.

⁶ Sir Edward Coke (1552–1634), speaking in Parliament in 1621; cited in Nick Bunker, Making Haste from Babylon: The Mayflower Pilgrims and Their World: A New History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010), 252.

⁷ From the records of the Worshipful Company of Woolmen, http://woolmen.com/home/history/.

⁸ Anne F. Sutton, The Mercery of London: Trade, Goods and People, 1130–1578 (Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing, 2005), 49; 3–5.

⁹ John William Burgon, The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham; Compiled Chiefly from His Correspondence Preserved in Her Majesty’s State-Paper Office, 2 vols. (London: Robert Jennings, 1839), 1:5–43; Ian Blanchard, “Sir Thomas Gresham (c. 1518–1579), mercer, merchant adventurer, and founder of the Royal Exchange and Gresham College,” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, online edition); Ian Blanchard, “Sir Richard Gresham (c.1485–1549), mercer, merchant advengturer and mayor of London,” in ibid.; and William Harrison, The Description of England. The Classic Contemporary Account of Tudor Social Life, ed. Georges Edelen (Washington and New York: Folger Shakespeare Library and Dover Publications, 1994), 132.

¹⁰ Burgon, The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham, 1:72.

¹¹ Francesco Guicciardini, Florentine statesman and chronicler, cited in Burgon, The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham, 1:76. Also: S. T. Bindoff, “The Greatness of Antwerp,” in The New Cambridge Modern History. Volume II. The Reformation 1520–1559, ed. G. R. Elton (1958; repr. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), 50–69.

¹² Thomas Smith to William Cecil, July 19, 1549, in Patrick F. Tytler, England Under the Reigns of Edward VI and Mary, 2 vols. (London: Richard Bentley, 1839), 1:185–89; 185.

¹³ Mary Dewar, Sir Thomas Smith. A Tudor Intellectual in Office (London: Athlone Press, 1964), 29–30 (provost of Eton); 50–51 (case for reform and rejection); 12–13 (Cambridge); 25 (enters Seymour’s household); 32 (becomes Secretary of State).

¹⁴ Mary Dewar, ed., A Discourse of the Commonweal of This Realm of England, Attributed to Sir Thomas Smith (Charlottesville: The University Press of Virginia, 1969), 18 (“poverty reigns”), ix (prices), 18–19 (imported goods), 34 (“grieved”).

¹⁵ Frederic William Russell, Kett’s Rebellion in Norfolk: Being a History of the Great Civil Commotion that Occurred at the Time of the Reformation, in the Reign of Edward VI (London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, Roberts, and William Penny, 1859), 12.

¹⁶ Thomas Tusser cited in Hibbert, The English: A Social History, 172.

¹⁷ Dewar, ed., A Discourse of the Commonweal, 49.

¹⁸ G. R. Elton, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History. Volume II. The Reformation 1520–1559 (1958; repr. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), 39.

¹⁹ Dewar, ed., A Discourse of the Commonweal, 50.

²⁰ Russell, Kett’s Rebellion, 25.

²¹ Francis Aidan Gasquet, Henry VIII and the English Monasteries (London: John C. Nimmo, 1899), 360.

²² Burgon, The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham, 2:493; 499–500. In his will, Gresham gave Edward Flowerdew, Sir John’s son, an annuity of forty shillings for his “counselles.”

²³ John Walter, “Robert Kett (c.1492–1549), rebel,” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

²⁴ Russell, Kett’s Rebellion, 27–28 (“weal,” “misery,” “avarice”); 102 (20,000); 69 (sheep); 48 (grievances); 95 (“common-wealth”).

²⁵ Jordan, Edward VI: The Young King, 487–88.

²⁶ David Loades, John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland 1504–1553 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996); Barret L. Beer, Northumberland: The Political Career of John Dudley, Earl of Warwick and Duke of Northumberland (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1973).

²⁷ Jordan, Edward VI: The Young King, 489; Burgon, The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham, 1:100–103.

²⁸ Barrett L. Beer, Rebellion and Riot. Popular Disorder in England during the Reign of Edward VI (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1982), 7.

²⁹ Russell, Kett’s Rebellion, 147.

³⁰ Alexander Neville, Norfolkes Furies or a View of Ketts Campe (London: William Stansby for Henry Fetherstone, 1615), 18.

³¹ Stowe and Howes, Annales, or a General Chronicle of England, 601.

³² Russell, Kett’s Rebellion, 151.

³³ Beer, Rebellion and Riot, 7.

³⁴ F. J. Fisher, “Commercial Trends and Policy in Sixteenth-Century England,” The Economic History Review 10, no. 2 (1940): 95–117; 96.

³⁵ Thomas Edge, “A briefe Discoverie of the Northerne Discoveries of Seas, Coasts, and Countries,” in Samuel Purchas, Hakluytus Posthumus or Purchas His Pilgrimes: Contayning a History of the World in Sea Voyages and Lande Travells by Englishmen and Others, 20 vols. (Glasgow: James MacLehose & Sons, the University of Glasgow, 1905–1907), 13:5.

³⁶ G. V. Scammell, The World Encompassed: The First European Maritime Empires, c. 800–1650 (London: Methuen, 1981), 269–70.

³⁷ George Macaulay Trevelyan, Illustrated English Social History, Volume 1: Chaucer’s England and the Early Tudors (London: Longmans and Green, 1949), 33; E. M. Carus-Wilson, “The English Cloth Industry in the Late Twelfth and Early Thirteenth Centuries,” Economic History Review 14, no. 1 (1944): 32–50; 32–33.

³⁸ Stephen Alford, Burghley: William Cecil at the Court of Elizabeth I (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), 3–32.

³⁹ Thomas Smith to William Cecil, cited in Dewar, ed., A Discourse of the Commonweal, xxiv.

⁴⁰ Burgon, The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham, 1:66.

⁴¹ “Information of Sir Thomas Gresham, Mercer, towching the fall of the exchaunge, MDLVIII: to the Quenes most excellent maiestye,” in Burgon, The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham, 1:483–86. Gresham’s quotes in the next paragraph are taken from this letter too.

⁴² Robert Brenner, Merchants and Revolution: Commercial Change, Political Conflict, and London’s Overseas Traders, 1550–1653 (London: Verso, 2003), 7.

⁴³ W. K. Jordan, Edward VI: The Threshold of Power. The Dominance of the Duke of Northumberland (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1970), 482–88.

⁴⁴ Clement Adams, “The newe Navigation and discoverie of the kingdom of Moscovia, by the Northeast, in the yeere 1553,” in Richard Hakluyt, The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques & Discoveries of the English Nation, in Twelve Volumes. (Glasgow: James MacLehose and Sons, University of Glasgow, 1903–1905), 2:239–70; 239.

2 . THE LURE OF CATHAY

¹ Adams, “The newe Navigation,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:239–40.

² Richard Eden, “A Treatyse of the Newe India, with other new founde lands and ilands,” in Edward Arber, ed., The First Three English Books on America, [?1511]–1555 A.D. (Birmingham, 1885), 6.

³ Stowe and Howes, Annales, or a General Chronicle of England, 609; John Stow, A Survey of London. Reprinted from the text of 1603. With Introduction and Notes by Charles Lethbridge Kingsford, 2 vols., edited by C. L. Kingsford. (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1908), 1:212.

⁴ Judde is ranked second, after Cabot, in a contemporary list of merchants involved in the new company: “A letter of M. Henrie Lane to the woshipfull M. William Sanderson, conteining a briefe discourse of that which passed in the North-east discovery for the space of three and thirtie years,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:330–36; 331.

⁵ Thomas More, Utopia, trans. Ralph Robinson, introduction Jenny Mezciems (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), 25 (“live idle”); 28 (“your sheep”).

⁶ David Beers Quinn, England and the Discovery of America, 1481–1620 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1974), 163–66.

⁷ John Rastell, “A new interlude and a mery of the nature of the. iiij. Elementes, &c,” in Arber, ed., The First Three English Books on America, xxi.

⁸ Marco Polo, The Most Noble and Famous Travels of Marco Polo, Together with the Travels of Nicolo di Conti, rev. ed., ed. and trans. John Frampton, with Introduction, Notes, and Appendices by N. M. Penzer (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1937), 64–65, 93–94. Also Donald Beecher, “The Legacy of John Frampton: Elizabethan Trader and Translator,” Renaissance Studies 20, no. 3 (2006), 320–39.

⁹ For Chinese exploration, see Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405–1433 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 87–181.

¹⁰ For the state of the world economy in the sixteenth century, see Angus Maddison, The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective (Paris: OECD Publications, 2001), 263.

¹¹ Tamara Chin, “The Invention of the Silk Road, 1877,” Critical Inquiry 40, no. 1 (2013), 194–219; 196–97.

¹² Jack Turner, Spice: The History of a Temptation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004; Vintage Books, 2005), 5.

¹³ Ibid., 102–3.

¹⁴ “The First Letters Patent Granted To John Cabot and his Sons, 5 March 1496,” in James A. Williamson, The Cabot Voyages and Bristol Discovery Under Henry VII (Cambridge: The University Press, for the Hakluyt Society, 1962), 204–5.

¹⁵ J. H. Parry, The Discovery of the Sea (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), 219.

¹⁶ For the Isle of Brasil: see the statement from William Worcestre’s Itinerarium, in Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 187–88. For the discoverers of Newfoundland: see “The booke made by the right worshipful M. Robert Thorne in the yeere 1527 in Sivil, to Doctour Ley, Lord ambassador for king Henry the eight, to Charles the Emperour…,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:164–80; 178.

¹⁷ Evan Jones, “The Matthew of Bristol and the Financiers of John Cabot’s 1497 Voyage to North America,” The English Historical Review, 121, no. 492 (2006), 778–95; 781.

¹⁸ Legend No. 8, in the map of 1544, transcribed in Charles Raymond Beazley, John and Sebastian Cabot: The Discovery of North America (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1898), 222.

¹⁹ John Day to the Lord Grand Admiral, n.d., in Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 211–14.

²⁰ Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 64 (activities on land); 66–72 (Newfoundland v. Nova Scotia).

²¹ Lorenzo Pasqualigo to his Brothers at Venice, 23 August 1497, in Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 207–8.

²² Raimondo de Raimondi de Soncino to the Duke of Milan, 18 December 1497, in Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 209–11; 210.

²³ Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 103–13.

²⁴ David B. Quinn, Sebastian Cabot and Bristol Exploration, rev. ed. (Bristol: The Bristol Branch of the Historical Association, 1997; original edition 1968), 34.

²⁵ Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 151, 153, 166–69.

²⁶ “Marcantonio Contarini’s Report on Sebastian Cabot’s Voyage,” in Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 270.

²⁷ “King Ferdinand to Sebastian Cabot, 13 September 1512,” in Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 281.

²⁸ Edward L. Stevenson, “The Geographical Activities of the Casa de la Contratación,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 17, no. 2 (1927): 40.

²⁹ Ibid., 42.

³⁰ “Gasparo Contrarini to the Council of Ten in Venice, 31 December 1522,” in Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 282–85; Laetitia Lyell, ed., Acts of Court of the Mercers’ Company 1453–1527 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1936), 524–25.

³¹ Lyell, ed., Acts of Court of the Mercers’ Company, 524–29.

³² Extracts from the Wardens Manuscript Accounts of the Drapers Company of London, From March 1 to April 9, 1521, in Henry Harrisse, The Discovery of North America (London: Henry Stevens and Son, 1892), 747–50.

³³ Heather Dalton, Merchants and Explorers: Roger Barlow, Sebastian Cabot, and Networks of Atlantic Exchange, 1500–1560 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 76.

³⁴ Alison Sandman and Eric H. Ash, “Trading Expertise: Sebastian Cabot between Spain and England,” Renaissance Quarterly 57, no. 3 (2004): 813–46; 839–40.

³⁵ Dalton, Merchants and Explorers, 63–65, 127–28.

³⁶ John Roche Dasent, ed., Acts of the Privy Council of England, Volume II, 1547–1550 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1890), 137; R. H. Brodie, ed., Calendar of the Patent Rolls, Edward VI (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1924–1929), 1:320.

³⁷ “May 28. Van der Delft to the Emperor,” in “Spain: May 1549,” in Calendar of Letters, Despatches, and State Papers, Spain, Volume 9, 1547–1549, ed. Martin A. S. Hume and Royall Tyler (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1912), 381–83; 381; “January 18, 1550. The Emperor to Van der Delft,” in Calendar of Letters, Dispatches, and State Papers, Spain, Volume 10, Edward VI, 1550–1552, ed. Royall Tyler (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1914), 11–12; 12.

³⁸ Cited in Quinn, Sebastian Cabot and Bristol Exploration, 29.

³⁹ Legend No. 12 (massive ears); No. 14 (Bengal); No. 19 (birds/ox), transcribed in Beazley, John and Sebastian Cabot, 230.

⁴⁰ Joseph Fischer, Franz von Wieser, and Charles George Herbermann, eds., Cosmographiae Introductio of Martin Waldseemüller in Facsimile Followed By The Four Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci, With Their Translation Into English; to which are added Waldseemüller’s Two World Maps of 1507 With An Introduction (New York: The United States Catholic Historical Society, 1907), 70. While convention has it that the word “America” was first applied by Martin Waldseemüller, who derived it from the Latin version of Vespucci’s first name, there has been some debate about the matter. For instance, it has been speculated that John Cabot came up with the name in recognition of one of his supporters, Richard Ameryk, Sheriff of Bristol in 1503. See E. W. Lennard, “Some Intimate Bristol Connections with the Overseas Empire,” Geography 16, no. 2 (1931): 109–21; 110–11.

⁴¹ Williamson, The Cabot Voyages, 166–70. Also Helen Wallis, “England’s Search for the Northern Passages in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries,” Arctic 37, no. 4 (1984): 453–72; 457–59. Others suggest that the strait is named after the Portuguese Corte-Real Brothers. See William J. Mills, Exploring Polar Frontiers: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1 (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio, 2003), 125.

3. THE MYSTERIE

¹ Adams, “The newe Navigation,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:240.

² Steve Rappaport, Worlds Within Worlds: Structures of Life in Sixteenth-Century London (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 29–36, 184–88; Valerie Hope, Clive Birch, and Gilbert Torrey, eds., The Freedom: The Past and Present of the Livery, Guilds and City of London (Buckingham: Barracuda Books, 1982), 37–45.

³ According to the Oxford English Dictionary, “the word may well have been influenced by or confused with ‘mastery.’” Oxford English Dictionary online, definition n.2, 2.a.

⁴ The map appeared in 1572 in an atlas of city plans called Civitates Orbis Terrarum by Georg Braun and Franz Hogenberg. See Peter Whitfield, London: A Life in Maps, rev. ed. (London: The British Library, 2017; original edition 2006), 34–37.

⁵ Loades, John Dudley, ix; Sutton, The Mercery of London, 369–73.

⁶ John Munro, “Tawney’s Century, 1540–1640,” in The Invention of Enterprise. Entrepreneurship from Ancient Mesopotamia to Modern Times, ed. David S. Landes, Joel Mokyr, and William J. Baumol (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 107–55; 128–32. Munro calls the company the “first (historically verifiable) joint-stock company.”

⁷ W. R. Scott, The Constitution of English, Scottish and Irish Joint-Stock Companies to 1720, 3 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910), 1:18.

⁸ John Mickelthwait and Adrian Wooldridge, The Company: A Short History of a Revolutionary Idea (London: Phoenix Books, 2005), 18.

⁹ Liza Picard, Elizabeth’s London, Everyday Life in Elizabethan London (London: Phoenix Books, 2004), 323.

¹⁰ Adams, “The newe Navigation,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:240–41.

¹¹ “The copie of the letters missive, which the right noble Prince Edward the sixt sent to the Kings, Princes, and other Potentates, inhabiting the Northeast partes of the world…,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:209–11; 210.

¹² The date of his birth is unknown, and his age is based on the evidence of a contemporary portrait, facing the title page in vol. 2 of Hakluyt’s Principal Navigations.

¹³ Adams, “The newe Navigation,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:240–41.

¹⁴ J. D. Alsop, “Sir Anthony Aucher (d. 1558), administrator and landowner,” in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

¹⁵ “The voyage of M. Roger Bodenham with the great Barke Aucher to Candia and Chio, in the yeere 1550,” in Richard Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 5:71–76; 76.

¹⁶ Adams, “The newe Navigation,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:242.

¹⁷ For Dee’s life, see Glyn Parry, The Arch-Conjuror of England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013) and Benjamin Woolley, The Queen’s Conjuror: The Life and Magic of Dr Dee (London: Flamingo, 2002).

¹⁸ John Aubrey, Brief Lives, chiefly of Contemporaries, set down by John Aubrey, between the years 1669 & 1696, ed. Andrew Clark, 2 vols. (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1898), 1:212, 214.

¹⁹ John Dee, “The Compendious Rehearsal,” in Gerald Suster (ed., comp.), John Dee: Essential Readings (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2003), 9.

²⁰ Aubrey, Brief Lives, 1:27. Aubrey was referring in this passage to Thomas Allen, a scholar of Trinity College, Oxford.

