CHAPTER 1: ORIGINS

 

1. Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois-Urbana-Champaign, “History of Concrete—A Timeline,” http://matse1.matse.illinois.edu/home.html (accessed June 1, 2011).

2. Jennifer Viergas, “Early Weapon Evidence Reveals Bloody Past,” Discovery News, March 31, 2008, http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/03/31/earliest-weapon-human.html (accessed May 12, 2011).

3. Steven Mithren, After the Ice: A Global Human History, 20,000-5,000 BC (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), pp. 89-90.

4. Charles C. Mann, “The Birth of Religion,” National Geographic, June 2011, pp. 41, 45.

5. Edward G. Nawy, Concrete Construction Engineering Handbook (n.p.: CRC Press, 1997), pp. 21-29.

6. A. Hauptmann and Ü. Yalcin, “Lime Plaster, Cement and the First Puzzolanic Reaction,” Paléorient 26, no. 2 (2000): 61-62.

7. William Ury, “A Journey to Harran,” Interreligious Insight, http://www.interreligiousinsight.org/0ctober2005/WilliamUry10-05.html (accessed May 2011).

8. Gen. 11:31; 12:4-5.

9. Gen. 11:28, 11:31.

10. Louis Ginzburg, “In the Fiery Furnace,” Legends of the Jews, April 27, 2011, http://www.theologicalhistory.com/?p=1001 (accessed May 1, 2011).

11. “Jewish, Christian, Muslim History in Sanliurfa, Turkey,” Vagabond Journey, http://www.vagabondjourney.com/209-0236-jewish-christian-muslim-history-in-turkey.shtml (accessed June 1, 2011).

12. Dastan Rashid, “Xenophon and the Kurds,” Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University, Finland (2005), http://www.arkeologi.uu.se/ark/education/CD/Cuppsats/Rashid.pdf (accessed September 2010; link now unavailable).

13. Livy (Titus Livius), History of Rome since the Foundation (Periochae 106:53), transl. Jona Lendering, corrected by Andrew Smith, http://www.lmus.org/li-ln/livy/periochae/periochae106.html (accessed May 12, 2011).

14. Chris Scarre, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors (London: Thames & Hudson, 1995) p. 145.

15. Ibid., p. 173.

16. “Battle of Harran,” Medieval Times History, http://www.medievaltimes.info/medieval-battles/battle-of-harran.html (accessed May 10, 2011).

17. Klaus Schmidt, “Göbekli Tepe, Southeastern Turkey. A Preliminary Report on the 1995-1999 Excavations,” Paléorient 26, no.1 (2000): 45-46.

18. H. Hauptmann, “The Urfa Region,” The Neolithic in Turkey: The Cradle of Civilization, ed. M. Õzoğan and N. Basgalen (Istanbul, Turkey: Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yamlari, 1999), pp. 65-86.

19. K. Kris Hirst, “The Development of Archaeological Method: History of Archaeology, Part 5,” http://archaeology.about.com/cs/educationalresour/a/history5.htm (accessed April 17, 2011).

20. Patty Jo Watson, Robert John Braidwood, 1907–2003 (University of Chicago Press Office, January 15, 2003), http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/03/030115.braidwood.shtml (accessed June 2, 2011).

21. Wikipedia, “Stuart Piggot” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Piggott (accessed June 2, 2011).

22. Patty Jo Watson, “Robert John Braidwood, July 29, 1907-January 15, 2003,” in Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 149, no. 2, http://www.amphilsoc.org/sites/default/files/490208.pdf (accessed August 17, 2011).

23. J. Mellaart, Catal Huyuk—A Neolithic Town in Anatolia (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000).

24. Bill Broadway, “Earliest Woven Cloth Dated to 7000 BC,” New York Times, August 26, 1993.

25. Elif Su, “Another Time, Another Life—Çatalhöyük,” Skylife, August 2006, http://www.turkishairlines.com/en-INT/skylife/2006/august/articles/catalhoyuk.aspx (accessed December 11, 2010).

26. Jonathan Last, “Çatalhöyük—1999 Archive Report,” Çatalhöyük—Excavations of a Neolithic Anatolian Höyük, http://www.catalhoyuk.com/archive_reports/1999/ar99_11.html (accessed April 12, 2011).

27. Garth Bawden, “Theories of Middle East Sedentism,” University of New Mexico, http://www.unm.edu/~gbawden/328-theory/328-theory.htm (accessed June 2, 2011).

28. “Who Are the Kurds?” Washington Post, February 1999, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/daily/feb99/kurdprofile.htm (accessed June 2, 2011).

29. Ibid.

30. “Kurdistan—Turkey: Insurrection,” Global Security, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/kurdistan-turkey-insurrection.htm (accessed June 2, 2011).