²¹ Parry, The Arch-Conjurer, 12, 23. Dee gave his two Mercator globes (now lost) to Trinity College, Cambridge. Philip Gaskell, Trinity College Library: The First 150 Years. The Sandars Lectures 1978–1979 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 33.

²² Parry, The Arch-Conjurer, 23–24; see E. G. R. Taylor, Tudor Geography 1485–1583 (London: Methuen & Co., 1930), 91, for a general reference to the making of navigational instruments.

²³ Eden, “A Treatyse of the Newe India,” in Arber, ed., The First Three English Books on America, 8.

²⁴ Donald F. Lach, Asia in the Making of Europe: Volume I: The Century of Discovery (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1965), 185 n171.

²⁵ Sir Henry Yule, ed. and trans., Cathay And The Way Thither, Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, 4 vols. (London: Hakluyt Society, 1913–1916), 2:136.

²⁶ Ibid., 2:179–80 (Censcalan); 215–22 (Cambalech); 232 (camels).

²⁷ Kim M. Phillips, Before Orientalism: Asian Peoples and Cultures in European Travel Writing, 1245–1510 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), 45.

²⁸ C. W. R. D. Moseley (trans.), The Travels of Sir John Mandeville (London: Penguin Books, 1983; paperback), 150.

²⁹ Adams, “The newe Navigation,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:243–44.

³⁰ The word “Tartar” comes from “Tartarus”, the abyss of suffering in classical mythology. It was applied to the Mongols, whose terrifying exploits generated fear among Europeans.

³¹ Adams, “The newe Navigation,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:244.

³² Eden, “A Treatyse of the Newe India,” in Arber, ed., The First Three English Books on America, 16–17 (“market town”); 24 (“Cathay”); 26 (“marvelous”); 29 (cannibals).

³³ John Parker, Books to Build an Empire: A Bibliographical History of English Overseas Interests to 1620 (Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1965), 38; Eden, “A Treatyse of the Newe India,” in Arber, ed., The First Three English Books on America, 3.

³⁴ Eden, “A Treatyse of the Newe India,” in Arber, ed., The First Three English Books on America, 8.

³⁵ Adams, “The newe Navigation,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:241.

³⁶ “Ordinances, instructions, and advertisements of and for the direction of the intended voyage for Cathay, compiled, made, and delivered by the right worshipfull M. Sebastian Cabota…,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:195–205.

³⁷ Adams, “The newe Navigation,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:241.

4. A NEWE AND STRANGE NAVIGATION

¹ “The true copie of a note found written in one of the two ships, to wit, the Speranza, which wintred in Lappia, where Sir Hugh Willoughby and all his companie died, being frozen to death. Anno 1553,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:212–14.

² “The copie of the letters missive,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:211 (“divers languages”); 209 (“all kings”).

³ Ibid., 210.

⁴ Ibid., 211.

⁵ In 2005, two professors from INSEAD business school in France wrote an influential book on what they called “blue ocean” strategy—succeeding by creating “blue oceans” of uncontested market space: W. Chan Kim and Renee Mauborgne, Blue Ocean Strategy: How to Create Uncontested Market Space and Make the Competition Irrelevant (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2005).

⁶ “The true copie of a note… Sir Hugh Willoughby,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:212–14.

⁷ The blue color was derived from local whortleberries (http://www.watchetmuseum.co.uk/social-history/).

⁸ Adams, “The newe Navigation,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:244.

⁹ Ibid., 2:245.

¹⁰ Ibid., 2:245.

¹¹ “The true copie of a note… Sir Hugh Willoughby,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:220.

¹² Adams, “The newe Navigation,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:247.

¹³ Mildred Wretts-Smith, “The English in Russia During the Second Half of the Sixteenth Century,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 3 (1920), 72–102; 90–91, n6.

¹⁴ “The first voyage made by Master Anthonie Jenkinson, from the Citie of London toward the land of Russia, begun the twelfth of May, in the yeere 1557,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:413–26; 416.

¹⁵ Kit Mayers, North-East Passage to Muscovy: Stephen Borough and the First Tudor Explorations (Phoenix Mill: Sutton Publishing, 2005), 65 (map).

¹⁶ “The true copie of a note… Sir Hugh Willoughby,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:221.

¹⁷ Ibid., 223.

¹⁸ “Ordinances… Sebastian Cabota,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:202.

¹⁹ Adams, “The newe Navigation,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:243 (“home quietly”); 247 (“die the death”); 248 (“held his course”).

²⁰ Ibid., 2:248.

²¹ Ibid., 2:249.

²² Adams, “The newe Navigation,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:250 (“wares and commodities”); 251 (“loving manner”); 254 (“bignesse,” “London”); 255 (“cloth of gold,” “chamber of presence,” “throne,” “precious stones,” “out of countenance”).

²³ Stephane Mund, “The Discovery of Muscovite Russia in Tudor England,” Revue Belge de Philologie et d’Histoire 86, no. 2 (2008): 351–73; 351n3.

²⁴ Geoffrey Hosking, Russia and the Russians from the Earliest Times to the Present (London: Penguin Books, rev. ed., 2012), 84, 89, 117, 120.

²⁵ “The copie of the Duke of Moscovie and Emperour of Russia his letters, sent to King Edward the sixt, by the hands of Richard Chancelour,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:272.

²⁶ Letters Patent for the Limitation of the Crown, 21 June 1553: Harleian MSS, 35, fol. 364, in John Gough Nichols, ed., The Chronicle of Queen Jane and of Two Years of Queen Mary and Especially of the Rebellion of Sir Thomas Wyat, Written by a Resident in the Tower of London (London: Camden Society, 1850), 91–100.

²⁷ Hubert Hall, History of the Custom-Revenue in England from the Earliest Times to the Year 1827, 2 vols. (London: Elliot Stock, 1885), 1:316; Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:201; T. S. Willan, The Early History of the Russia Company, 1553–1603 (1956; repr. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1968), 6–7.

²⁸ “The Charter of the Marchants of Russia, graunted upon the discoverie of the saide Countrey, by King Philipe and Queene Marie,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:304–16; 315.

²⁹ For the list of investors: Calendar of the Patent Rolls, Philip and Mary. Volume II, 1554–1555 (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1936), 55–57. The women were Elizabeth Wilford and Katherine Lomnour. T. S. Willan notes that Wilford may have been the wife of a merchant who sailed with Willoughby and “presumably perished when the ship was frozen in the White Sea”: see his The Muscovy Merchants of 1555 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1953; repr. 1973), 10, 110, 127.

³⁰ H. R. Woudhuysen, “Sir Philip Sidney (1554–1586), author and courtier,” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Susan Brigden, New Worlds, Lost Worlds. The Rule of the Tudors, 1485–1603 (London: Penguin Books, 2001), 214.

³¹ “The names of the twelve Counsellors appointed in this voyage,” Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:206.

³² “The letters of king Philip and Queene Marie to Ivan Vasilivich the Emperour of Russia written the first of April 1555 and in the second voyage,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:278–80; 282 (“Greek”).

³³ See the Oxford English Dictionary for “China,” definition 1a.

³⁴ Richard Eden, The Decades of the Newe Worlde or West India, in Arber, ed., The First Three English Books on America, 292.

³⁵ “Articles conceived and determined for the Commission of the Merchants of this company resiant in Russia, and at the Wardhouse, for the second voyage, 1555. The first of May, as followeth,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:281–89.

³⁶ Ibid., 2:281 (“agents”); 285 (“learned”); 289 (“honor,” “public benefit”).

³⁷ James Evans, Merchant Adventurers. The voyage of discovery that transformed Tudor England (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2013; paperback, Phoenix, 2014), 260–64.

³⁸ Wretts-Smith, “The English in Russia,” 76n4. The port of Arkhangelsk was established at the mouth of the Dvina in 1584 and continued to be a trading center for the English.

³⁹ Arthur Edwards, “Another letter of Arthur Edwards written in Astracan the 16. Of June, 1567, at his return in his first voiage out of Persia, to the right worshipfull Companie trading into Russia, Persia, and other the North and Northeast partes,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 3:64–72; 72.

⁴⁰ Eleanora C. Gordon, “The Fate of Sir Hugh Willoughby and His Companions: A New Conjecture,” The Geographical Journal 152, no. 2 (1986): 243–47; 244.

⁴¹ Evans, Merchant Adventurers, 265.

⁴² “Giovanni Michiel, Venetian Ambassador in England, to the Doge and Senate,” November 4, 1555, in Rawdon Brown, ed., Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts, Relating to English Affairs, Existing in the Archives and Collections of Venice, and in Other Libraries of Northern Italy, Volume VI, Part I, 1555–1556 (London: Longman & Co., 1877), no. 269: 238–40; 240.

⁴³ Wretts-Smith, “The English in Russia,” 79.

⁴⁴ “The letter of M. George Killingworth,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:291 (“wares” and “sold very little”).

⁴⁵ Adams, “The newe Navigation,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:261 (Flemings); “A letter of M. Henrie Lane to M. Richard Hakluit, concerning the first ambassage to our most gracious Queene Elizabeth from the Russian Emperour anno 1567, and other notable matters incident to those places and times,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 3:100; R. H. Major, trans. and ed., Notes upon Russia: Being a translation of the Earliest Account of that Country entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii by the Baron Sigismund von Herberstein, 2 vols. (London: Hakluyt Society, 1851). 2:24.

⁴⁶ “A letter of M. Henrie Lane to the worshipfull M. William Sanderson, conteining a briefe discourse of that which passed in the Northeast discovery for the space of three and thirtie years,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 3:330–36; 333.

⁴⁷ “The coines, weights and measures used in Russia, written by John Hasse, in the yere, 1554,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:273–78.

⁴⁸ The word “Kremlin”—literally “citadel”—refers to the walled complex of buildings and facilities of the tsar and his court in Moscow. Although the word was not often used at the time of the English visits, it had been common for decades before and is still, of course, in use today. See Arthur Voyce, The Moscow Kremlin: Its History, Architecture and Art Treasures (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1954).

⁴⁹ “The voyage, wherein Osep Napea the Moscovite Ambassadour returned home into his country, with his entertainement at his arrivall, at Colmogro: and a large description of the maners of the Countrey,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:425–49; 439.

⁵⁰ “A letter of M. Henrie Lane to… William Sanderson,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 3:333.

⁵¹ E. Delmar Morgan and C. H. Coote, eds., Early Voyages and Travels into Russia and Persia by Anthony Jenkinson and other Englishmen, with Some Account of the First Intercourse of the English with Russia and Central Asia by way of the Caspian Sea, 2 vols. (London: Hakluyt Society, 1886), 1:iv.

⁵² An archaeological survey of the supposed shipwreck site was conducted in 2000, but nothing was found. Aberdeen Council, https://online.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/smrpub/master/detail.aspx?tab=main&refno=NJ96NW0073.

⁵³ “A discourse of the honorable receiving into England of the first Ambassador from the Emperor of Russia, in the yeere of Christ 1556, and in the third yeere of the raigne of Queene Marie, serving for the third voyage to Moscovie. Registred by Master John Incent Protonotarie,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 2:350–62; 352. (The year is 1556 in Principal Navigations but the narrative continues into 1557.)

⁵⁴ Raphael Holinshed, Holinshed’s Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland, 6 vols. (New York: AMS Press, 1965), 4:86.

5. AN ELUSIVE REALM

¹ Alice Hunt, The Drama of Coronation: Medieval Ceremony in Early Modern England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 146–172; James M. Osborn, ed., The Quenes Maiesties Passage through the Citie of London to Westminster the Day before her Coronation (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1960), 28.

² The words come from Psalm 118. See: A. N. Wilson, The Elizabethans (London: Hutchinson, 2011; paperback edition, Arrow Books, 2012), 28.

³ Brigden, New Worlds, Lost Worlds, 219.

⁴ Diogo Homem, Queen Mary Atlas, Facsimile edition with commentary by Peter Barber (London: Folio Society, 2005), 65–66. Barber notes that Elizabeth “would have been the only person with the authority to perpetrate vandalism on a precious object that had been commissioned by her royal predecessor.”

⁵ Susan Rose, Calais: An English Town in France 1347–1558 (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2008), 39–53; Muriel St. Clare Byrne, ed., The Lisle Letters. An Abridgement. Selected and Arranged by Bridget Boland (London: Secker & Warburg, 1983), 30; David Grummitt, The Calais Garrison. War and Military Service in England, 1436–1558 (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2008), 5–6; Paul Slack, rev., “Sir Andrew Judde (c. 1492–1558), merchant,” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. For “Pale,” see the Oxford English Dictionary, definitions 4a, b, c and 5c.

⁶ “Report of the Signr Giovanni Michele on his return from England A.D. 1557,” in Henry Ellis, ed., Original Letters Illustrative of English History, in Four Volumes: Volume II (London: Harding and Lepard, Second Series, 1827), 218–42; 226–27.

⁷ “The Queen to the special gentlemen in every shire,” [January 7], 1558, in Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, of the Reigns of Edward VI., Mary, Elizabeth, 1547–1580, ed. Robert Lemon (London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, & Roberts, 1856), vol. 12, #6, 97.

⁸ H. S. Vere Hodge, Sir Andrew Judde (Tonbridge: Tonbridge School Shop, n.d.), 114–15.

⁹ Machyn, Henry, The Diary of Henry Machyn, Citizen and Merchant-Taylor of London, 1550–1563, edited by J. G. Nichols (London: Camden Society, 1848), 163.

¹⁰ Holinshed, Chronicles, 4:137.

¹¹ Wallace T. MacCaffrey, “The Newhaven Expedition, 1562–1563,” The Historical Journal 40, no. 1 (1997), 1–21; 15.

¹² Ibid., 9.

¹³ G. D. Ramsay, The City of London in the International Politics at the Accession of Elizabeth Tudor (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1975), 58.

¹⁴ R. F. Foster, Modern Ireland: 1600–1972 (London: Allen Lane, 1988; paperback edition, Penguin Books, 1989), 30.

¹⁵ “Shane O’Neill to the Queen,” undated, in Calendar of State Papers relating to Ireland, of the Reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary, and Elizabeth, 1509–1573, ed. Hans Claude Hamilton (London: Longman, Green, Longman & Roberts, 1860), vol. 1, #79, 158.

¹⁶ “Proclamation shewing the presumptuous, arrogant, rebellious and traitorous deeds of Shane O’Neill, and denouncing him as a rebel and traitor,” 8 June 1561, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 1, #1, 173.

¹⁷ CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 3, #59, 170 (£3,000); vol. 4, #22, 175 (“nothing hinders”); #39, 178 (released funds); #76, 183 (“ready to embark”).

¹⁸ William G. Gosling, The Life of Sir Humphrey Gilbert: England’s First Empire Builder (London: Constable & Co., 1911), 38.

¹⁹ “Proclamation by the Queen in favour of Shane O’Neill,” May 5, 1562, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 6, #6, 194.

²⁰ Gosling, The Life of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, 38.

²¹ Foster, Modern Ireland, 12.

²² “Lord Deputy Sidney to the Earl of Leicester,” March 1, 1566, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 16, #35, 289.

²³ “Lord Deputy Sidney to [William Cecil],” June 9, 1566, CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 18, #9, 304.

²⁴ Tracy Borman, Elizabeth’s Women: The Hidden Story of the Virgin Queen (London: Vintage, 2009), 62.

²⁵ David Beers Quinn, ed., The Voyages and Colonising Enterprises of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, 2 vols. (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1940), 1:2.

²⁶ Ibid., 1:3–4.

²⁷ “[1565]. Petition from Humphrey Gilbert to the Queen,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:105–6. Quinn says the petition was “most probably the autumn of 1565,” although it could have been submitted between June 1565 and March 1566.

²⁸ “A Discourse of a Discoverie for a new passage to Cataia,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:129–64. Date of the original draft: 135.

²⁹ Humphrey Gilbert to Sir John Gilbert, 30 June 1566, in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:134–35; 134.

³⁰ “[December 1566]. Petition from Humphrey Gilbert to the Queen,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:108–10; 109.

³¹ “An Acte for the corporation of merchant Adventurers for the discovering of newe trades, made in the eight yeere of Queene Elizabeth. Anno 1566,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 3:83–91.

³² “[24 January 1567]. Humphrey Gilbert’s petition to the Queen, with comments of the Muscovy Company,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:111–15; 113.

³³ Ibid., 1:111–12.

³⁴ Susan M. Lough, “Trade and Industry in Ireland in the Sixteenth Century,” Journal of Political Economy 24, no. 7 (1916): 713–30; 721.

³⁵ Nicholas P. Canny, The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland: A Pattern Established, 1565–1576 (Hassocks: The Harvester Press, 1976), 70–72.

³⁶ Sir Thomas Smith to Sir William Cecil, 7 November 1565, cited in Mary Dewar, Sir Thomas Smith: A Tudor Intellectual in Office (London: The Athlone Press, 1964), 157.

³⁷ “Queen Elizabeth to the Lord Deputy,” July 6, 1567, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 21, #49, 340–41.

³⁸ Christopher Maginn, “Shane O’Neill (c.1530–1567), chieftain,” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online; Canny, The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland, 59–60.

³⁹ Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:13–16.

⁴⁰ “12 February 1569. Petition to Sir Henry Sidney,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:490–493. Though the authorship is not stated, Quinn notes that the petition “is written in a hand which is very likely to be Gilbert’s.”

⁴¹ “[March 1569]. Petition to the Privy Council,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:293–94; 293.

⁴² Canny, The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland, 79.

⁴³ Between September 29, 1558, and September 29, 1574, some £370,779 was paid out of the Exchequer for Ireland. See: “Money paid for Ireland,” [September 29], 1574, Calendar of State Papers relating to Ireland, of the Reign of Elizabeth, 1574–1585, ed. Hans Claude Hamilton (London: Longmans, Green, Reader & Dyer, 1867), vol. 47, #68, 38.

⁴⁴ Brigden, New Worlds, Lost Worlds, 254.

⁴⁵ Rory Rapple, “Sir Humphrey Gilbert (1537–1583), explorer and soldier,” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; “H. Gylberte to the Lord Deputy,” December 6, 1569, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 29, #83, 424; Rory Rapple, Martial Power and Elizabethan Political Culture: Military Men in England and Ireland, 1558–1594 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 211.

⁴⁶ Thomas Churchyard, Churchyarde’s Choice, in Canny, The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland, 122.

⁴⁷ “H. Gylberte to the Lord Deputy,” December 6, 1569, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 29, #83, 424.

⁴⁸ J. R. Tanner, Tudor Constitutional Documents A.D. 1485–1603, with an Historical Commentary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951), 143–46.

⁴⁹ Geoffrey Parker, Imprudent King: A New Life of Philip II (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014; paperback ed., 2015), 206–7.

⁵⁰ David Beers Quinn, “Sir Thomas Smith (1513–1577) and the Beginnings of English Colonial Theory,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 89, no. 4 (1945): 543–60, 548.

⁵¹ Ibid., 551.

⁵² Sir Thomas Smith, “A letter sent by I.B. Gentleman vnto his very frende Maystet [sic] R. C. Esquire vvherin is conteined a large discourse of the peopling & inhabiting the cuntrie called the Ardes, and other adiacent in the north of Ireland, and taken in hand by Sir Thomas Smith one of the Queenes Maiesties priuie Counsel, and Thomas Smith Esquire, his sonne” (London: Henry Binneman, 1571), n.p. The quotes in the following four paragraphs are taken from this pamphlet.

⁵³ Quinn, “Sir Thomas Smith,” 556.

⁵⁴ Sir William Fitzwilliam to Thomas Smith, junior, February 1572, cited in Hiram Morgan, “The Colonial Venture of Sir Thomas Smith in Ulster, 1571–1575,” The Historical Journal 28, no. 2 (1985): 261–78; 265.

⁵⁵ “Thomas Smith to Burghley,” September 10, 1572, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 27, #54, 482.

⁵⁶ “Earl of Essex to the Privy Council,” October 20, 1573, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 42, #55, 525.

⁵⁷ Steven Ellis, Tudor Ireland: Crown, Community and the Conflict of Cultures, 1470–1603 (London: Longman, 1985), 266–68; 267.

⁵⁸ Robert Dunlop, “Sixteenth Century Schemes for the Plantation of Ulster, Part II,” The Scottish Historical Review 22, no. 86 (1925): 115–26; 124.

⁵⁹ “Orders set out by Sir Thomas Smyth knight…,” December 1, 1573. See Dewar, Sir Thomas Smith, 165. These have been redated to 1573—from 1574. The original documents relating to Smith’s colonisation are housed in the Essex Record Office.

⁶⁰ “Offices necessarie in the Colony of Ardes and orders agreed vppon,” December 20, 1573. See Dewar, Sir Thomas Smith, 166.

⁶¹ “Deeds of covenant between Sir Thomas Smith, knight, and Sir John Barckley, of Berverstone Castle, Gloucestershire, knight,” December 8, 1573. See Dewar, Sir Thomas Smith, 168.

⁶² “Earl of Essex to the Privy Council,” December 11, 1573, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 43, #11, 532; “Earl of Essex to the Queen,” November 2, 1573, in CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, vol. 42, #64, 526.

⁶³ “Sum of payments for the Earl of Essex’s affairs,” April 1575, in CSP-Ireland, 1574–1585 (London: Longmans, Green, Reader, & Dyer, 1867), vol. 50, #84, 62.

⁶⁴ “Declaration of the revenue of Ireland,” [October 26], 1575, in CSP-Ireland, 1574–1585, vol. 53, #55, 82.

⁶⁵ “[The Queen] to the Earl of Essex,” May [22], 1575, in CSP-Ireland, 1574–1585, vol. 51, #39, 66.

⁶⁶ “Grant by George Smith of Mount Hall, esquire, and John and William, his sons, to Anthony Morley of Lewes, Sussex, esquire,” April 16, 1580: Essex Record Office, Smyth Family (of Hill Hall Estate in Theydon Mount) Manuscripts: D/DSh O1/10.

6. THE LAST GREAT CHALLENGE OF THE AGE

¹ Stow, A Survey of London, 1:131–32: “Muscovy Court,” in G. H. Gater and Walter H. Godfrey, eds., Survey of London: Volume 15, All Hallows, Barking-By-The-Tower, Pt II (London: London City Council, 1934), 4–6.

² Richard Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher: In Search of a Passage to Cathaia and India by the North-West A.D. 1576–8 (1867; reprint, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 89.

³ Ibid.

⁴ Ibid.

⁵ T. S. Willan, The Muscovy Merchants of 1555 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1953), 78; 98.

⁶ “The first voyage made by Master William Towerson Marchant of London, to the coast of Guinea, with two Ships, in the yeere 1555,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 6:177–211; 201.

⁷ Brian Dietz, ed., The Port and Trade of Early Elizabethan London Documents (London: London Record Society, 1972), 43–44; 49.

⁸ R. C. D. Baldwin, “Stephen Borough (1525–1584), explorer and naval administrator,” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

⁹ Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 87; J. B. Heath, ed., An account of the materials furnished for the use of Queen Anne Boleyn and the Princess Elizabeth, by William Loke, the King’s Mercer, Volume VII (London: Philobiblon Society, 1862–3), 10, 13: James McDermott, “Michael Lok, Mercer and Merchant Adventurer,” in Thomas Symons, ed., Meta Incognita: A Discourse of Discovery. Martin Frobisher’s Arcitice Expeditions, 1576–1578. 2 vols. (Hull, Quebec: Canadian Museum of `civilization, 1999), 1:119–146.

¹⁰ Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 87.

¹¹ “List of the Queen’s Navy, 20 Feb 1559–1560,” Calendar of State Papers Foreign: Elizabeth, Volume II, 1559–1560, ed. Joseph Stevenson (London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts & Green, 1865), cxxviii–cxxix. The largest ship in the Queen’s navy of 34 vessels was the Mary Rose, at 600 tons.

¹² Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 88.

¹³ Willan, The Muscovy Merchants, 108–9.

¹⁴ “The second voyage to Guinea set out by Sir George Barne, Sir John Yorke, Thomas Lok, Anthonie Hickman and Edward Castelin, in the yeere 1554. The Captaine whereof was M. John Lok,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 6:154–77.

¹⁵ Willan, The Early History of the Russia Company, 287.

¹⁶ “The 26 Januarye 1578. Michaell Lok Saluteth the Worshipfull Commyssioners and Auditors of his Accounts of the iij Voyages of C. Furbisher,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 332–343; 334.

¹⁷ James McDermott, Martin Frobisher: Elizabethan Privateer (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), 7–12.

¹⁸ [Michael Lok], “East India by the Northwest[ward],” in Collinson, Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 79–87; 80.

¹⁹ J. G. Elzinga, “Sir John Yorke (d. 1569), administrator,” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

²⁰ [Lok], “East India by the Northwest[ward],” in Collinson, Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 80.

²¹ “Declaration of Martin Frobisher,” in Joseph Stevenson, ed., Calendar of State Papers Foreign: Elizabeth, Volume 5, 1562 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1867), #102, 53.

²² R. G. Marsden, “The Early Career of Martin Frobisher,” The English Historical Review 21, no. 83 (1906): 538–44; McDermott, Martin Frobisher: Elizabethan Privateer, 56–76.

²³ “Michaell Lok Saluteth the Worshipfull Commyssioners,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 334.

²⁴ Richard Willes, The History of Travayle in the West and East Indies, and other countreys lying eyther way, towards the fruitfull and tythe Moluccaes. As Moscouia, Persia, Arabia, Syria, AEgypte, Ethiopia, Guineas, China in Cathayo, and Giapan: With a discourse of the Northwest passage. Gathered in parte, and done into Englyshe by Richard Eden. Newly set in order, augmented, and finished by Richarde Willes (London: Richard Jugge, 1577), 233.

²⁵ George Best, A True Discourse of the Late Voyages of Discoverie for Finding of a Passage to Cathaya (London: Henry Bynnyman, 1578), in Collinson, Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 70. All the quotes in this and the next paragraph are taken from this page.

²⁶ Collinson, Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 89.

²⁷ Ibid., 89.

²⁸ Best, A True Discourse, in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 70–71; Simon Adams, “Ambrose Dudley, Earl of Warwick (c.1530–1590), magnate,” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

²⁹ G. C. Williamson, Lady Anne Clifford, Countess of Dorset, Pembroke & Montgomery, 1590–1676: Her Life, Letters and Work Extracted from all the original documents available, many of which are here printed for the first time (Kendal: Titus Wilson and Sons, 1922), 37; Simon Adams, “Anne Dudley [née Russell], countess of Warwick (1548/9–1604), courtier,” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

³⁰ “For M. Cap. Furbyshers Passage by the Northwest,” in Willes, History of Travayle, 230–36.

³¹ “Michaell Lok Saluteth the Worshipfull Commyssioners,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 334.

³² [Lok], “East India by the Northwest[ward],” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 79.

³³ “Michaell Lok Saluteth the Worshipfull Commyssioners,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 334.

³⁴ “Accounts, with subsidiary documents, of Michael Lok, treasurer, of first, second and third voyages of Martin Frobisher to Cathay by the north-west passage”: The National Archives (Kew), E 164/35, fo. 2.

³⁵ Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 89–90.

³⁶ Willan, The Muscovy Merchants, 81.

³⁷ Stow, Survey of London, 1:172–173; Philip Norman and W. D. Caroe, “The Architecture of Crosby Hall,” in Survey of London Monograph 9, Crosby Place (London: Guild & School of Handicraft, 1908), 57–63.

³⁸ Peter Ackroyd, The Life of Thomas More (London: Chatto & Windus, 1998), 234–35; Philip Norman and W. D. Caroe, “The History of Crosby Place,” in Survey of London Monograph 9, Crosby Place, 15–32.

³⁹ Ann Saunders, “The Building of the Exchange,” in Ann Saunders, ed., The Royal Exchange (London: London Topographical Society, Publication No. 152, 1997), 36–47.

⁴⁰ “Michaell Lok Saluteth the Worshipfull Commyssioners,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 335.

⁴¹ T. S. Willan, Studies in Elizabethan Foreign Trade (1959; repr. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1968), 148.

⁴² “Michaell Lok Saluteth the Worshipfull Commyssioners,” in Collinson, Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 335 (“took pains,” “received such money,” “take charge,” and “very little credit”); 336 (“merchant and purser” and “did satisfy”).

⁴³ Deborah E. Harkness, The Jewel House. Elizabethan London and the Scientific Revolution (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007).

⁴⁴ Margaret Blatcher, “Chatham dockyard and a little-known shipwright, Matthew Baker (1530–1613),” Archaeologia Cantiana 107 (1989): 155–72; James McDermott, “Matthew Baker (1529/30–1613, shipwright,” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

⁴⁵ Nicholas Popper, “The English Polydaedali: How Gabriel Harvey Read Late Tudor London,” Journal of the History of Ideas 66, no. 3 (2005): 351–81; 380.

⁴⁶ James McDermott, “Humphrey Cole and the Frobisher Voyages,” in Silke Ackermann, ed., Humphrey Cole: Mint, Measurement and Maps in Elizabethan England (London: British Museum Press, Occasional Paper No. 126, 1998), 15–19.

⁴⁷ N. A. M. Rodger, The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660–1649 (London: HarperCollins Publishers, 1997), 234–36.

⁴⁸ Dr. J. Hamel and John Studdy Leigh (trans.), Early English Voyages to Northern Russia; comprising the Voyages of John Tradescent the Elder, Sir Hugh Willoughby, Richard Chancellor, Nelson, and Others (London: Richard Bentley, 1857), 24.

⁴⁹ Sir James Watt, “The Medical Record of the Frobisher Voyages of 1576, 1577 and 1578,” in Symons, ed., Meta Incognita 2:607–32; 613.

⁵⁰ Ibid., 610–12.

⁵¹ Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 90. Lok mentions “Stephen” Borough rather than “William” Borough. But this is probably an error, given Stephen’s earlier skepticism and William’s active involvement in the preparations.

⁵² Ibid., 90. Also: “Michaell Lok Saluteth the Worshipfull Commyssioners,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 334.

7. THE SUPPOSED STRAIT

¹ Christopher Hall, “The First Voyage of M. Martin Frobisher, to the Northwest, for the search of the straight or passage to China, written by Christopher Hall, Master of the Gabriel, and made in the yeere of our Lord 1576,” in Vilhjalmur Stefansson, ed., The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 2 vols. (London: The Argonaut Press, 1938; in Amsterdam: N. Israel and New York: Da Capo Press, 1971), 1:147–54; 149.

² [Lok], “East India by the Northwest[ward],” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 80; Hall, “The First Voyage of M. Martin Frobisher,” in Stefansson, ed., Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 1:150.

³ Frobisher and Hall to Dee, 1576, excerpted in Taylor, Tudor Geography 1485–1583, 262–63.

⁴ Hall, “The First Voyage of M. Martine Frobisher,” in Stefansson, ed., The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 1:151.

⁵ Helen Wallis, “England’s Search for the Northern Passages in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries,” Arctic 37, no. 4 (1984): 453–72; 463.

⁶ Best, A True Discourse, in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 71 (“swallowed up” and “cast away”); [Lok], “East India by the Northwest[ward],” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 81.

⁷ Ibid., 72 (“extreme foul weather”); 70 (“undone,” “determined and resolved,” and “or else never to return”).

⁸ Ibid., 71 (“high and ragged land”); 72 (“Queen Elizabeth’s Forland” and “conceived no small hope”).

⁹ Ibid., 73.

¹⁰ Hall, “The First Voyage of M. Martine Frobisher,” in Stefansson, ed., Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 1:153.

¹¹ Ibid., 1:154.

¹² [Lok], “East India by the Northwest[ward],” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 83–84.

¹³ Ibid., 84.

¹⁴ Best, A True Discourse, in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 73.

¹⁵ Ibid., 74.

¹⁶ Ibid., 75.

¹⁷ [Lok], “East India by the Northwest[ward],” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 87.

¹⁸ “Accounts, with subsidiary documents, of Michael Lok, treasurer, of first, second and third voyages of Martin Frobisher to Cathay by the north-west passage”: The National Archives (Kew), E 164/35, fo. 14; the globe or “sphere” cost 8 shillings. Also: Kenneth R. Andrews, Trade, Plunder and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire, 1480–1630 (1984; repr., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 173.

¹⁹ “Michaell Lok Saluteth the Worshipfull Commyssioners,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 336.

²⁰ Alden T. Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters: American Indians in Britain, 1500–1776 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 1–4.

²¹ Best, A True Discourse, in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 74 (“new pray,” “strange infidel”); [Lok], “East India by the Northwest[ward],” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 87.

²² [Lok], “East India by the Northwest[ward],” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 87.

²³ Ibid., 87.

²⁴ Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters, 3.

²⁵ “Articles of Graunt from the Queene’s Majestie to the Companye of Kathai,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 111–113: 111.

²⁶ Ibid., 113 (“High Admiral”, “wares”); 112 (“to seek, discover”). Also, “Articles consented and fully agreed by the Company of Kathaye,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 114–115.

²⁷ “Articles consented and fully agreed by the Company of Cathay”, in Calendar of State Papers Colonial, East Indies, China and Japan: 1513–1616, ed. W. Noel Sainsbury (London: Longman, Green, Longman & Roberts, 1862), #31, 16–17.

²⁸ Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 91.

²⁹ Sir Humphrey Gilbert, A Discourse of a Discoverie for a New Passage to Cataia (London: Henry Middleton, 1576), in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:129–64; 134.

³⁰ Ibid., 135.

³¹ Ibid., 1:160–61. The quotes in this and the next paragraph are taken from these pages.

³² John Roche Dasent, ed., Acts of the Privy Council of England Volume IX, 1575–1577 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1894), 302–3.

³³ McDermott, Martin Frobisher: Elizabethan Privateer, 149.

³⁴ Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters, 3–4.

³⁵ Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 110.

³⁶ Ibid., 108–9.

8. TRESOR TROUVEE

¹ The story of the assaying business is told in Lok’s letter of April 22, 1577, “Mr. Lockes Discoors Touching the Ewre, 1577,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 92–99; 92.

² Donald D. Hogarth, Peter W. Boreham, and John G. Mitchell, Martin Frobisher’s Northwest Venture, 1576–1581. Mines, Minerals, Metallurgy (Hull, Quebec: Canadian Museum of Civilzation, 1994), 21.