31. Robert J. Braidwood and Linda S. Braidwood, “The Joint Prehistoric Project: 1999-2000 Annual Report,” Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/pubs/ar/99-00/prehistoric.html (accessed June 2, 2011)

32. Stephen Kinzer, “Turkey Catches Rebel Leader,” New York Times, February 17, 1999.

33. Manfred Heun et al., “Site of Einkorn Wheat Domestication Identified by DNA Fingerprinting,” Science 278, November 14, 1997, pp. 1312-14.

34. Guillaume Perrier, “Le premier ministre turc annonce un plan de développement de la région kurde,” Le Monde, May 30, 2008.

35. Mithren, After the Ice, p. 89.

36. Ibid., pp. 88-89.

37. “Nevali Çori,” The Middle East Explorer, http://www.middleeastexplorer.com/Turkey/Nevali-Cori (accessed June 2, 2011).

38. Ibid.

39. Schmidt, “Göbekli Tepe, Southeastern Turkey,” p. 46.

40. Andrew Curry, “Göbekli Tepe: World's First Temple?” Smithsonian Magazine, November 2008, http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/gobekli-tepe.html (accessed November 12, 2010).

41. Klaus Schmidt, “Göbekli Tepe, Southeastern Turkey. A Preliminary Report on the 1995-1999 Excavations,” Paléorient 26, no. 1 (2000): 47.

42. Charles C. Mann, “The Birth of Religion,” National Geographic, June 2011, p. 39.

43. “Flores Man,” Nature News, http://www.nature.com/news/specials/flores/index.html (accessed June 2, 2011).

44. “Zuerst kam der Tempel, dann die Stadt,” Aus dem Hollerbusch, May 30, 2011, http://hollerbusch.wordpress.com/2011/05/30/zuerst-kam-der-tempel-dann-die-stadt/ (accessed June 2, 2011).

45. “Robert, Linda Braidwood, Pioneers in Prehistoric Archaeology Die,” University of Chicago Chronicle, January 23, 2003.

46. Y. Garfinkel, “Burnt Lime Products and Social Implications in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Villages of the Near East,” Paléorient 13, no. 1 (1987): 74.

47. John Webb and Marian Domanski, “Fire and Stone,” Science 125 (August 14, 2009): 820.

48. Julia Jackson, James P. Mehl, and Klaus K. E. Neuendorf, Glossary of Geology, 5th ed. (Alexandria, VA: American Geological Institute, 2005), p. 371.

49. Author's practical, if unscientific, experiments to create lime. In order to test the theory of the “casual discovery” of lime (see J. D. Frierman, “Lime Burning as the Precursor of Fired Ceramics,” Israel Exploration Journal 21 [1971]: 212-16), I decided to conduct some informal tests. I obtained some hard limestone from the Santa Cruz Mountains, approximately 65 km (ca. 45 miles) south of San Francisco. I broke up the larger pieces of limestone with a hammer and put the fragments into an iron pot with a lid, which I then covered with charcoal in the basin of my barbeque. I lit the charcoal and added more during the course of the day. I allowed the barbeque to cool down overnight before looking inside the pot. To my astonishment, the rocks were unchanged. I decided to break the limestone into smaller pieces, making sure that none were more than two inches thick (some were smaller). I then repeated the experiment, keeping the coals going all day (at least twelve hours), and again allowing the whole to cool overnight. The next morning I found no change to the stones. By this time, the heat had almost destroyed the connection points where the aluminum legs joined the barbeque basin, as well as the lid to its cover. Still determined to make lime, I decided to give it another shot. I came to the conclusion that the iron pot was not conducting the heat properly—though it should have—and so decided to bury the limestone pieces in the charcoal. Not wanting to see my injured barbeque collapse while filled with hot coals, I detached the lid from its cover and the aluminum legs from its basin, and set the whole thing in an old Radio Flyer® children's wagon, propping it up with ceramic flowerpots. I now had to use pliers to take the lid off and put it back in place. After burying the limestone chunks into a pile of charcoal, and keeping each stone widely spaced from the others to make sure that it would be thoroughly baked, I lit the charcoal. I kept the coals going throughout the day, adding more every couple of hours. After twelve hours, I retired for the evening, confident that I would finally find the rocks transformed into lime the following morning. Needless to say, this was not the case. Further research confirmed that calcinating limestone is no easy affair. I am reasonably certain that lime could not have been discovered by simply building a campfire in a limestone declivity. Besides, the surrounding stone would have acted as insulation.

I commend Dr. Frierman for taking the time to test the validity of a widely held assumption. However, he used chalk for his experiments, and not the hard limestone found at the late Paleolithic and early Neolithic sites. Nor could I discover chalk deposits anywhere near the excavations. Although there are chalk deposits in western Turkey (near Pamukkale and on the Black Sea coast), these are hundreds of kilometers away from the upper Tigris and Euphrates. While flints and obsidian rocks were traded over long distances in the Neolithic period, there is no record of chalk having been traded, and the large amount needed to produce useful amounts of lime would have required a transport method that had not yet been invented: pack animals.

50. Paul J. Krumnacher, “Lime and Cement Technology: Transition from Traditional to Standardized Treatment Methods” (master's thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, February 5, 2001), p. 7.

51. Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia (Peabody, MA: Henrickson, 2002), p. 190.

52. “Information for the Media,” National Lightning Safety Institute, http://www.lightningsafety.com/nlsi_info/media.htm (accessed June 2, 2011).

53. “Where Lightning Strikes Most,” Weather Questing, http://www.weatherquesting.com/where-lightning-hits.htm (accessed June 2, 2011).

54. “Floods, Rains Continue to Cause Havoc in Pakistan,” Earth Times, August 11, 2010, http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/news/338896,continue-cause-havoc-pakistan.html (accessed June 2, 2011).

55. Reuters, “Lightning Strike Kills 68 Dairy Cows in Australia,” Planet Ark, November 5, 2005, http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/33303/story.htm (accessed June 2, 2011).

56. C. Suetonius Tranquillus, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, trans. J. C. Rolfe, book 4 (Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classical Library, 1914), p. 28.

57. Rushton M. Dorman, The Origin of Primitive Superstitions and Their Development into Worship (New York: self-published, 1881), pp. 263-66.

58. Lin Chen, Dadiwan Relics Break Archaeological Records, China.org, http://www.china.org.cn/english/culture/48220.htm (accessed June 3, 2011).

59. Ivana Radovanovic, “'Deep Time' Metaphor: Mnenomic and Apotropaic Practices at Lepenski Vir,” Journal of Social Archaeology 3 (2003): 46-74. See also the excellent Wikipedia entry for Lepenski Vir: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepenski_Vir (accessed June 3, 2011).

 

CHAPTER 2: TOWERING ZIGGURATS, CONCRETE PYRAMIDS, AND MINOAN MAZES

 

1. Florence Dunn Friedman, “The Underground Relief Panels of King Djoser at the Step Pyramid Complex,” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 32 (1995): 3-9.

2. W. B. Emery, “Preliminary Report on the Excavations at North Saqqara, 1964-65,” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 51 (December 1965): 8. Note: Imhotep would receive many titles of veneration. Few pharaohs enjoyed such fame and respect after death.

3. Friedman, “The Underground Relief Panels of King Djoser at the Step Pyramid Complex,” pp. 3-20.

4. Bernard Erlin and William G. Hime, “Evaluating Mortar Deterioration,” APT Bulletin 19, no. 4 (1987): 8.

5. “Exploring the Pyramids,” National Geographic, http://www.nationalgeographic.com/pyramids/pyramids.html (accessed June 3, 2011).

6. Joseph Davidovits, “X-Ray of the Pyramid Stones,” Science in Egyptology, Proceedings of the Science in Egyptology Symposia (Manchester, UK, 1984): 511-20.

7. Joseph Davidovits and Margie Morris, The Pyramids: An Enigma Solved (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1988).

8. “Portland, Blended, and Other Hydraulic Cements,” http://www.ctu.edu.vn/colleges/tech/bomon/ktxd/baigiang/CONCRETE/Chap.2/Chap2.pdf, p. 21 on pdf file (accessed August 11, 2010). Note: The pale granite of San Francisco City Hall is also often mistaken by visitors for cast concrete, which it closely resembles. Ask any SF tour-bus driver.

9. John Noble Wilford, “Scientist Says Concrete Was Used in Pyramids,” New York Times, November 10, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/30/science/30cnd-pyramid.html (accessed June 3, 2011).

10. Ibid.

11. M. W. Barsoum, A. Ganguly, and G. Hug, “Microstructural Evidence of Reconstituted Limestone Blocks in the Great Pyramids of Egypt,” Journal of the American Ceramic Society 89, no. 12 (December 2006): 3788-96.

12. Michel Barsoum, “The Great Pyramids of Giza; Evidence for Cast Blocks,” http://www.scribd.com/Chris8157/documents (accessed June 3, 2011).

13. Colin Nickerson, “Role of Concrete in Ancient Pyramids Debated,” Boston Globe, May 8, 2008, http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20080508/news_1c08pyramid.html (accessed June 3, 2011). Story ran in the San Diego Union on May 8, 2008.