³ “Mr. Lockes Discoors,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 92. Williams and another assayer, Wheeler, said the stone was “markesyte.”

⁴ William M. Jones, “Two Learned Italians in Elizabethan England,” Italica 32, no. 4 (1955): 242–47; 245–46.

⁵ “Mr. Lockes Discoors,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 93.

⁶ Ibid., 93 (“own use”; “the new land”; “desirous to know”).

⁷ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” March 31, 1578, in Calendar of Letters and State Papers Relating to English Affairs, preserved principally in the archives of Simancas, Volume 2, Elizabeth: 1568–1579, ed. Martin A. S. Hume (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1894), #484, 567–69; 568.

⁸ “Mr. Lockes Discoors,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 92–99.

⁹ John Cooper, The Queen’s Agent. Francis Walsingham at the Court of Elizabeth I (London: Faber and Faber, 2012), 26–33 (exile); 39 (elected M.P.); 42, 49 (work with Cecil); 59 (ambassador).

¹⁰ Ibid., 86–87 (sworn in as Secretary of State); 92 (spymaster).

¹¹ “Mr. Lockes Discoors,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 94.

¹² M. R. P. and P. W. Hasler, “William Wynter (c.1528–89), of Deptford, Kent, and Lydney, Glos.,” in P. W. Hasler, ed., The History of Parliament: The House of Commons 1558–1603 (London: History of Parliament Trust, 1981; online edition).

¹³ For Cecil’s meetings with Agnello, see Harkness, The Jewel House, 142–43, 282n1.

¹⁴ Hogarth et al., Martin Frobisher’s Northwest Venture, 73; James W. Scott, “Technological and Economic Changes in the Metalliferous Mining and Smelting Industries of Tudor England,” Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies 4, no. 2 (1972): 94–110; 100; Robert Baldwin, “Speculative Ambitions and the Reputations of Frobisher’s Metallurgists,” in Thomas Symons, ed., Meta Incognita, 2:401–476; 405–406.

¹⁵ “Mr. Lockes Discoors,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 97–98.

¹⁶ See “A Brieff Note of all the Cost and Charge… for the First Voyage… in June, Anno 1567,” and “The Bryef Account of the Second Voyage,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 115–16 and 166–67, respectively. Lok notes the “whole stok of the adventurers” to be £875 in June 1576 (116) and the sum he’s received “of all the venturers” to be £5,150 (166). By March, some forty-five investors had pledged £3,225, meaning that another £1,925 was raised after news of gold was circulated.

¹⁷ See Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 107, 109.

¹⁸ M. B. Donald, Elizabethan Copper. The History of the Company of Mines Royal, 1568–1605 (London: Pergamon Press, 1955), 43–47 (Duckett); 52–55 (Wynter).

¹⁹ Cecil T. Carr, ed., Select Charters of Trading Companies, A.D. 1530–1707 (London: Bernard Quartich, 1913), 16–20. Also: M. B. Donald, Elizabethan Monopolies: The History of the Company of Mineral and Battery Works from 1765 to 1604 (London: Oliver & Boyd, 1961), 17–18.

²⁰ Scott, The Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish and Irish Joint-Stock Companies to 1720, 1:39–40; 104.

²¹ Carr, ed., Select Charters, 4. Also, Donald, Elizabethan Copper, 15–42.

²² Ibid., 16. Also, Donald, Elizabethan Monopolies, 24–34.

²³ Martin Lynch, Mining in World History (London: Reaktion Books, 2002), 16.

²⁴ Georgius Agricola, De Re Metallica, trans. Herbert Clark Hoover and Lou Henry Hoover (New York: Dover Publications Inc., 1950), xxvi.

²⁵ Ibid., 33 (“obtain”); 38 (frost); 20 (physicians).

²⁶ “Wm. Humfrey to Sir Wm. Cecill,” June 30, 1566, in CSP-Domestic, 1547–1580, vol. 40, #17, 275.

²⁷ “Thos. Thurland to [Cecil],” August 1, 1566, in ibid., vol. 40, #41, 276.

²⁸ Douglas Grant, “The Sixth Duke of Somerset, Thomas Robinson and the Newlands Mines,” in Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmoreland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society, Series 2, vol. 85, 1985, 143–62.

²⁹ Lynch, Mining in World History, 28. For a remarkable account of Cortés’s exploits in Mexico see Bernal Díaz, The Conquest of New Spain, ed. and trans. J. M. Cohen (London: Penguin Books, 1963).

³⁰ For discussion of the establishment of Spanish mining activity in the New World, see Lynch, Mining in World History, 25–29.

³¹ Peter Bakewell, Miners of the Red Mountain: Indian Labor in Potosí, 1545–1650 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2009), 8.

³² Lynch, Mining in World History, 38.

³³ See Bakewell, Miners of the Red Mountain, 15–17. Quechua was a dialect spoken by some Incas of the period. It is still spoken today.

³⁴ Ibid., 16–17.

³⁵ Bartolomé Arzáns de Orsúa Vela, Tales of Potosí, ed. R.C. Padden and trans. Frances M. López-Morillas (Providence, RI: Brown University Press, 1975), xi; xiii.

³⁶ Ibid., xiv.

³⁷ Lynch, Mining in World History, 38. By 1611, it would boast a population of 100,000: Vela, Tales of Potosí, xiii.

³⁸ Vela, Tales of Potosí, xxv.

³⁹ For a discussion of the Spanish fleet, see Timothy R. Walton, The Spanish Treasure Fleets (Sarasota, FL: Pineapple Press Inc., 1994), 47.

⁴⁰ Ibid., 51.

⁴¹ Gwendolin B. Cobb, “Supply and Transportation for the Potosí Mines,” The Hispanic American Historical Review 29, no. 1 (1949): 25–45; 34.

⁴² D. B. Quinn, “Some Spanish Reactions to Elizabethan Colonial Enterprises,” in Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 1 (1951): 1–21; 2.

⁴³ Fernand Braudel, The Wheels of Commerce: Civilization & Capitalism, 15th–18th Century, Volume 2, trans. Siân Reynolds (New York: Harper & Row, 1982; First Perennial Library edition, 1986), 198.

⁴⁴ Lynch, Mining in World History, 14–15; Braudel, Wheels of Commerce, 198.

⁴⁵ Braudel, The Wheels of Commerce, 198.

⁴⁶ Neil MacGregor, A History of the World in 100 Objects (London: Allen Lane, 2010), 516–22.

⁴⁷ “Instructions given to Martyne Ffurbisher, Gent., for orders to be observed in the viage nowe recommended to him for the North West parts and Cathay,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 117–120. Also, James McDermott, “The Company of Cathay: the financing and organising of the Frobisher voyages,” in Symons, ed., Meta Incognita, 1:147–178: 163.

⁴⁸ “A little bundle of the tryeing of ye Northwest ewre. By D. Burcot, Jonas Schütz, Baptista Agnillo, etc.,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 174–79; 175.

⁴⁹ “Instructions,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 119.

⁵⁰ Ibid.

⁵¹ George Best, “A True Reporte of such things as hapned in the second voyage of Captayne Frobysher, pretended for the discoverie of a new passage to cataya, China, and the East India, by the North West. Anno Do. 1577,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 121–57; 128.

⁵² “Names of the venturars,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 164.

⁵³ Best, “A True Reporte…,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 137.

⁵⁴ Ibid., 152.

⁵⁵ Charles Trice Martin, ed., “Journal of Sir Francis Walsingham from December 1570 to April 1583. From the original manuscript in the possession of Lieut.-Colonel Carew,” in The Camden Miscellany, vol. 6 (London: Camden Society, 1871), 1–99; 32.

⁵⁶ George Best, “The Thirde Voyage of Captaine Frobisher, pretended for the discoverie of Cataya, by Meta Incognita. Anno DO. 1578,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 225–89; 225.

⁵⁷ Ibid., 226.

⁵⁸ Entry for 28 November 1577 in James Orchard Halliwell, ed., The Private Diary of Dr John Dee and the Catalogue of his Library of Manuscripts, From the Original Manuscripts in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, and Trinity College Library, Cambridge (London: Camden Society, 1842), 4.

⁵⁹ Best, “A True Reporte…,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 122.

⁶⁰ McDermott, Frobisher: Elizabethan Privateer, 210.

⁶¹ Ibid., 459n23.

⁶² “Edward Fenton’s provisional list for the 1578 Colony,” in James McDermott, The Third Voyage of Martin Frobisher to Baffin Island, 1578 (London: Hakluyt Society, 2001), 66–69.

⁶³ Steuart A. Pears, The Correspondence of Sir Philip Sidney and Hubert Languet (London: William Pickering, 1845), xvi.

⁶⁴ Sir Philip Sidney to Hubert Languet, October 1, 1577, in Pears, The Correspondence of Sir Philip Sidney and Hubert Languet, 119.

⁶⁵ Hubert Languet to Sir Philip Sidney, November 28, 1577, in Pears, The Correspondence of Sir Philip Sidney and Hubert Languet, 124–25.

⁶⁶ McDermott, Frobisher: Elizabethan Privateer, 199.

⁶⁷ Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 199.

⁶⁸ “A Little Bundle,” in ibid., 177. The amount of time the workmen estimated for completion is not specified.

⁶⁹ “11 March, 1577. To the Lord Treasurer and Lord Chamberlayne abowt the North-West Viage,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 182.

⁷⁰ “All the stok of the venturers in all the iij voyages,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 358–59; 358.

⁷¹ Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” April 22, 1578, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 2, Elizabeth: 1568–1579, #489, 576.

⁷² Best, “The Thirde Voyage,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 232.

⁷³ Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, xii.

⁷⁴ John Roche Dasent, ed. Acts of the Privy Council of England, Volume XI, 1578–1580 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1895), 64–65.

⁷⁵ “The Humble Petition of Michael Lok for Charges Disbursed”, in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 349–50: 350.

⁷⁶ For matters touching Lok’s accounts of the Frobisher voyages and the trials of the ore, see “State Papers Subsequent to the Third Voyage,” in Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 317–63; 350.

⁷⁷ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” February 7, 1579, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 2, Elizabeth: 1568–1579, #549, 642.

⁷⁸ Robert McGhee, The Arctic Voyages of Martin Frobisher: An Elizabethan Adventure (Montreal: Canadian Museum of Civilization, 2001), 146.

9. ILANDISH EMPIRE

¹ Deborah E. Harkness, “Managing an Experimental Household: The Dees of Mortlake and the Practice of Natural Philosophy,” Isis, 88, no. 2 (1997): 247–62; 247.

² Glyn Parry, The Arch-Conjuror of England: John Dee (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013), 20.

³ Dee spent three thousand pounds: Suster, John Dee, 10, 15. According to the 1583 catalog, there were three to four thousand titles: William H. Sherman, John Dee: The Politics of Reading and Writing in the English Renaissance (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1995), 31. More than one hundred volumes were stolen in his lifetime and are now in the collection of the Royal College of Surgeons in London: see Katie Birkwood, “Scholar, Courtier, Magician: the Lost Library of John Dee,” in Commentary 6 (2015); 12–15. Cambridge University, by contrast, had 451 titles at the time. Suster, John Dee, 15.

⁴ Quinn, The Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:170–75. Quinn suggests that the signature is Gilbert’s, though the body of the text may not be his handwriting.

⁵ See the Oxford English Dictionary for “annoy,” definition 4a.

⁶ Suster, John Dee, 43.

⁷ Rappaport, Worlds Within Worlds, 7. See the Oxford English Dictionary definition 1a, http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/114675?rskey=DNowjO&result=1&isAdvanced=false#eid?? http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/114675?rskey=TAZ6Hz&result=1&isAdvanced=false.

⁸ “Sir Humfrey Gilbert to the Count Montgomery or Lord Burghley,” September 6, 1572, in Calendar of State Papers Foreign: Elizabeth, Volume 10, 1572–1574, ed. Allan James Crosby (London: Longman & Co, 1876), #556, 175.

⁹ “Petition of divers gentlemen of the West parts of England to the Queen,” in CSP-Domestic, 1547–1580, vol. 95, #63, 475.

¹⁰ Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:102.

¹¹ Geoffrey Parker, The Dutch Revolt (London: Pelican Books, 1979), 178.

¹² Jason Eldred, “The Just Will Pay for the Sinners: English Merchants, the Trade with Spain, and Elizabethan Foreign Policy, 1563–1585,” Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies 10, no. 1 (2010): 5–28; 9.

¹³ John Dee, General and Rare Memorials Pertayning to the Perfect Arte of Navigation (London: John Daye, 1577; Kessinger Legacy Reprint [facsimile], 2003, 10 (“Victorious British Monarchy,” “marvellous Security,” “wonderfully increase”); 28 (“New Foreign Discoveries,” “Ilandish Empire”).

¹⁴ David Armitage, The Ideological Origins of the British Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 42–43.

¹⁵ Dewar, Sir Thomas Smith, 48.

¹⁶ Entry for 28 November 1577 in Halliwell, ed., The Private Diary of Dr John Dee, 4. For the first two reports, see John Dee, The Limits of the British Empire, edited by Ken MacMillan with Jennifer Abeles (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004), 5, 10–13, 37–41.

¹⁷ Joseph H. Peterson, ed., John Dee’s Five Books of Mystery: Original Sourcebook of Enochian Magic (Boston: Weiserbooks, 2003), 8; Suster, John Dee, 55–6; Glynn Parry, “John Dee and the Elizabethan British Empire in Its European Context,” The Historical Journal, Vol. 49, No. 3 (2006), 643–75.

¹⁸ Humphrey Gilbert, “A Discourse how Hir Majestie May Annoy the King of Spayne,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:170.

¹⁹ “A letter written to M. Richard Hakluyt of the middle Temple, conteining a report of the true state and commodities of Newfoundland, by M. Anthonie Parkhurst Gentleman, 1578,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 8:9–16; 10–11.

²⁰ Ibid., 10.

²¹ Gilbert, “A Discourse how Hir Majestie may Annoy the King of Spayne,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:172–80: for this paragraph and the remaining paragraphs in this section.

²² Eldred, “The Just Will Pay for the Sinners,” 14. Also, Pauline Croft, “Trading with the Enemy, 1585-1604,” The Historical Journal 32, no. 2 (1989): 281–302.

²³ See Conyers Read, “Queen Elizabeth’s Seizure of the Duke of Alva’s Pay-Ships,” The Journal of Modern History 5, no. 4 (1933): 443–64; 443–46.

²⁴ Pauline Croft, “Introduction: The First Spanish Company, 1530–1585,” Pauline Croft, ed., The Spanish Company (London: London Record Society, 1973), vii–xxix; vi.

²⁵ Ibid., xiii–xiv.

²⁶ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” February 20, 1580, in Calendar of Letters and State Papers Relating to English Affairs preserved principally in the archives of Simancas, Volume 3, Elizabeth: 1580–1586, ed. Martin A. S. Hume (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1896), #6, 8–9; 8.

²⁷ John Dee, “Unto your Majesties Tytle Royall to these Forene Regions & Ilandes do appertayne 4 poyntes,” in Dee, The Limits of the British Empire, eds., MacMillan with Abeles, 18; 43.

²⁸ Ibid., 43–49.

²⁹ “11 June 1578. Letters Patent to Sir Humphrey Gilbert,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:188–94; 188.

³⁰ Ibid., 188–89.

³¹ Ibid., 191–92.

³² “Sir Humphrey Gylberte to Secretary Sir Francis Walsingham,” September 23, 1578, in Calendar of State Papers Colonial, America and West Indies: Volume 9, 1675–1676 and Addenda 1574–1674, ed. W. Noel Sainsbury (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1893), #4, 3.

³³ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” June 3, 1578, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 2, Elizabeth: 1568–1579, #503, 591.

³⁴ “Castelnau de Mauvissiere to Henry III, 7 July 1578,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:195–97; 195.

³⁵ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” May 16, 1578, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 2, Elizabeth: 1568–1579, #496, 583.

³⁶ For the list of investors, see Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:332–33.

³⁷ “20 December 1578. Sir John Gilbert to Sir Francis Walsingham,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:215.

³⁸ “Gylberte to Walsingham,” in CSP-Colonial, America & the West Indies, Volume 9, #4, 3.

³⁹ “Sir Humphrey Gilbert to Sir Francis Walsingham, 12 November 1578,” in CSP-Colonial, America & the West Indies, Volume 9, #5, 4.

⁴⁰ Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:44–45.

⁴¹ “The Privy Council Writes to the Sheriff Etc. of Devonshire, 28 May 1579,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:221–22; 222.

10. NOVA ALBION

¹ K. R. Andrews, “The Aims of Drake’s Expedition of 1577–1580,” The American Historical Review 73, no. 3 (1968): 724–41; 739.

² For Drake’s early life: John Sugden, Sir Francis Drake (London: Barrie & Jenkins, 1990; paperback ed., Pimlico, 2006), 1–38; Harry Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake: The Queen’s Pirate (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998), 3–39.

³ John Hawkins, “The third troublesome voyage made with the Jesus of Lubeck, the Minion, and foure other ships, to the parts of Guinea, and the West Indies, in the yeeres 1567 and 1568 by M. John Hawkins,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 10:64–74; 69.