14. Jana Varcova, David Kolousek, and Jana Schweigstillová, “Pyramids and Geopolymers?” Keramicý zpravoda 27, no. 2 (February 27, 2011): 5-13. Note: Besides noting the daunting challenge of transporting so much natron (hundreds of tons) to the pyramid worksites, the authors also review the chemical evidence.

15. Dipayan Jana, “The Great Pyramid Debate. Evidence from Detailed Petrographic Examinations of Casing Stones from the Great Pyramid of Khufu, A Natural Limestone from Tura, and a Man-Made (Geopolymeric) Limestone,” Proceedings of the Twenty-Ninth Conference on Cement Microscopy (Quebec City, Canada, May 20-24, 2007): 207-266. Note: Jana's exhaustive analysis should have ended the debate, unless one takes a position of extreme skepticism and doubts the ultimate provenance of the examined stones (the casement stone came from the British Museum, the Tura limestone from Egypt, and the polymeric concrete from Mr. Davidovits). However, the provenance question was resolved the following year by Liritzis et al. (see below), who examined samples taken directly from monuments (I. Liritzis et al., “Mineralogical, Petrological and Radioactivity Aspects of Some Building Material from Egyptian Old Kingdom Monuments,” Journal of Cultural Heritage 9, no. 1 [January 2008]). Note: This study subjected Egyptian monument stones to spectrographic and X-ray analysis. In addition, the scientists found numerous fossils of small sea creatures in the limestone that match those at the nearby limestone quarries in both species and distribution patterns. (Fossils are common in limestone, but not after it has been processed into concrete—the exception being those impressions, unquestionably of Homo sapiens, found in front of Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood, California.)

16. Mark Lehner, “Some Observations on the Layout of the Khufu and Khafre Pyramids,” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 20 (1983): 7, 12-13.

17. John Noble Wilford, “Scientist Says Concrete Was Used in Pyramids,” New York Times, November 10, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/30/science/30cnd-pyramid.html (accessed June 3, 2011).

18. “The Minoan Civilization of Crete,” BBC Online, http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A765l46-54 (accessed June 4, 2011).

19. “Minoan Crete,” Timeless Myths, http://www.timelessmyths.com/classical/crete.html (accessed June 4, 2011).

20. Vickie James Yiannias, “What's New Is Old Again,” Greek News Online, September 29, 2008, http://www.greeknewsonline.com/?p=9171 (accessed June 4, 2011).

21. Richard A. Lovett, “'Atlantis' Eruption Twice as Big as Previously Believed, Study Suggests,” National Geographic News Online, August 23, 2006, http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/08/060823-thera-volcano.html (accessed June 4, 2011).

22. Ibid.

23. Wikipedia, “Linear A,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_A (accessed June 4, 2011).

24. Colin F. MacDonald and Jan M. Driessen, “The Drainage System of the Domestic Quarter in the Palace at Knossos,” Annual of the British School at Athens 83 (1988): 235-58. See also Vincenzo La Rosa, “A Hypothesis on Earthquakes and Political Power in Minoan Crete,” Annali di Geofisica 38, nos. 5-6 (November-December 1995): 881-91, http://www.earth-prints.org/bitstream/2122/1806/1/38%20la%20rosa.pdf (accessed June 4, 2011). Note: Article touches on Minoan concrete, including nice photographs of it in situ (see pp. 884-85).

25. Paul J. Krumnacher, “Lime and Cement Technology: Transition from Traditional to Standardized Treatment Methods” (master's thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, February 5, 2001): 4.

 

CHAPTER 3: THE GOLD STANDARD

 

1. Arthur Nussbaum, “The Significance of Roman Law in the History of International Law,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 110, no. 5 (March 1952): 578-687.

2. Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War. Many good translations are available in English.

3. Pliny the Younger (Gaius Plinius Luci), Letters, book 2, letters 12 and 13; book 3, letter 4. The best English translation is easily the one by Betty Radice, The Letters of Pliny the Younger (London: Penguin Classics, 1969). See also Marcus Tullius Cicero, In Verrem, an English translation of which is available at the Society of Ancient Language website: http://www.uah.edu/student_life/organizations/SAL/texts/latin/classical/cicero/inverrems1e.html (accessed June 5, 2011).

4. “Background to Life in the Roman Empire,” Schools History, http://www.schoolshistory.org.uk/gcseromebackround.htm (accessed June 5, 2011).

5. “Via Aurelia: The Roman Empire's Lost Highway,” Archaeology News, http://archaeologynews.multiply.com/journal/item/773 (accessed June 22, 2011). See also Wikipedia, “Tabula Peutingeriana,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_Peutingeriana (accessed June 5, 2011).

6. “The Practice of Sterilization of Surgical Instruments Was Introduced by…?” The Student Doctor Network, http://www.studentdoctor.net/pandabearmd/2007/11/14/everything-you-need-to-know-about-complementary-and-alternative-medicine-part-2/ (accessed June 4, 2011).

7. “Roman Military Trivia,” Historum, http://www.historum.com/ancient-history/9984-roman-military-trivia.html (accessed June 4, 2011). See also “The Practice of Sterilization of Surgical Instruments.”

8. John W. Humphrey, John P. Oleson, and Andrew N. Sherwood, Greek and Roman Technology: A Source Book (London: Routledge, 1999), p. 28.

9. Lionel Casson, Travel in the Ancient World (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), pp. 203-211.

10. T. R. Reid, “The World According to Rome,” National Geographic, August 1997, p. 18.

11. Theophrastus's On Stones (English translation) can be found at Farlang, http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/theophrastus-on-stones/page_054 (accessed June 5, 2011).

12. Anna Marguerite McCann, “The Harbor and Fishery Remains at Cosa, Italy,” Journal of Field Archaeology 6, no. 4 (Winter 1979): 391-411.

13. Cato the Elder (Marcus Porcius Cato), De Agricultura (On Agriculture), also known as De Re Rustica (On Rural Affairs).

14. Vitruvius (Marcus Vitruvius Pollio), De Architectura (On Architecture), also known as The Ten Books on Architecture.

15. Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus), Naturalis Historiae (Natural History).

16. Plutarch (Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus), The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, trans. John Dryden, rev. Arthur Hugh Clough (Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1952), pp. 276-92. Note: I updated the Dryden translation from Greek of the little verse written about Cato's sour character to conform to more contemporary English.

17. Cato the Elder, De Agricultura, book 1, chap. 38, lines 1-4. I based my text on the translation by W. D. Cooper and H. B. Ash, published in the Loeb Classical Library series and largely influenced by an earlier German translation found in the Teubner edition by Goertz. The text comes from Bill Thayer's wonderful website Lacus Curtius: http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cato/De_Agricultura/A*.html (accessed August 21, 2011).

18. David Moore, “The Secrets of Roman Concrete,” Constructor, September 2002, p. 16.

19. Vitruvius, De Architectura, book 5, chap. 12, paras. 2-4.

20. Vitruvius, De Architectura. I worked with the translation by Morris Hicky Morgan, published by Harvard University Press (1914), which is now in the public domain and can be found on Project Gutenberg's website at http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20239/20239-h/29239-h.htm (accessed August 20, 2011). As with many of the older translations (which are often based on even older versions), I may have slightly modified the English text to make its sense clearer. I invite people to compare my text with the original if they suspect that I might have strayed too far from the primary sources.

21. Derek Williams, Romans and Barbarians—Four Views from the Empire's Edge (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998), p. 131.

22. Wikipedia, “I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_quattro_libri_dell%27architettura (accessed June 5, 2011).

23. Vitruvius, De Architectura, book 1, chap. 1, para. 7.

24. Vitruvius, De Architectura, book 8, chap. 6, paras. 10-11.

25. Vitruvius De Architectura, book 2, chap. 4, para. 1.

26. Vitruvius De Architectura, book 2, chap. 5, para. 1.

27. Vitruvius De Architectura, book 2, chap. 6, para. 1.

28. Vitruvius De Architectura, book 5, chap. 12, paras. 2-4.

29. Robert L. Hohlfelder, “Beyond Coincidence? Marcus Agrippa and King Herod's Harbor,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 59, no. 4 (October 2000): 241-42. Note: Perhaps the best examination of the political dimensions of Herod's massive building project at Caesarea, as well as the complicated relationship the Judean king had with Rome. Analysis of the wood used for the harbor shows that it came from Central Europe. My hypothesis about its specific origin (the Danube area) and use is merely a suggestion, and I am open to alternative scenarios.

30. Ibid., pp. 249-50.

31. Ibid., pp. 248-49.

32. Ibid., p. 242-43.

33. Ibid., p. 249.

34. John P. Oleson, Robert L. Hohlfelder, Avner Raban, and R. Lindley Vann, “The Caesarea Ancient Harbor Excavation Project (C. A. H. E. P.): Preliminary Report on the 1980-1983 Seasons,” Journal of Field Archaeology 1, no. 3 (Autumn 1984): 288-89.

35. Ibid., pp. 297-98.

36. Ibid., p. 298.

37. Ibid., pp. 297-99.

38. Ibid., pp. 284-85.

39. Ibid., p. 297.

40. Robert L. Hohlfelder, John P. Oleson, Avner Raban, and R. Lindley Vann, “Herod's Harbour at Caesarea Maritime,” Biblical Archaeologist 47, no. 3 (Summer 1983): 137.