⁴ Ibid., 71.

⁵ Ibid., 71 (“without mercy”); 72 (Minion and Judith’s escape).

⁶ E. G. R. Taylor, “The Missing Draft Project of Drake’s Voyage of 1577–80,” The Geographical Journal 75, no. 1 (1930): 46–47.

⁷ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” October 23, 1580, in CSP-Spain (Simancas) Volume 3, 1580–1586, #49, 60–62; 62.

⁸ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” October 16, 1580, in Martin A. S. Hume, ed., CSP-Spain (Simancas) Volume 3, 1580–1586, #44, 54–56; 54–55.

⁹ Ibid., 54–55.

¹⁰ For the two primary accounts of Drake’s voyage: Hakluyt’s account, see “The famous voyage of Sir Francis Drake into the South sea, and therehence about the whole Globe of the earth, begun in the yeere of our Lord, 1577,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 11:101–33; Fletcher’s account, see Francis Fletcher, The World Encompassed by Sir Francis Drake (1628; repr. Amsterdam: Da Capo Press, 1969). For Drake’s pace compared to Magellan, see A. L. Rowse, The Expansion of Elizabethan England (London: Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1955), 201.

¹¹ Fletcher, The World Encompassed, 35. For Drake’s prostration: James A. Williamson, ed., The Observations of Sir Richard Hawkins Knight, in his voyage into the South Sea, Anno Domini 1593 (London: The Argonaut Press, 1933), 96. For the penguins: Derek Wilson, The World Encompassed: Francis Drake and His Great Voyage (New York, Harper & Row, 1977), 97.

¹² Sugden, Sir Francis Drake, 128.

¹³ Fletcher, The World Encompassed, 64.

¹⁴ “The famous voyage of Sir Francis Drake,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 11:118–19.

¹⁵ In Hakluyt, “The famous voyage,” the latitude given is 43 degrees north (118). In Fletcher, it is 48 degrees north (64). Helen Wallis notes, “One of the most authoritative pieces of cartographic evidence, Molyneux’s terrestrial globe of 1592, supports the more northerly limit.” See her: “The Cartography of Drake’s voyages,” in Norman J.W. Thrower, Sir Francis and the Famous Voyage, 1577–1580 (Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1984), 121–163: 130.

¹⁶ Fletcher, The World Encompassed, 64; 67.

¹⁷ Ibid., 64. Exactly where this bay lies is a matter of heated debate, although the consensus is that it is, indeed, Drake’s Bay, just north of San Francisco.

¹⁸ Ibid., 69.

¹⁹ “The famous voyage,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 11:121–22. Also, Fletcher, The World Encompassed, 76.

²⁰ “The famous voyage,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 11:122. Also, Fletcher, The World Encompassed, 77.

²¹ “The famous voyage,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 11:123. Also, Fletcher, The World Encompassed, 80.

²² “The famous voyage,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 11:123.

²³ Fletcher, The World Encompassed, 85, 89; “The famous voyage,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 11:127; Wilson, The World Encompassed, 175.

²⁴ Sugden, Sir Francis Drake, 128.

²⁵ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” October 16, 1580, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 3, Elizabeth: 1580–1586, #44, 55.

²⁶ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” January 9, 1581, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 3, Elizabeth: 1580–1586, #60, 73–75; 74–75.

²⁷ “Letter from Queen Elizabeth to Edmund Tremayne ordering that the sum of £10,000 was to be left in the hands of Francis Drake,” 22 October 1580, in Zelia Nuttall, ed. and trans., New Light on Drake. A Collection of Documents Relating to his Voyage of Circumnavigation 1577–1580 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1914), 429–30.

²⁸ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” January 15, 1581, in Hume, ed., CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 3, Elizabeth, 1580–1586, #65, 80.

²⁹ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” April 6, 1581, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 3, Elizabeth, 1580–1586, #77, 93–95; 95.

³⁰ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” July 14, 1581, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 3, Elizabeth, 1580–1586, #113, 147–48.

³¹ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” November 7, 1581, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 3, Elizabeth, 1580–1586, #159, 208–9; 208.

³² “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” January 9, 1581, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 3, Elizabeth, 1580–1586, #60, 74 (“50,000 crowns”); 75 (“300 crowns”).

³³ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” October 20, 1581, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 3, Elizabeth, 1580–1586, #146, 185–90; 188, 190.

³⁴ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” October 16, 1580, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 3, Elizabeth, 1580–1586, #44, 56.

³⁵ “A Proiect of a Corporatyon of Soche as Shall Venteur vnto Soche Domynions and Contreys Sytuate Bayonde The Equynoctyall Line,” in Nuttall, ed. and trans., New Light on Drake, 430.

³⁶ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” October 16, 1580, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 3, Elizabeth, 1580–1586, #44, 55.

³⁷ Parker, Imprudent King: A New Life of Philip II (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014; paperback ed., 2015), 276.

³⁸ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” October 16, 1580, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 3, Elizabeth, 1580–1586, #44, 55–56.

³⁹ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” February 9, 1582, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 3, Elizabeth, 1580–1586, #211, 283–85; 283.

⁴⁰ Ibid., 285.

⁴¹ “Narrative of William Hawkins, 6 July 1583,” in E. G. R. Taylor, The Troublesome Voyage of Captain Edward Fenton 1582–1583 (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1959), 277–286; 278.

⁴² “Captain Edward Fenton to Lord Treasurer Burghley,” June 29, 1583, in CSP-Colonial, East Indies, Volume 2, 1513–1616, #225, 88–89.

⁴³ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” October 16, 1580, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 3, Elizabeth: 1580–1586, #44, 55.

⁴⁴ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” April 20, 1582, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 3, Elizabeth: 1580–1586, #248, 340–42; 341. Also in 1582, Spain learned the full story of Drake’s commercial deal with the Sultan from Francisco de Dueñas, a spy who was sent out to learn about the Portuguese-claimed Moluccas after Philip II seized control of the Portuguese throne. See Dueñas’s report: Henry R. Wagner, Sir Francis Drake’s Voyage Around The World: Its Aims and Achievements (San Francisco: John Howell, 1926), 180.

11. TO HEAVEN BY SEA

¹ “6 June 1582. Agreement between Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Sir George Peckham, and Sir Thomas Gerrard,” in David Beers Quinn, The Voyages and Colonising Enterprises of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, 2 vols. (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1940), 2:245–50; “9 June 1582. Agreement between Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Sir George Peckham and Sir Thomas Gerrard,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:256–57.

² “8 July 1582. Grant of authority by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Regarding his Rights in America, to Sir John Gilbert, Sir George Peckham and William Aucher,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:266–78; 276–77.

³ “Sir Humphrey Gylberte to Secretary Sir Francis Walsingham,” July 11, 1581, in CSP-Colonial, America and West Indies: Volume 9, Addenda 1574–1674, #12, 7–88; 7.

⁴ “7 July 1582. Agreement between Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Philip Sidney,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:260–66. Sidney seems to have got involved in or before May, when Hakluyt dedicated to him Divers Voyages, the book designed to promote Gilbert’s voyage.

⁵ “Don Bernardino de Mendoza to Philip II, 11 July 1582,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:278–79.

⁶ “6 June 1582. Agreement between Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Sir George Peckham, and Sir Thomas Gerrard,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:245–50.

⁷ James McDermott, “Sir George Peckham (d. 1608), colonial adventurer,” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:332, 334.

⁸ “Second book and offer of Sir Thomas Gerrarde and companions…,” in Hamilton, ed., CSP-Ireland, 1509–1573, #32, 428.

⁹ “Don Bernardino de Mendoza to Philip II, 11 July 1582,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:278.

¹⁰ Roger Bigelow Merriman, “Some Notes on the Treatment of English Catholics in the Reign of Elizabeth,” The American Historical Review 13, no. 3 (1908): 480–500; 493.

¹¹ Ibid. 494.

¹² Susan Brigden, New Worlds, Lost Worlds. The Rule of the Tudors, 1485–1603 (London: Penguin Books, 2001), 216.

¹³ James Ellison, “‘Measure for Measure’ and the Execution of Catholics in 1604,” English Literary Renaissance 33, no. 1 (2003): 44–87; 53.

¹⁴ For the land grants, see Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:60n (all land grants); 2:245–50 (first land grant); 2:256–57 (second land grant); 2:341–46 (third land grant). For an additional grant of 500,000 acres to Peckham: 2:250–54.

¹⁵ “[June 1582]. Petition of Sir George Peckham and Sir Thomas Gerrard to Sir Francis Walsingham,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:255–56.

¹⁶ “Don Bernardino de Mendoza to Philip II, 11 July 1582,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:278–279.

¹⁷ “John Dee’s Dealings with Sir George Peckham, 16 July 1582,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:280.

¹⁸ Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:62–64.

¹⁹ Richard Hakluyt, “A Discourse of the Commodity of the Taking of the Straight of Magellanus,” in E. G. R. Taylor, ed., The Original Writings and Correspondence of the Two Richard Hakluyts, 2 vols. (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1935), 1:139–46; 140.

²⁰ Richard Hakluyt, “The Epistle Dedicatorie in the First Edition, 1589. To the Right Honorable Sir Francis Walsingham Knight, Principall Secretarie to her Majestie, Chancellor of the Duchie of Lancaster, and one of her Majesties most honourable Privie Councell,” in Richard Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 1:xvii–xxii; xvii.

²¹ Richard Hakluyt, “Epistle Dedicatorie in the First Edition, 1589,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 1:xviii.

²² Richard Hakluyt, Divers Voyages Touching the Discovery of America and the Islands Adjacent, ed. John Winter Jones (London: Hakluyt Society, 1850), title page (“1582”); 8 (Philip Sidney).

²³ Ibid., 8.

²⁴ Ibid., 9.

²⁵ Ibid., 8.

²⁶ Ibid., 18.

²⁷ “A letter of Sir Francis Walsingham to M. Richard Hakluyt then of Christchurch in Oxford, incouraging him in the study of Cosmographie, and of furthering new discoveries, &c,” in Richard Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 8:131.

²⁸ See “8 July 1582. Grant of Authority by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Regarding His Rights in America, to Sir John Gilbert, Sir George Peckham and William Aucher,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:266–278; 274–75.

²⁹ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” April 26, 1582, in CSP-Spain (Simancas) Volume 3, Elizabeth: 1580–1586, #254, 349.

³⁰ The adventurers in Gilbert’s voyage are listed in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:329–33.

³¹ As Quinn puts it: “It is safe to say that the expedition was under-capitalized,” Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:81–2.

³² “Sir Humphrey Gylberte to Sec. Sir Francis Walsingham,” February 7, 1583, in CSP-Colonial: America and West Indies, vol. 9, #21, 17–18; 17.

³³ Walter Ralegh to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, 16 March 1583, in Quinn, ed., Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:348.

³⁴ Quinn, England and the Discovery of America, 228–30; Edward Hayes, “[October 1583?] Edward Hayes’ Narrative of Sir Humphrey Gilbert’s Last Expedition,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:385–423.

³⁵ Hayes, “Gilbert’s Last Expedition,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:396.

³⁶ Ibid., 2:397.

³⁷ Ibid., 2:402–3.

³⁸ See Ken MacMillan, “Sovereignty ‘More Plainly Described’: Early English Maps of North America, 1580–1625 ,” Journal of British Studies 42, no. 4 (2003): 413–47; 428.

³⁹ Hayes, “Gilbert’s Last Expedition,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:408.

⁴⁰ Ibid., 2:415.

⁴¹ Ibid., 2:419.

⁴² Ibid., 2:420. For the link to More, see: J. Holland Rose, “The Spirit of Adventure,” in The Cambridge History of the British Empire, Volume I, The Old Empire from the Beginnings to 1783, eds. J. Holland Rose, A. P. Newton, and E. A. Benians (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1929), 93–114; 107.

⁴³ Winston S. Churchill, A History of the English-Speaking Peoples. Volume II: The New World (London: Cassell & Co., 1956; paperback edition, Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), 98.

12. WESTERN PLANTING

¹ George Peckham, “A True Reporte, Of the late discoveries, and possession, taken in the right of the Crowne of Englande, of the Newfound Landes: By that valiaunt and worthye Gentleman, Sir Humfrey Gilbert Knight,” in Quinn, The Voyages and Colonising Enterprises of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, 2:435–80.

² Christopher Carleill, “A Briefe and Summary Discourse upon the Intended Voyage to the Hithermost Parts of America, April 1583,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:351–64. A second edition was published in late 1583 or early 1584: David B. Quinn, ed., New American World, 5 vols. (New York: Arno Press and Hector Bye, 1979), 3:262–63. For Carleill’s deliberations with the Muscovy Company: Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:365–69.

³ Thomas Fuller, The History of the Worthies of England: A New Edition, ed. P. Austin Nuttall, 3 vols. (London: Thomas Tegg, 1890), 2:419.

⁴ Victor von Klarwill, ed., Queen Elizabeth and Some Foreigners Being a series of hitherto unpublished letters from the archives of the Hapsburg family. Authorized translation by Professor T.H. Nash (London: John Lane, The Bodley Head, 1928), 338.

⁵ Robert Naunton, Fragmenta Regalia; or Observations on Queen Elizabeth, Her Times and Favourites, ed. John S. Cerovski (Washington, DC: Folger Books, 1985), 73.

⁶ Aubrey, Brief Lives, ed. Clark, 2: 180 (“proper”), 184 (“white satin”), 182 (“trunk of books”); Naunton, Fragmenta Regalia, 73 (“an indefatigable reader”); John Aubrey, Brief Lives by John Aubrey, ed. Richard Barber (London: The Folio Society, 1975), 265 (“loved a wench” and “up against a tree”).

⁷ “[Sir Henry] Wallop to Burghley,” February 11, 1582, in Calendar of State Papers relating to Ireland, of the Reign of Elizabeth, Volume II: 1574–1585, ed. Hans Claude Hamilton (London: Longmans, Green, Reader, & Dyer, 1867), vol. 139, #26, 349.

⁸ Mark Nicholls and Penry Williams, Sir Walter Raleigh in Life and Legend (London: Continuum International Publishing, 2011), 29–30.

⁹ Aubrey, Brief Lives, ed. Clark, 2:183.

¹⁰ John W. Shirley, Thomas Harriot: A Biography (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), 51–52.

¹¹ “Sir Edward Stafford to Walsingham,” September 29, 1583, in Calendar of State Papers Foreign: Elizabeth, Volume 18, July 1583–July 1584, ed. Sophie Crawford Lomas (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1914), #138, 117–18.

¹² “Richard Hakluyt, Preacher [with Sir Edward Stafford], to Sec. Sir Francis Walsingham,” January 7, 1584, in CSP-Colonial, America and West Indies, vol. 9, #31, 24; David B. Quinn, ed., The Hakluyt Handbook, 2 vols. (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1974), 1:280–84.

¹³ “Hakluyt to Walsingham,” January 7, 1584, in CSP-Colonial, America and West Indies, Volume 9, #31, 24; Quinn, ed., Hakluyt Handbook, 1:284.

¹⁴ Richard Hakluyt, A Particular Discourse Concerning the Greate Necessitie and Manifolde Commodyties That Are Like to Growe to This Realm of Englande by the Western Discoveries Lately Attempted, ed. David B. Quinn and Alison M. Quinn (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1993), 12–15. The rest of the section is based on this publication: 16–28 (“commodities”); 28–35 (“employments”); 43 (“mortally hate”); 44 (“laughing stock”); 76 (“fair”) and (“doubtful friends”).

¹⁵ “‘Articles out of Walter Raleigh’s Letters Patent,’” March 25, 1584, in Sainsbury, ed., CSP-Colonial, America and West Indies, vol. 9, #33, 26.

¹⁶ Klarwill, ed., Queen Elizabeth and Some Foreigners, 323.

¹⁷ “Arthur Barlowe’s Discourse of the First Voyage,” in David Beers Quinn, The Roanoke Voyages 1584–1590, 2 vols. (London: Hakluyt Society, 1955), 1:91–116; 1:94 (claimed possession); 96–7 (“goodly woods”, “reddest cedars”); 108 (“earth bringeth”). Also, David Beers Quinn, Set Fair for Roanoke: Voyages and Colonies, 1584–1606 (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 28–29.

¹⁸ Ibid., 1:99 (“Winganacoia”); 98 (“shirt”); 101 (“tin dish”).

¹⁹ Ibid., 1:108.

²⁰ Ibid., 1:106 (Roanoke); 115 (“fertile”), (“goodly cedars”), (“sweet woods”).

²¹ David Beers Quinn, “Preparations for the 1585 Virginia Voyage,” The William and Mary Quarterly 6, no. 2 (1949): 208–36; 230. Also Simonds d’Ewes, The Journals of All the Parliaments during the Reign of Queen Elizabeth (Shannon, Ire: Irish University Press, 1682), 339–341.

²² Shirley, Thomas Harriot, 100–105.

²³ Ibid., 107–12; Alden T. Vaughan, “Sir Walter Ralegh’s Indian Interpreters, 1584–1618,” The William and Mary Quarterly 59, no. 2 (2002): 341–76; 347.

²⁴ Ruth A. McIntyre, “William Sanderson: Elizabethan Financier of Discovery,” The William and Mary Quarterly 13, no. 2 (1956), 184–201; 189.