41. Michael Vasta, “Flavian Visual Propaganda: Building a Dynasty,” Constructing the Past 8, no. 1 (2007): 112-14.

42. Wikipedia, “Caesarea Maritima,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima (accessed June 6, 2011).

43. Christopher Brandon et al., “The Roman Maritime Concrete Study (ROMACONS): The Harbour of Cheronisos in Crete and Its Italian Connection,” Méditerranée 104 (2005): 25-29.

44. Anthony A. Barrett, Caligula: The Corruption of Power (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998), pp. 198-200. See also Samuel Ball Platner, A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (London: Oxford University Press, 1929), pp. 370-71.

45. Pliny the Elder, Historia Naturalis, book 36, para. 70. My quotes are based on the excellent translation by John F. Healy for Penguin Classics. Sadly, it is not the complete encyclopedia but only “a selection.” Those interested in reading Pliny's entire tome can consult the version at Lacus Curtius: http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/home.html.

46. Ibid., p. 16, paras. 201-202.

47. Ibid., book 36, para. 53.

48. Hugh Plommer, Vitruvius and Later Roman Building Manuals (London: Cambridge University Press, 1973).

49. Chris Scarre, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors (London: Thames & Hudson, 1995), p. 52.

50. Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, book 6, chap. 31.

51. Ibid.

52. Cassius Dio, History of Rome, book 63, chap. 29.

53. Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, book 8, chap. 13.

54. M.J. Carter, “Gladiatorial Combat: The Rules of Engagement,” Classical Journal 102, no. 2 (December-January 2006-2007): 97-114.

55. “Roman Gladiators,” Ancient History Encyclopedia, http://www.ancient.eu.com/article/38/ (accessed June 6, 2011).

56. Thomas Horner-Dixon, The Upside of Down: Catastrophe, Creativity, and the Renewal of Civilization (Washington, DC: Island Press/Shearwater Books, 2006), pp. 31-56. Copies of his online essay on the Colosseum's construction can be downloaded at http://www.theupsideofdown.com/rome/colosseum.

57. K. M. Coleman, “Launching into History: Aquatic Displays in the Early Empire,” Journal of Roman Studies 83 (1993): 48-49, 58-60.

58. David Moore, “How I Became Interested in Roman Concrete,” Roman Concrete.com, http://www.romanconcrete.com/docs/my_interest/my_interest.htm (accessed June 6, 2011).

59. Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (New York: Fred de Fau and Co., 1906), p. 1.

60. N. S. Gill, “Hadrian's Wall,” About.com, Ancient-Classical History, http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/rome/a/aa060600a.htm (accessed June 6, 2011).

61. Leofranc Holford-Strevens, Aulus Gellius (London: Gerald Duckworth, 1988), pp. 72-92.

62. Adam Ziolkowski, “Was Agrippa's Pantheon the Temple of Mars in Campo?” Papers of the British School at Rome 62 (1994): 261-77.

63. Ibid., p. 263.

64. “Pantheon,” Great Buildings, http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Pantheon.html (accessed June 6, 2011).

65. Jo Marchant, “Is the Roman Pantheon a Giant Sundial?” New Scientist (February 4, 2009), http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S026240790960261X (accessed June 6, 2011).

66. Lambert Rosenbusch, “Pantheon as an Image of the Universe,” European Mathematical Information Service, http://www.emis.de/journals/NNJ/conf_reps_v6n1-Rosenbusch.html (accessed June 7, 2011).

67. David Moore, “The Riddle of Ancient Roman Concrete,” Spillway (February 1993), a newsletter of the United States Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Colorado Region. A copy may be found at http://www.romanconcrete.com/docs/spillway/spillway.htm (accessed June 11, 2011).

68. Cassius Dio, History of Rome, book 53, sect. 27, lines 2-4.

69. “The Roman Pantheon,” Socyberty, http://socyberty.com/society/the-roman-pantheon/ (accessed June 7, 2011).

 

CHAPTER 4: CONCRETE IN MESOAMERICA AND RENAISSANCE EUROPE

 

1. The subject of the amount of limestone kilned and its effect on deforestation is controversial. It must be remembered that plaster weathers away, so calculations based on remaining amounts are dicey propositions. For more information on current thinking on the subject, see Elliot M. Abrams and David J. Rue, “The Causes and Consequences of Deforestation among the Prehistoric Maya,” Human Ecology 16, no. 4 (December 1988): 377-95; see also D. Clark Wernecke, “A Burning Question: Maya Lime Technology and the Maya Forest,” Journal of Ethnobiology 28, no. 2 (September 2008): 200-210; also check out Edwin R. Littmann, “Ancient Mesoamerican Mortars, Plasters, and Stuccos: Palenque, Chiapas, American Antiquity 25, no. 2 (October 1959): 264-66, and the same author's “Ancient Mesoamerican Mortars, Plasters, and Stuccos: The Use of Bark Extracts in Lime Plasters,” American Antiquity 25, no. 4 (April 1960): 593-97.