²⁵ For Walsingham’s inheritance of Muscovy Company shares, his licenses, and his profits from Drake’s voyage: Conyers Read, Mr. Secretary Walsingham and the policy of Queen Elizabeth, 3 vols. (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1925), 3:370–71, 381–82, 394–96.

²⁶ Peckham, “A True Report,” in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 2:466.

²⁷ Anthony Bagot, cited in A. L. Rowse, Ralegh and the Throckmortons (London: Macmillan & Co., 1962), 139n1.

²⁸ Rowse, A. L., Sir Richard Grenville of the Revenge. An Elizabethan Hero (London: Jonathan Cape, 1937), 26–47; 83–112.

²⁹ Richard Hakluyt, “Inducements to the Liking of the Voyage intended towards Virginia in 40 and 42. degrees of latitude, written 1585,” in Taylor, The Original Writings, 2:327–38; 338.

³⁰ Quinn, Set Fair for Roanoke, 23, 183–84.

³¹ “Ralegh on the naming of ‘Wingandacon,’” in Quinn, Roanoke Voyages, 1:116–17; 117.

³² “Ralph Lane to Sir Francis Walsingham, 12 August 1585,” in Quinn, Roanoke Voyages, 1: 199–204; 201.

³³ Nicholas Hilliard, cited in Kim Sloan, “Knowing John White: The Courtier’s ‘Curious and Gentle Art of Limning,’” in Kim Sloan, ed., A New World: England’s First View of America (London: British Museum Press, 2007), 23–37; 29.

³⁴ Kim Sloan, “John White’s Watercolours of the North Carolina Algonquians,” in Sloan, ed., A New World, 107.

³⁵ Christian F. Freest, “John White’s New World,” in Sloan, ed., A New World, 65–78; 68.

³⁶ For Harriot’s commercial and ethnographical study: Harriot, “A Brief and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia (1588),” in Quinn, Roanoke Voyages, 1:317–87.

³⁷ “Lane to Walsingham, 12 August 1585,” in Quinn, Roanoke Voyages, 1:199 (“kingdom”); 200 (“Nature”) and (“vast and huge”); 203 (“lose,” “noble,” “worthy,” “conquest”).

³⁸ “Ralph Lane to Sir Philip Sidney,” August 12, 1585, in Quinn, Roanoke Voyages, 1:204–6; Ralph Lane, “An account of the particularities of the imployments of the English men left in Virginia by Sir Richard Greenevill under the charge of Master Ralfe Lane,” in Quinn, Roanoke Voyages, 1:255–94; 273.

³⁹ “A summarie and true discourse of sir Francis Drakes West Indian voyage, begun in the yeere 1858. Wherein were taken the cities of Sant Iago, Santo Domingo, Cartagena, and the towne of Saint Augustine in Florida; Published by M. Thomas Cates,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 10:97–134.

⁴⁰ Ibid., 131.

⁴¹ Quinn, Roanoke Voyages, 1:469.

13. PRINCIPAL NAVIGATIONS

¹ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” June 9, 1586, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 3, Elizabeth: 1580–1586, #444, 583–84; 583.

² Kenneth R. Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering: English Privateering during the Spanish War, 1585–1604 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1964), 4–5.

³ “Bernardino de Mendoza to the King,” November 8, 1586, in CSP-Spain (Simancas), Volume 3, Elizabeth: 1580–1586, #503, 648–50; 649.

⁴ Mark Nicholls and Penry Williams, Sir Walter Raleigh in Life and Legend (London: Continuum International Publishing, 2011), 32.

⁵ “Lord Deputy Perrot to the Privy Council,” January 31, 1585/6, in Calendar of State Papers relating to Ireland, of the Reign of Elizabeth, 1586–1588, July, ed. Hans Claude Hamilton (London: Longman & Co., 1877), vol. 122, #59, 16–19; 16, 17.

⁶ “Note of the profit and advancement that may grow to the younger houses of English gentlemen by planting in Munster,” December 1585, in CSP-Ireland, 1574–1585, vol. 121, #61, 590.

⁷ “Mr. George Carew to [Walsyngham],” February 27, 1585/6, in CSP-Ireland, 1586–1588, July, vol. 122, #86, 33.

⁸ David B. Quinn, Ralegh and the British Empire (Harmondsworth: Pelican Books, 1973), 106–7.

⁹ “20 February 1591. The Case of the Cape Merchant, Thomas Harvey,” in Quinn, The Roanoke Voyages, 1:232–34.

¹⁰ Harriot, “A Briefe and True Reporte,” in Quinn, Roanoke Voyages, 1:322–23.

¹¹ Lane, “An account,” in Quinn, Roanoke Voyages, 1:256–57, 273–75.

¹² “22 February 1587. Dedication by Richard Hakluyt to Raleigh,” in Quinn, Roanoke Voyages, 2:514–15.

¹³ “The fourth voyage made to Virginia with three ships, in the yere 1587. Wherein was transported the second Colonie,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 8:386–402; 386.

¹⁴ Ibid., 391.

¹⁵ “John White’s Narrative of His Voyuage” in Quinn, Roanoke Voyages, 2:533 (“great discredit”); 2:534 (“stuff and goods”); 2:535 (“extreme intreating”).

¹⁶ “A briefe relation of the notable service performed by Sir Francis Drake upon the Spanish Fleete prepared in the Road of Cadiz… in the yeere 1587,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 6:438–43; 438.

¹⁷ Ibid., 439.

¹⁸ De Lamar Jensen, “The Spanish Armada: The Worst-Kept Secret in Europe,” The Sixteenth Century Journal 19, no. 4 (1988): 621–41; 636.

¹⁹ Quinn, Roanoke Voyages, 2:567.

²⁰ Susan Brigden, New World, Lost Worlds. The Rule of the Tudors, 1485–1603 (London: Penguin Books, 2001), 291.

²¹ “Gold and Ruby Salamander Pendant,” in the Ulster Museum Collections, World Cultures; National Museums of Northern Ireland, 2014, https://nmni.com/um/Collections/World-Cultures/The-Armada-Collection .

²² Roy Strong, Gloriana: The Portraits of Queen Elizabeth I (London: Thames & Hudson, 1987), 131–33.

²³ Neil MacGregor, Shakespeare’s Restless World (London: Allen Lane, 2013), 16.

²⁴ Hakluyt, “The Epistle Dedicatorie in the First Edition, 1589: To the Right Honorable Sir Francis Walsingham,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 1:xviii–xix.

²⁵ “Richard Hakluyt to the favourable Reader,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 1:xxiii–xxiv.

²⁶ Quinn, Hakluyt Handbook, 1:289 (Spanish soldier: July 1586); 290 (Ralegh: December 1586; Grenville: 1596–9); 294–5 (Spanish and Portuguese documents, c. 1587 and after); 302 (Frobisher: c. 1589; Jenkinson, c. 1589; Butts: c. 1589).

²⁷ Ibid., 265–331; 313.

²⁸ Hakluyt, “The Epistle Dedicatorie,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 1:xix.

²⁹ Quinn, Hakluyt Handbook, 1:101–3.

³⁰ Hakluyt, “The Epistle Dedicatorie,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 1:xxii.

³¹ Quinn, Hakluyt Handbook, 1:226–27.

³² E.K. Chambers, William Shakespeare: A Study of Facts and Problems, vol. 1 (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1930), 270.

³³ Hakluyt, “The Epistle Dedicatorie,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 1:xx.

³⁴ “7 March 1589. Agreement between Sir Walter Raleigh, Thomas Smythe etc., and John White etc, for the continuance of the City of Raleigh venture,” in Quinn, Roanoke Voyages, 2:569–76.

³⁵ Quinn, Set Fair for Roanoke, 311–12.

³⁶ “To the Worshipful and my very friend Master Richard Hakluyt,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 8:404–6; 405.

³⁷ “The fifth voyage of M. John White into the West Indies and parts of America called Virginia, in the yeere 1590,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 8:406–22; 414.

³⁸ Ibid., 416 (“curiously carved,” “fair Roman letters,” “secret token,” “signify the place”); 418 (“the place where Manteo”); 417 (“a Cross,” “taken down”); 418 (“torn from the covers,” “almost eaten through,” “goods”).

³⁹ On White living on Ralegh’s Ireland estate, see Nicholas Canny, “Raleigh’s Ireland,” in H. G. Jones, ed., Raleigh and Quinn: The Explorer and His Boswell (Chapel Hill: North Caroliniana Society, 1987), 87–101; 95.

⁴⁰ [White], “To the Worshipful,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 8:404–6.

14. THE OLD EAST AND THE NEW WEST

¹ Stowe, Annales, or a General Chronicle of England (London, 1631), 766, 769, 770. Also, Guy, Elizabeth, 193, 195, 199.

² George Bruner Parks, Richard Hakluyt and the English Voyages (New York: The American Geographical Society of New York, 1928), 124–45; 174n4. Also Quinn, Hakluyt Handbook, xxv; 101–3.

³ Pauline Croft, “The Reputation of Robert Cecil: Libels, Political Opinion and Popular Awareness in the Early Seventeenth Century,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 1 (1991): 43–69; 46.

⁴ Pauline Croft, “Can a Bureaucrat Be a Favourite?,” in J. Elliott and L. Brockliss, eds., The World of the Favourite, (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999), 81–95; 94n9.

⁵ Richard Hakluyt, “The Epistle Dedicatorie in the Second Volume of the Second Edition, 1599: To the Right Honorable Sir Robert Cecil Knight, principall Secretarie to her Majestie, master of the Court of Wardes and Liveries, and one of her Majesties most honourable privie Counsell,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, Voyages, 1:lxxiii.

⁶ Ibid., 1:lxxii.

⁷ “Certain Reesons why the English Merchants may trade into the East Indies, especially to such rich kingdoms and dominions as are not subject to the kinge of Spayne & Portugal: together with the true limits of the Portugals conquest & Jurisdiction in those oriental parts,” in Taylor, The Original Writings, 2:465–68.

⁸ Adams, Simon. “Elizabeth I and the Sovereignty of the Netherlands 1576–1585,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, vol. 4 (2004): 309–19.

⁹ Claudia Schurmann, “‘Wherever profit leads us, to every sea and shore…’: The VOC, the WIC, and Dutch Methods of Globalization in the Seventeenth Century,” Renaissance Studies 17, no. 3 (2003): 474–93; 477.

¹⁰ William Foster, England’s Quest of Eastern Trade (London: A&C Black, 1933), 142–44.

¹¹ Henry Stevens and George Birdwood, eds., The Dawn of British Trade to the East Indies As Recorded in the Court Minutes of the East India Company, 1599–1603 (London: Henry Stevens & Son, 1886), 1–7.

¹² Kenneth R. Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering: English Privateering During the Spanish War, 1585–1603 (1964; repr., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 218, 128.

¹³ Stevens and Birdwood, eds., The Dawn of British Trade, 5.

¹⁴ Ibid., 8.

¹⁵ Ibid., 10–11.

¹⁶ Alfred P. Beaven, “Chronological List of Aldermen: 1501–1600,” in The Aldermen of the City of London Temp. Henry III–1912 (London: Corporation of the City of London, 1908), 20–47.

¹⁷ Willan, Early History of the Russia Company, 286; Alfred C. Wood, A History of the Levant Company (London: Routledge, 2013), appendix 4.

¹⁸ “Colemanstreete warde,” in Stow, A Survey of London, 1:276–285; 283. Foster, England’s Quest for Eastern Trade, 148; Stevens and Birdwood, eds., The Dawn of British Trade, 62. For Smythe: Basil Morgan, “Sir Thomas Smythe (c.1558–1625), merchant,” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

¹⁹ “A Priviledge for fifteene yeeres granted by her Majestie to certaine Adventurers, for the discoverie of the Trade for the East-Indies, the one and thirtieth of December, 1600,” in Samuel Purchas, Hakluytus Posthumus, 2:366–91; 368.

²⁰ Stevens and Birdwood, eds., The Dawn of British Trade, 123–24; Richard Hakluyt, “The chief places where sundry sorte of spices do growe in the East Indies, gathered out of sundry the best and latest authours,” in Taylor, The Original Writing, 2:476–82.

²¹ “The first Voyage made to East-India by Master James Lancaster, now Knight, for the merchants of London, Anno 1600. With foure tall Shippes, (to wit) the Dragon, the Hector, the Ascension and Susan, and a Victualler called the Guest,” in Purchas, Hakluytus Posthumus, 2:392–437; 393.

²² K. R. Andrews, “Christopher Newport of Limehouse, Mariner,” The William and Mary Quarterly 11, no. 1 (1954), 28–41; 32.

²³ Cited in Quinn, England and the Discovery of America, 444.

²⁴ Hakluyt, “The Episte Dedicatorie… to Sir Robert Cecil,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 1:lxvii.

²⁵ Ibid., 1:lxvi–lxvii.

²⁶ “A briefe Note of the sending another barke this present yeere 1602. by the honorable knight, Sir Walter Ralegh for the searching out of his Colonie in Virginia,” in David Beers Quinn and Alison M. Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 1602–1608, (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1983), 166–67.

²⁷ For Gosnold’s privateering: David S. Ransome, “Bartholomew Gosnold (d. 1607), sea captain and explorer,” in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Also, Warner F. Gookin, Bartholomew Gosnold. Discoverer and Planter. New England, 1602. Virginia, 1607, completed by Philip L. Barbour (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1963).

²⁸ William Strachey, The Historie of Travell into Virginia Britania (1612), by William Strachey, gent, ed. Louis B. Wright and Virginia Freund (London: Hakluyt Society, 1951), 150.

²⁹ “The Relation of John de Verrazzano a Florentine 1524,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 8:423–38. The word “refugio” appears in a handwritten footnote. See “The Written Record of the Voyage of 1524 of Giovanni da Verrazzano” as recorded in a letter to Francis I, King of France, July 8th, 1524. Adapted from a translation by Susan Tarrow of the Cellere Codex, in Lawrence C. Wroth, ed., The Voyages of Giovanni da Verrazzano, 1524–1528 (Yale, 1970), 133–43.

³⁰ “7 September 1602. Bartholomew Gosnold to Anthony Gosnold,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 208–11.

³¹ There are two accounts of the voyage: Gabriel Archer, “The Relation of Captaine Gosnolds Voyage to the North Part of Virginia… delivered by Gabriel Archer, a Gentleman of the said voyage,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 114–38; and John Brereton, “A Briefe and Trve Relation of the Discoverie of the North Part of Virginia… made this present yeere 1602, By Captaine Bartholomew Gosnold…,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 143–59.

³² Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 146 (“basks”); 158 (“how now Sirrah” and “scholar”). Archer in ibid., 117 (“Christian words”).

³³ See Bruce J. Bourque and Ruth Holmes Whitehead, “Tarrentines and the Introduction of European Trade Goods in the Gulf of Maine,” Ethnohistory 32, no. 4 (1985): 327–41.

³⁴ Brereton, “A Briefe and Trve Relation,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 147.

³⁵ Ibid., 150.

³⁶ Ibid., 150–51, 156.

³⁷ Archer, “Captaine Gosnolds Voyage,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 134.

³⁸ Ibid., 135–38.

³⁹ “21 August 1602. Sir Walter Ralegh to Sir Robert Cecil” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 205–8.

⁴⁰ Ibid., 206.

⁴¹ J. Worth Estes, “The European Reception of the First Drugs from the New World,” Pharmacy in History 37, no. 1 (1995): 3–23; 8.

⁴² Harriot, “A Brief and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia (1588),” in Quinn, Roanoke Voyages, 1:329.

⁴³ Estes, “The European Reception,” 8.

⁴⁴ David B. Quinn, “Thomas Hariot [sic] and the Virginia Voyages of 1602,” The William and Mary Quarterly 27, no. 2 (1970): 268–21; 278.

⁴⁵ Brereton, “A Briefe and Trve Relation,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 159.

⁴⁶ Raleigh Trevelyan, Sir Walter Raleigh: Being a True and Vivid Account of the Life and Times of the Explorer, Soldier, Scholar, Poet, and Courtier—The Controversial Hero of the Elizabethan Age (New York: Henry Holt, 2004), 357–65.

⁴⁷ “The Letters Patent, Granted by the Queenes Majestie to M. Walter Raleigh…,” in Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 8:289–96.

15. TWO VIRGINIAS

¹ “A Treaty of Perpetual Peace and Alliance between Philip the III. King of Spain, and the Archduke and Archduchess Albert and Isabella on the one side, and James the I. King of England on the other side. Made in the Year 1604,” in A General Collection of Treatys, Manifesto’s, Contracts of Marriage, Renunciations, and other Publick Papers, from the Year 1495, to the Year 1712, vol. 2 (London: J. J. and P. Knapton, J. Darby et al., 1732), 131–46; 131.

² Denmark House was formerly known as Somerset House. The house was demolished in 1775 and in 1779 work began on a new building, known once again as Somerset House, which was constructed in stages and completed in 1801, https://www.somersethouse.org.uk/history. A “queen consort” has no constitutional power. For a detailed discussion of the conference setting, including the carpet and other furnishings, as well as a description of the Somerset House Conference painting, see the collections page at the Royal Museums Greenwich, http://collections.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/14260.html.

³ A discussion of the attendees accompanies a reproduction of the portrait of the signing ceremony, showing eleven delegates before a large paned window. For the full list of participants, see: “A Treaty of Perpetual Peace and Alliance,” in A General Collection of Treatys, 132–34.

⁴ Parker, Imprudent King: A New Life of Philip II (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014; paperback ed., 2015), 63.

⁵ “A Treaty of Perpetual Peace,” 131; 134.

⁶ Ibid., 141.

⁷ Don Juan Fernández de Velasco, Spain’s representative at the Treaty of London negotations, as reported in a letter by Pedro de Zúñiga to Philip III, 16 October 1607, in Barbour, ed., Jamestown Voyages, 1:121.

⁸ Trevelyan, Sir Walter Raleigh, 398–405.

⁹ David Beers Quinn and Alison M. Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 1602–1608 (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1983), 58.

¹⁰ George Waymouth, “Jewell of Artes,” excerpted in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 232–41; 232.

¹¹ “The jewell of artes,” Yale University Library, Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library, 2012, http://brbl-dl.library.yale.edu/vufind/Record/3446439. The authors also inspected the bound manuscript at the British Library.

¹² Henry Stevens and George Birdwood, eds., The Dawn of British Trade to the East Indies As Recorded in the Court Minutes of the East India Company, 1599–1603 (London: Henry Stevens & Son, 1886), 183.

¹³ Ibid., 184.

¹⁴ Ibid., 233.

¹⁵ Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 233–34. Images are reproduced on 236–41.

¹⁶ Ibid., 56–57.

¹⁷ Ibid., 254, fn4. Quinn speculates that Gilbert may have been involved because Waymouth spent time organizing his expedition in Dartmouth, which is not far from Gilbert’s residence in Greenway.

¹⁸ The official account of the voyage was written by James Rosier, “A True Relation of the most prosperous voyage made this present yeere 1605, by Captaine George Waymouth, in the Discovery of the Land of Virginia,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 251–311.

¹⁹ David R. Ransome, “James Rosier (1573–1609), explorer,” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

²⁰ Rosier, “A True Relation,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 269.

²¹ Nick Bunker, Making Haste from Babylon: The Mayflower Pilgrims and Their World: A New History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010), 9.

²² Rosier, “A True Relation,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 303.

²³ Fernand Braudel, The Perspective of the World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 189.

²⁴ Rosier, “A True Relation,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 284.

²⁵ Ibid., 302.

²⁶ W. L. Grant, ed., Voyages of Samuel de Champlain 1604–1618 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1907), 77.

²⁷ Rosier, “A True Relation,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 251n5. The exact publication date is not included on the title page of the relation, although Rosier specifies the work was “made” in “this present yeere 1605” which, given the uncertainty of dating, could be as late as March, 1606.

²⁸ Rosier, “A True Relation,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 292.

²⁹ Richard Arthur Preston, Gorges of Plymouth Fort: A Life of Sir Ferdinando Gorges, Captain of Plymouth Fort, Governor of New England, and Lord of the Province of Maine (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, in cooperation with the Royal Military College of Canada, 1953), 29 (Ann); 126 (children). Also see James Phinney Baxter, ed. Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Maine, 3 vols. (Boston: The Prince Society XVIII, 1890. Reprinted by Burt Franklin: Research and Source Works Series #131, 1967), 2:167.

³⁰ Preston, Gorges of Plymouth Fort, 18.

³¹ Ibid., 36.

³² The Description of Mawooshen was obtained by Hakluyt and published by Samuel Purchas in 1625. See Hakluytus Posthumus, 19:400–405. Quinn discusses the provenance of the name and the scope of the area it describes. He suggests it lies between Mount Desert Island and the Saco River, in The New England Voyages, 470n1–4.

³³ Sir Ferdinando Gorges, “A Briefe Narration of the Originall Undertakings of the Advancement of Plantations into the parts of America,” in Baxter, ed., Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Maine, 2:1–81; 8 (“giving life”).

³⁴ Aubrey, Brief Lives, ed. Clark, 2:159; P. W. Hasler, “John Popham (c.1532–1607), of Wellington, Som.,” in The History of Parliament: The House of Commons 1558–1603.

³⁵ “[Circa January, 1606], Sir Walter Cope to the Earl of Salisbury,” in Quinn, ed., New American World, 5:166–67.

³⁶ Clare Williams, trans., Thomas Platter’s Travels in England 1599 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1937), 171–73.

³⁷ “[Circa January, 1606], Sir Walter Cope to the Earl of Salisbury,” in Quinn, ed., New American World, 5:166–67.

³⁸ George Chapman, Ben Jonson, and John Marston, Eastward Hoe, extracted in Alexander Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States: A Narrative of the Movement in England, 1605–1616, Which Resulted in the Plantation of North America by Englishmen, Disclosing the Contest Between England and Spain for Possession of the Soil Now Occupied by the United States of America; Set Forth Through a Series of Historical Manuscripts now first printed: Together with a Reissue of Rare Contemporaneous Tracts, Accompanied by Bibliographical Memoranda, Notes, and Brief Biographies, 2 vols. (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1890), 1:29–32.

³⁹ “Letters Patent for Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Somers and others… April 10, 1606,” Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:52–63; 52–53.

⁴⁰ “Charter of 1605,” in Pauline Croft, ed., The Spanish Company (London: London Record Society, 1973), 95–113.

⁴¹ Pauline Croft, “Introduction: The Revival of the Company, 1604–6,” in Croft, ed., The Spanish Company, xxix–li.

⁴² “Articles, Instructions and Orders,” in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:65–75.

⁴³ Baxter, ed., Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Maine, 3:122–23.

⁴⁴ John Smith, “The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles,” in Philip L. Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith (1580–1631) in Three Volumes (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1986), 2:433–75; 428.

16. A PUBLIC PLANTATION

¹ Sir Ferdinando Gorges, “A Briefe Narration of the Originall Undertakings of the Advancement of Plantations into the parts of America,” in Baxter, ed., Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Maine, 2:9.

² Ibid., 10.

³ “4 February 1607. The Relation of Daniel Tucker,” in David Beers Quinn and Alison M. Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 1602–1608 (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1983), 360-63. And “[December 1607]. Narrative of John Stoneman, pilot of the Richard, after his return to England,” in Beers and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 1602–1608, 364–75.

⁴ “[December 1607]. Narrative of John Stoneman, pilot of the Richard, after his return to England,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 364–75; 368.

⁵ “16 February 1606. Deposition of Nicholas Hind, master of the Richard in the High Court of Admiralty,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 356–60; 358.

⁶ “Narrative of John Stoneman,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 370–71.

⁷ “Gorges to Cecil, Feb 4 1606[7]: Report of seizure of ship by Spaniards,” in Baxter, ed., Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Maine, 3:126–28.

⁸ “Concerning the ship taken at sea going to Virginia,” in Baxter, ed., Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Maine, 3:132–33.

⁹ “Nevill Davis to Sir John Popham, Lord Chief Justice,” January 25/February 4 1606–7, in Calendar of the Cecil Papers in Hatfield House: Volume 19, 1607, ed. M.S. Giuseppi and D. McN. Lockie (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1965), 11–33.

¹⁰ This voyage is not well documented. The name of the ship and the number of crew are unknown. The master was Martin Pring, an experienced navigator.

¹¹ Sir Ferdinando Gorges, “A briefe Relation of the discovery and plantation of New England,” in Baxter, ed., Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Maine, 1:204–5.

¹² “Gorges to Cecil. Feb. 7, 1607,” in Baxter, ed., Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Maine, 3:161–64.

¹³ “Gorges to the Earl of Salisbury. December 3, 1607,” in Baxter, ed., Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Maine, 3:158–60.

¹⁴ Ibid., 158.

¹⁵ “Memoir of Sir Ferdinando Gorges” in Baxter, ed., Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Maine, 1:78. Definition of a “searcher” is in Smith, “The Generall Historie of Virginia,” in Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 2:398, fn. 4.

¹⁶ The two extant accounts of the voyage are: “‘The Relation of a Voyage unto New-England.’ The Journal of Robert Davis (or Davies) of the voyage to North Virginia in 1607 and of the founding of Fort St. George on the Kennebec River, 1 June–26 September 1607,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 416–41; and William Strachey, “The Narrative of the North Virginia Voyage and Colony, 1607–1608,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 397–415.

¹⁷ Baxter, ed., Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Maine, 1:77–8.

¹⁸ Strachey, “The Narrative of the North Virginia voyage and colony,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 414.

¹⁹ “Gorges to Cecil. December 1, 1607,” in Baxter, ed., Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Maine, 3:154–7.

²⁰ “Gorges to Cecil. December 3, 1607,” in Ibid., 3:158–60; 160.

²¹ “Gorges to Cecil. February 7, 1608,” in Ibid., 3:161–64; 161.

²² The court proceedings are summarized in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 334; documents relating to the proceedings can be found on 459–65.

²³ “13 December 1607. Captain George Popham to King James I, from Fort St. George,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 452–54.

²⁴ “7 February 1608. Sir Ferdinando Gorges to the Earl of Salisbury, reporting the return of the Gift of God,” in Quinn and Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 455–58.

²⁵ Gorges, “A briefe relation,” in Baxter, ed., Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Maine, 1:206–7.

²⁶ Ibid., 207.

17. FIRST COLONY

¹ Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering, 85; Andrews, “Christopher Newport,” The William and Mary Quarterly 11, no. 1 (1954): 32–33.

² Ransome, “Bartholomew Gosnold,” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Martha’s Vineyard was probably named after Gosnold’s mother-in-law, a daughter of Sir Andrew Judde, co-founder of the Mysterie.

³ “24 November 1606, ‘Dispensation for Richard Hakluyt,’” in Philip L. Barbour, ed., The Jamestown Voyages Under the First Charter, 1606–1609, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, for The Hakluyt Society, 1969), 1:62–64.

⁴ “Instructions given by way of advice by us whom it hath pleased the King’s Majesty to appoint of the Council for the intended voyage to Virginia, to be observed by those Captains and company which are sent at this present to plant there,” in Taylor, ed., The Original Writings, 2:492–96; 492n1.

⁵ Originally, the London Company envisaged 120 settlers and 40 mariners: Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:82n1. For accounts of the first voyage and the beginnings of the plantation, see George Percy, “Observations gathered out of a Discourse of the Plantation of the Sourtherne Colonie in Virginia by the English, 1606,” in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:152–68; John Smith, “A true relation of such occurences and accidents of note as hath happened in Virginia since the first planting of that Colony…,” in Philip L. Barbour, ed. The Complete Works of Captain John Smith (1580–1631) 3 vols. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986), 1:27–97.

⁶ “Certain orders and Directions conceived and set down the tenth day of December… by His Majesties’ Counsel for Virginia,” December 10, 1606, in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:75–79.

⁷ R.C. Simmons, “Edward Maria Wingfield (b. 1550, d. in or after 1619), soldier and colonist in America,” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

⁸ “Instructions,” Taylor, ed., The Original Writings, 2:492 (“strongest”), 493 (“hundred miles”); Smith, “A True Relation,” in Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 1:29.

⁹ “Instructions,” in Taylor, ed., The Original Writings, 2:493–94.

¹⁰ Gabriel Archer (attributed), “A relatyon of the Discovery of our River, from James Forte into the Maine: made by Captain Christofer Newport: and sincerely written and observed by a gent. of ye Colony,” in Barbour, ed., Jamestown Voyages, 1:80–98; 95.

¹¹ “Instructions given by way of advice,” in Taylor, ed., The Original Writings, 2:496.

¹² “22 June 1607. Letter from the Council in Virginia,” in Barbour, ed., Jamestown Voyages, 1:78–80.

¹³ “12 August 1607: Sir Walter Cope to Lord Salisbury,” in Barbour, ed., Jamestown Voyages, 1:108–10; “13 August 1607: Sir Walter Cope to Lord Salisbury,” in Barbour, ed., Jamestown Voyages, 1:111.

¹⁴ “12/22 September 1607: Pedro de Zúñiga to Philip III,” in Barbour, ed., Jamestown Voyages, 1:114–16.

¹⁵ “12 August 1607: Cope to Salisbury,” in Barbour, ed., Jamestown Voyages, 1:109; “17 August 1607. Sir Thomas Smythe to Lord Salisbury,” in Barbour, ed., Jamestown Voyages, 1:112.

¹⁶ Smith, “A True Relation,” in Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 1:33.

¹⁷ Percy, “Observations,” in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:167.

¹⁸ Smith, “A True Relation,” in Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 1:33; Smith, “The Proceedings of the English Colony in Virginia since their first beginning from England in the yeare of our Lord 1606, till this present 1612,” in Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 1:210.

¹⁹ For Kendall’s background: Philip L. Barbour, “Captain George Kendall: Mutineer or Intelligencer?,” The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 70, no. 3 (1962): 297–313.

²⁰ Helen C. Rountree, The Powhatan Indians of Virginia. Their Traditional Culture (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989), 9–15.

²¹ Smith, “A True Relation,” in Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 1:47 (20 or 30 arrows), 49 (bread and venison).

²² John Smith, “The General Historie,” Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 2:151.

²³ Karen Ordahl Kupperman, The Jamestown Project (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007), 230–32.

²⁴ Smith, “A True Relation,” in Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 1:35.

²⁵ Smith, “The Proceedings of the English Colonie in Virginia,” in Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 1:259.

²⁶ Smith, “A True Relation,” in Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 1:53 (raccoon skins), 97 (profitable for commerce).

²⁷ James Horn, A Land As God Made It: Jamestown and the Birth of America (New York: Basic Books, 2005; paperback ed., 2006), 100–101.

²⁸ “The Copy of a Letter sent to the Treasurer and Councell of Virginia from Captaine Smith, then President of Virginia,” in “The General Historie of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles,” in Barbour, The Complete Work of Captain John Smith, 2:53–474; 187–90.

²⁹ Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:206.

³⁰ John Rolfe, A True Relation of the State of Virginia left by Sir Thomas Dale Knight in May last 1616. Set forth with an Introduction and Notes by a group of Virginian Librarians (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1951), 34.

³¹ “A True and Sincere Declaration of the Purpose and Ends of the Plantation begun in Virginia,” December 14, 1609, in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:337–53; 342, 345.

³² See Barbour, ed., Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 1:119–90.

³³ Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:207. For the Second Charter: 208–37.

³⁴ “A True and Sincere Declaration,” in Brown, ed., Genesis, 1:349.

³⁵ “A Letter from His Majesty’s Council of Virginia to the Corporation of Plymouth,” February 17, 1609, in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:238–40.

³⁶ Robert Johnson, Nova Britannia: offering most excellent fruites by planting in Virginia. Exciting all such as are well affected to further the same, in David B. Quinn, ed., New American: A Documentary History of North America to 1612, 6 vols. (New York: Arno Press and Hector Bye, Inc., 1979), 5:234–48; 247.

³⁷ Ibid., 236; 239.

³⁸ Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:255–56.

³⁹ Ibid., 1:282–91.

⁴⁰ “Zúñiga to Philip III, April 12, 1609,” in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:258–59.

⁴¹ Ian W. Archer, “Sir Thomas Smythe (c. 1558–1625). A lecture delivered at Skinners’ Hall, London, November 26, 2007.” Available from the Oxford University Research Archive, https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:4a1c5a8a-78f1-4dfa-9c79-6f94a6161659.

⁴² “A Letter from the Councill and Company of the honourable Plantation in Virginia to the Lord Mayor, Alderman and Companies of London,” [Before March 20, 1609], in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:252–53.

⁴³ “The precept of the Lord Mayor of London to the London Companies,” in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:254.

⁴⁴ “An assembly of the persons hereunder named holden the xxiiiith of September 1599,” in Stevens and Birdwood, eds., The Dawn of British Trade, 7.

⁴⁵ Johnson, Nova Britannia, in Quinn, ed., New American World, 5:246.

⁴⁶ Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:209–28.

⁴⁷ “Pedro de Zúñiga to Philip III, March 5, 1609,” in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:243–47; 245–56.

⁴⁸ Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:206–7.

⁴⁹ Francis Bacon, “On Plantations,” in his The Essays, ed. with an introduction by John Pitcher (London: Penguin Books, 1987), 162. For his role in drafting the second charter: Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:207.

18. A STAKE IN THE GROUND

¹ “Pedro de Zúñiga to Philip III, March 5, 1609,” in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States 1:243–47; 244; “Virginia Council. ‘Instructions, Orders and Constitucions… To Sir Thomas Gates Knight Governor of Virginia.’ May 1609,” in Samuel M. Bemiss, The Three Charters of the Virginia Company of London, with Seven Related Documents: 1606–1621 (1957; reprint, Baltimore: Clearfield Company, 2007), 55–69; 60.

² Horn, A Land As God Made It, 305n1.

³ “A Letter of M. Gabriel Archer, touching the voyage of the fleet of ships, which arrived at Virginia, without Sir Tho. Gates and Sir George Summers, 1609 [Aug. 31, 1609],” in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:328–32; 331.

⁴ George Percy, “Trewe Relacyon,” in Mark Nicholls, “George Percy’s ‘Trewe Relacyon’: A Primary Source for the Jamestown Settlement,” The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 113, no. 3 (2005): 212–75; 246.