2. Lucia A. Ciapponi, “Fra Giocondo da Verona and His Edition of Vitruvius,” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 47 (1984): 72-90.

3. Joerg Garms, “Projects for the Pont Neuf and Place Dauphine in the First Half of the Eighteenth Century,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 26, no. 2 (May 1967): 102-13.

 

CHAPTER 5: THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN CONCRETE

 

1. Major A.J. Francis, The Cement Industry: 1796-1914: A History (London: David & Charles, 1977), pp. 19-20; see also H. D. (author's initials), “Andernach Trass,” Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. 39, part 1, ed. James Forrest (1874-1875): 313-16.

2. R. J. M. Sutherland, Dawn Humm, and Mike Chrimes, Historic Concrete: Background to Appraisal (London: Thomas Telford, 2001), p. 118.

3. Ibid.

4. Wikipedia, “Horsepower,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsepower (accessed June 7, 2011).

5. John Smeaton, Reports of the Late John Smeaton, 2 vols. (London: M. Taylor, 1832). Note: these two large volumes of John Smeaton's letters, essays, and articles collected after his death for publication lead one to suspect that he must have spent much of what little spare time he had between his major building projects and extensive experiments writing.

6. Henry Reid, The Science and Art of the Manufacture of Portland Cement (London: E. & F. N. Spon, 1877), p. xvii; see also Wikipedia, “Henry Winstanley,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Winstanley (accessed June 7, 2011). See also Smeaton's Tower, LAL Torbay Stop Press, November 2009, http://lalschools.com/uploads/media/Smeaton-Tower.pdf (accessed June 7, 2011).

7. Ibid.

8. Uriah Cummings, American Cements (Boston: Rogers & Manson, 1898), p. 16.

9. Reid, The Science and Art of the Manufacture of Portland Cement, p. xvi.

10. John Smeaton, A Narrative of the Building and a Description of the Construction of the Eddystone Lighthouse with Stone (London: 1791). Note: This was reprinted many times, and a poor-quality text version of the 1881 edition is available at US Archive: http://ia600208.us.archive.org/3/items/bookofbritishtop00andeuoft/bookofbritishtop00andeuoft_djvu.txt.

11. Bryan Higgins, Experiments and Observations Made with the View of Improving the Art of Composing and Applying Calcareous Cements, and of Preparing Quicklime. Theory of These, and Specification of the Author's Cheap and Durable Cement for Building, Incrustation, or Stuccoing, and Artificial Stone (London: T. Cadell, 1780). See also Francis, The Cement Industry, p. 24.

12. Francis, The Cement Industry, p. 26.

13. Ibid., pp. 30-31.

14. Ibid., p. 27.

15. Ibid., p. 28.

16. Ibid., p. 29.

17. Ibid., pp. 30-31.

18. Ibid., pp. 35-36, 43.

19. Ibid., p. 32.

20. Ibid., pp. 20-24.

21. Ibid., pp. 43-44.

22. Ibid., p. 43.

23. Nicky Smith, “Pre-Industrial Lime Kilns, Introduction to Heritage Assets,” English Heritage (May 2011): 2-5. See also Francis, The Cement Industry, pp. 36, 71.

24. Richard Beamish, Memoir of the Life of Sir Marc Isambard Brunei (London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts, 1862), pp. 1-2.

25. Ibid., pp. 8-9.

26. Ibid., p. 240.

27. Patrick Beaver, A History of Tunnels (Secaucus, NJ: Citadel Press, 1973), p. 42. See also Ted Rohrlich, “Metro Tunnel Project: Metro Rail Digs: Risky Business,” Los Angeles Times, March 22, 1987, http://articles.latimes.com/1987-03-22/news/mn-15118_1_metro-rail-design/2 (accessed June 8, 2011).

28. Beamish, Memoir of the Life of Sir Marc Isambard Brunei, pp. 240-41.

29. Beaver, History of Tunnels, p. 42.

30. Ibid.

31. Ibid. (footnote).

32. Ibid., p. 43.

33. “A Great Bore Made Useful,” in Chambers Journal (W. & R. Chambers, 1866): 405. Note: Beamish's biography tactfully skips over probable reasons, though the article cited here (authorship not provided) claims that Marc Brunel “became ill in consequence of the intense mental and bodily labour and excitement during this anxious period.”