⁵ Smith, “The Generall Historie of Virginia,” in Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 2:223.

⁶ “A True and Sincere Declaration of the Purpose and Ends of the Plantation begun in Virginia,” December 14, 1609, in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:338–52; 347.

⁷ Susan Myra Kingsbury, ed., The Records of the Virginia Company of London, 4 vols. (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1933), 3: 89; J. Frederick Fausz, “Thomas West, third Baron De La Warr (1577–1618), colonial governor,” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

⁸ “Virginia Council. ‘Instructions, Orders and Constitucions… To… Sir Thomas West, Knight, Lord La Warr.’ 1609/10?,” in Bemiss, The Three Charters, 70–75.

⁹ “Instructions for such things as are to be sente from Virginia. 1610,” in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:384–86.

¹⁰ “Virginia Council. ‘Instructions, Orders and Constitucions’” (Thomas West), in Bemiss, The Three Charters, 72.

¹¹ “22 June 1607. Letter from the Council in Virginia,” in Barbour, ed. The Jamestown Voyages, 1:79.

¹² “Virginia Council. ‘Instructions, Orders and Constitucions’” (Thomas West), in Bemiss, The Three Charters, 73.

¹³ Percy, “Trewe Relacyon,” in Mark Nicholls, “George Percy’s ‘Trewe Relacyon,’” 248.

¹⁴ Ibid., 249.

¹⁵ William Strachey, “A true reportory of the wracke and redemption of Sir Thomas Gates Knight; upon, and from, the Ilands of the Bermudas: his coming to Virginia, and the estate of that Colonie then, and after, under the government of Lord La Warre, July 15. 1610,” in Purchas, Hakluytus Posthumus, 19:5–72; 5 (“tempest”); 6 (“darkness”); 8 (“all that I had,” and “candles”).

¹⁶ Ibid., 13. Also Horn, A Land As God Made It, 159.

¹⁷ Wesley Frank Craven, “An Introduction to the History of Bermuda,” Part I, The William and Mary Quarterly 17, no. 2 (1937): 176–215; 182.

¹⁸ Strachey, “A true reportory,” in Purchas, Hakluytus Posthumus, 19:23.

¹⁹ Ibid., 25–32.

²⁰ Louis B. Wright, A Voyage to Virginia in 1609. Two Narratives. Strachey’s “True Reportory” and Jourdain’s “Discovery of the Bermudas,” rev. ed. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), xviii–xix.

²¹ “A circular Letter of his Majestie’s Counsil for Virginia,” in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:463–65.

²² “Resolution of the States General, granting leave of absence to Captain Dale. Thursday 20^th January 1611,” in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:446.

²³ J. Frederick Fausz, “Thomas West, third Baron De La Warr (1577–1618), colonial governor,” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

²⁴ Basil Morgan, “Sir Thomas Dale (d. 1619), soldier and administrator,” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

²⁵ William Strachey, For the Colony in Virginia Britannia: Lawes Divine, Morall and Martiall &c (London: W. Burre, 1612), in Tracts And Other Papers relating principally to the Origin, Settlement and Progress of the Colonies in North America from the Discovery of the Country to 1776. Collected by Peter Force. Volume III (Washington, DC: WM. Q. Force, 1844), No. 2; Horn, A Land As God Made It, 182, 196.

²⁶ “Sir Thomas Dale to the Earl of Salisbury, August 17th, 1611,” in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:501–8; 503, 505.

²⁷ “Virginia Council. ‘Instructions, Orders and Constitucions’” (Thomas Gates), in Bemiss, The Three Charters, 59–60. Dale was fulfilling the Council’s original instructions to Gates.

²⁸ Ralph Hamor, A True Discourse of the Present Estate of Virginia. Reprinted from the London edition, 1615, with an introduction by A. L. Rowse (Richmond: The Virginia State Library, 1957), 30.

²⁹ “Pedro de Zúñiga to Philip III, 5 March 1609,” in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 1:246.

³⁰ For the advertisement for the first national lottery, see see “The Great Lottery, 1567,” http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item102765.html.

³¹ Robert C. Johnson, “The Lotteries of the Virginia Company, 1612–1621,” The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 74, no. 3 (1966): 259–92; 261; Three Proclamations concerning the lottery for Virginia 1613–1621 (Boston: Merrymount Press, 1907), 1–2.

³² [Robert Johnson], The New Life of Virginea: Declaring the former Successe and present estate of that plantation, being the second part of Nova Britannia. Published by the authoritie of his Maiesties Counsell of Virginea (London: n.p., 1612).

³³ Three Proclamations concerning the lottery for Virginia 1613–1621, 2.

³⁴ Ibid., 3.

³⁵ Sir Thomas Dale to Sir Thomas Smith, June 1613, in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 2:639–40.

³⁶ Ibid., 639.

³⁷ Horn, A Land As God Made It, 233.

³⁸ Hamor, A True Discourse, 24.

³⁹ Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 2:772.

⁴⁰ Kupperman, The Jamestown Project, 280.

⁴¹ John Rolfe to Sir Thomas Dale, n.d., in Hamor, A True Discourse, 61–68; 63.

⁴² “Of the Lottery: Sir Thomas Dales returne: the Spaniards in Virginia. Of Pocahantas and Tomocomo: Captaine Yerdley and Captaine Argoll (both since Knighted) their Government; the Lord La-Warrs death, and other occurrents till Anno 1619,” in Purchas, Hakluyt Posthumus, 19:116–22; 119.

⁴³ Horn, A Land As God Made It, 234.

⁴⁴ R. Ravin-Heart, Before Van Riebeck: Callers at South Africa from 1488 to 1651 (Cape Town: C. Struik [PTY.] Ltd., 1967), 72.

⁴⁵ Wesley Frank Craven, Dissolution of the Virginia Company. The Failure of a Colonial Experiment (Oxford University Press, 1932; repr., 1964), 39.

⁴⁶ K. N. Chaudhuri, The English East India Company. The Study of an Early Joint Stock Company 1600–1640 (London: Frank Cass & Co., 1965), 209.

⁴⁷ Rolfe, A True Relation, 38–39.

⁴⁸ The Council for Virginia, “A Brief Declaration from the Virginia Company (1616),” in Brown, The Genesis of the United States, 2:774–79; 779.

⁴⁹ Rolfe, A True Relation, 41, 39, 34.

⁵⁰ The Council for Virginia, “A Brief Declaration,” in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 2:777.

⁵¹ Hamor, A True Discourse, 17.

⁵² Ibid., 16–17.

⁵³ Craven, The Dissolution of the Virginia Company, 35.

⁵⁴ The Council for Virginia, “A Brief Declaration,” in Brown, ed., The Genesis of the United States, 2:778.

⁵⁵ “Virginia Company. Instructions to George Yeardley. (Sometimes called “The Great Charter”). November 18, 1618,” in Bemiss, The Three Charters, 95–108.

⁵⁶ Ibid., 98, 106.

⁵⁷ Peter Wilson Coldham, Bonded Passengers to America. Two Volumes in One (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1983), 120.

⁵⁸ “Virginia Company. Instructions to George Yeardley,” in Bemiss, The Three Charters, 95, 123.

⁵⁹ Bemiss, The Three Charters, vi.

19. A WEIGHTY VOYAGE

¹ William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, ed. and with notes and an introduction by Samuel Eliot Morison (New York: Random House, Modern Library, 1952), 47.

² William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 31 and n4. The text of the Seven Articles is reprinted in George Bancroft, ed., The Seven Articles from the Church of Leyden 1617 with an introductory letter by George Bancroft (New York: From the Collections of the New York Historical Society, Second Series, Volume 3, n.d.), 9–10.

³ Nick Bunker, Making Haste from Babylon: The Mayflower Pilgrims and Their World: A New History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010), 172.

⁴ A summary of the law and the debate surrounding it can be found in Simonds d’Ewes, “Journal of the House of Commons: April 1593,” in The Journals of All the Parliaments During the Reign of Queen Elizabeth (Shannon: Irish University Press, 1682), 513–21.

⁵ Cotton Mather, Magnalia Christi Americana: or, the Ecclesiastical History of New-England. Book 2, Containing the Lives of the Governours, and Names of the Magistrates of New-England (1702; repr. Hartford: Silas Andrus, 1820), 101.

⁶ Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 10.

⁷ James Howell, cited in Henry M. Dexter, English Exiles in Amsterdam, 1597–1625 (Cambridge: John Wilson and Son, the University Press, 1890), 4.

⁸ Bunker, Making Haste, 215.

⁹ Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 27.

¹⁰ Ibid., 25.

¹¹ Ibid., 29.

¹² George F. Willison, Saints and Strangers: Being the Lives of the Pilgrim Fathers & Their Families, with The Friends & Foes; & an Account of Their Posthumous Wanderings in Limbo, Their Final Resurrection & Rise to Glory, & the Strange Pilgrimages of Plymouth Rock (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1945), 107–8.

¹³ Ibid., 32–33.

¹⁴ Bunker, Making Haste, 29. Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 30n3. For a complete biography of Naunton, see Roy E. Schreiber, The Political Career of Sir Robert Naunton 1589-1635 (London: Royal Historical Society, 1981).

¹⁵ Willison, Saints and Strangers, 108.

¹⁶ Ibid., 109.

¹⁷ “Robert Cushman to the Leyden Congregation May 8, 1619,” in Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 356.

¹⁸ Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 29n2, 34n8.

¹⁹ Willison, Saints and Strangers, 111.

²⁰ Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 34n8.

²¹ In earlier days, interlopers acted on their own in violation of the rights of the Merchant Adventurers. By this time, however, an interloper acted with permission to trade in certain commodities and routes, for a royalty.

²² Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 38.

²³ Smith, “The General Historie of Virginia,” in Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 2:473; Ruth A. McIntyre, Debts Hopeful and Desperate. Financing the Plymouth Colony (Plymouth, MA: Plimouth Plantation, 1963), 19. McIntyre estimates the amount raised “to cover the expedition’s costs” at between twelve and fifteen hundred pounds.

²⁴ Bunker, Making Haste, 259.

²⁵ Ibid., 668.

²⁶ Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 39n6.

²⁷ Ibid., 29n2.

²⁸ Ibid., 38.

²⁹ Smith mentions “a few Marchants” in his Description (Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 1:323), but adds that the voyage was “at the charge” of four people (Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 2:400) in his Generall Historie, published 1624. These were: Captain Marmaduke Roydon, Captain George Langman, Master John Buley, and Master William Skelton. Brown profiles only Roydon as a “great adventurer” to many parts of the world. Brown, The Genesis of the United States, 1:988.

³⁰ Barbour, The Complete Works, 2:400 (value of cargo). “Advertisements For the Experienced Planters of New-England, or any where,” in Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 3: 253–304; writing about and mapping the territory, 278.

³¹ Richard Arthur Preston, Gorges of Plymouth Fort: A Life of Sir Ferdinando Gorges, Captain of Plymouth Fort, Governor of New England, and Lord of the Province of Maine (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, in cooperation with the Royal Military College of Canada, 1953), 158–59.

³² John Smith, “A Description of New England, by Captaine John Smith,” in Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 1:323–61; 324.

³³ John Smith, “The True Travels, Adventures, and Observations of Captaine John Smith,” in Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 3:123–251; 221.

³⁴ Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 38–39.

³⁵ Ibid., 36–39.

³⁶ Ibid. There has been much scholarly debate about the Pilgrims’ plan and intended destination. Morison is not convinced they intended to go to New England, even though the majority said they favored that destination, because they did not have the patent to go there (39n7).

³⁷ Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 40–41.

³⁸ Willison, Saints and Strangers, 116.

³⁹ Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 52n1, 28.

⁴⁰ Willison, Saints and Strangers, 128; 138.

⁴¹ Charles M. Andrews, The Colonial Period of American History: Settlements, 4 vols. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1934; repr., 1964), 1:331n2.

⁴² Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 120–21.

FORGOTTEN FOUNDERS

¹ Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 90n8.

² “Plymouth Oration, December 22, 1820,” in William S. Kartalopoulos (curator), “Daniel Webster: Dartmouth’s Favorite Son: A Hypertext Exhibit on the World Wide Web,” Dartmouth College, https://www.dartmouth.edu/~dwebster/speeches/plymouth-oration.html.

³ Peter J. Gomes, “Pilgrims and Puritans: ‘Heroes’ and ‘Villains’ in the Creation of the American Past,” Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society 95 (1983): 1–16; 2.

⁴ Gomes, “Pilgrims and Puritans,” 12.

⁵ Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. Olivier Zunz and trans. Arthur Goldhammer (New York: The Library of America, 2004), 35–37.

⁶ Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 23–25.

⁷ Nathaniel Philbrick, Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War (New York: Penguin, 2006), 7.

⁸ Kenneth B. Murdock, “The Pilgrims’ Progress,” New York Times Book Review, September 28, 1952, 15. This review is of the Morison edition published by Alfred A. Knopf.

⁹ Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, The Courtship of Miles Standish (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1910), 64 (Plymouth Rock); 24 (“patient, courageous, strong”); 30 (“modest”); 42 (“great of heart”); 38 (“tender and trusting”); 42 (“noble and generous”); 54 (“austere”).

¹⁰ Edward L. Tucker, “Longfellow’s ‘The Courtship of Miles Standish’: Some Notes and Two Early Versions,” Studies in the American Renaissance (1985): 285–321; 292.

¹¹ For a useful overview of the Thanksgiving holiday: Edwin T. Greninger, “Thanksgiving: An American Holiday,” Social Science 54, no. 1 (1979): 3–15.

¹² Andrew F. Smith, “N.Y.’s place in Thanksgiving Lore: How Gotham Is as Central to Our Modern Conception of the Holiday as New England,” New York Daily News, November 25, 2015.

¹³ Anne Blue Wills, “Pilgrims and Progress: How Magazines Made Thanksgiving,” Church History 72, no. 1 (2003): 138–58; 144.

¹⁴ Elizabeth Pleck, “The Making of the Domestic Occasion: The History of Thanksgiving in the United States,” Journal of Social History 32, no. 4 (1999): 773–89; 775.

¹⁵ For a discussion of the interpretation of the Pilgrim story, see Wills, “Pilgrims and Progress,” 145; 142.

¹⁶ Joseph Hunter, Collections Concerning the Church of Congregation of Protestant Separatists Formed at Scrooby in North Nottinghamshire, in the Time of King James I (London: John Russell Smith, 1854), 2.

¹⁷ Abraham Lincoln, “Proclamation 106—Thanksgiving Day, 1863,” October 3, 1863. Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=69900.

¹⁸ Mourt’s Relation: A Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth (Bedford MA: Applewood Books in cooperation with Plimoth Plantation, 1963), 17–18.

¹⁹ Pleck, “The Making of the Domestic Occasion,” 779–80.

²⁰ Ibid., 780.

²¹ Lawrence Willson, “Another View of the Pilgrims,” The New England Quarterly 34, no. 2 (1961): 160–77; 173.

²² Michelle Tirado, “The Wampanoag Side of the First Thanksgiving,” Indian Country Today, November 23, 2011, https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/news/the-wampanoag-side-of-the-first-thanksgiving-story/.

²³ Mark Twain, “Plymouth Rock and the Pilgrims: 22 December 1881,” in Mark Twain’s Speeches, with an Introduction by William Dean Howells (New York: Harper Brothers, 1910), 17–24.

²⁴ Willison, Saints and Strangers, vi.

²⁵ Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, xii.

²⁶ Philbrick, Mayflower, xi.

²⁷ Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia. A New Edition (Richmond, Virginia: J. W. Randolph, 1853), 194 (Cabot), 192 (Ralegh).

²⁸ Ibid., 118.

²⁹ N. S. B. Gras and Henrietta M. Larson, Casebook in American Business History (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1939), frontispiece; 29–45.

³⁰ Smith, “A Description of New England,” in Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith, 1:346.

A NOTE TO THE READER

¹ E. T. Campagnac, ed., Mulcaster’s Elementarie (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925), 274 (“greater plainness”), 269 (“worship”).

² John Simpson, ed., “The first dictionaries of English.” http://public.oed.com/aspects-of-english/english-in-time/the-first-dictionaries-of-english/.

³ Shakespeare is credited with introducing 1,484 words into the English language: see the Oxford English Dictionary.

⁴ Some 496 words come from Native American Indian languages according to the Oxford English Dictionary. Also, see James Rosier’s list of Indian words in David Beers Quinn and Alison M. Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 1602–1608 (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1983), 485–93.

⁵ Collinson, The Three Voyages of Martin Frobisher, 117, 121.

⁶ Ibid., 185, 119.

⁷ Baxter, ed., Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Maine, 3:129.

⁸ “5 July 1609. Pedro de Zúñiga to Philip III,” in Barbour, ed. The Jamestown Voyages, 2:269.

⁹ “Advertisements,” in Barbour, ed., The Complete Works, 3:279.

¹⁰ Charles Mann, 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005), xi.

¹¹ Bartolomé de las Casas, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies (London: Penguin Books, 1992), 9 n9.

¹² For Dee’s calendar reforms: Woolley, The Queen’s Conjuror, 193-95; and Parry, The Arch-Conjuror of England, 147–60.