34. Beamish, Memoir of the Life of Sir Marc Isambard Brunel, pp. 260-61.

35. John Timbs, Curiosities of London (London: David Bogue, 1855), pp. 712-13.

36. Kendall F. Haven, 100 Greatest Science Inventions (Greenwood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 2006), p. 25.

37. Wikipedia, “Joseph Aspdin,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Aspdin (accessed August 25, 2011).

38. Francis, The Cement Industry, pp. 76-78.

39. Ibid., pp. 78-79.

40. A. C. Smeaton, The Builder's Pocket Manual: Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, & Architecture (London: M. Taylor, 1837), p. 21.

41. Francis, The Cement Industry, p. 96.

42. Ibid., pp. 82-83.

43. Ibid., p. 115.

44. Ibid., pp. 83-84.

45. Ibid., p. 115.

46. Ibid., p. 113.

47. Ibid., p. 149.

48. Ibid., pp. 149-50.

49. Robert W Lesley, History of the Portland Cement Industry in the United States (Chicago: International Trade Press, 1924), p. 36.

50. Francis, The Cement Industry, p. 124.

51. G. Haegermann, “Dokumente zur Entstehungsgeschichte des Portland-Cements,” ZKG—Zement Kalk Gips 1, no. 1 (January 23, 1970): 10. (“…indessen verstand der Mann sein Fach nicht.”)

52. Ibid., p. 11: (“Nachdem das zwischen Herrn Ed. Fewer in Lägerdorf und mir bestehende Societätsverhältnis aufgehoben worden ist, liegt mir nicht länger eine Verantwortlichkeit für die Qualität and Güte desjenigen Cements ob, welcher von dem Herrn Ed. Fewer fortan in Lägerdorf fabriziert werden wird. Ebensowenig ist es dem letzteren fernerhin gestattet, meinen Namen für seine Fabrikmarke zu benutzen. Itzhoe, d. 9 Juli 1863.”)

53. Ibid.

54. Wikipedia, “100 Greatest Britons,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100_Greatest_Britons (accessed August 25, 2011).

55. Francis, The Cement Industry, p. 77.

56. Ibid., pp. 77-78.

57. Ibid., pp. 78-79.

58. Hermione Hobhouse, “The West India Docks,” British History Online, http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=46495 (accessed June 9, 2011).

59. Francis, The Cement Industry, p. 96.

60. Sally Festing, “Great Credit upon the Ingenuity and Taste of Mr. Pulham,” Garden History 16, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 90-102.

61. Francis, The Cement Industry, p. 93.

 

CHAPTER 6: REFINEMENTS, REINFORCEMENT, AND PROLIFERATION

 

1. Major A. J. Francis, The Cement Industry: 1796-1914: A History (London: David & Charles, 1977), p. 253.

2. Ibid., pp. 258-66.

3. David Merlin Jones, “'Rock Solid?' An Investigation into the British Cement Industry,” Civitas (November 2010): 1-2.

4. Francis, The Cement Industry, pp. 231-34, 254-55.

5. Ibid., pp. 231-35.

6. Albert Wells Buel and Charles Shattuck Hill, Reinforced Concrete (New York: Engineering News Publishing Company, 1904), p. 205. See also Terri Meyer Boake, “Reinforced Concrete,” in Building Construction, chap. 6, p. 3, online essay at Waterloo University's Department of Architecture website, http://www.architecture.uwaterloo.ca/faculty_projects/terri/images/course_pdf/172-ch6.pdf (accessed June 8, 2011).

7. G. A. Wayss, Das System Monier, Eisengerippe mit Cementumhüllung, in seiner Anwendung auf das gesammte Bauwesen (Berlin, 1887).

8. Wikipedia, “François Coignet,” http://127.0.0.1:4664/search?q=monier&flags=68&s=_005E4_ZZu0-wgHZ72GWqKBxdxg (accessed June 8, 2011).

9. Mary S. J. Gani, Cement and Concrete (London: Spon Press, 1997), p. 8.

10. Francis, The Cement Industry, p. 127.

11. Arthur S. Masten, The History of Cohoes, From Its Earliest Settlements to the Present Time (New York: J. Munsell, 1877): pp. 265-67.

12. Sara E. Wermiel, “California Concrete, 1876-1906: Jackson, Percy, and the Beginnings of Reinforced Concrete Construction in the United States,” Proceedings of the Third International Congress on Construction History (May 2009): 1-2.

13. Ernest Leslie Ransome and Alexis Saurbrey, Reinforced Concrete Buildings (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1912), pp. 1-2.

14. Oscar Wilde, The Picture of Dorian Gray (London: Bibliolis Books, 2011 [ed. of 1897 original]), p. 222.

15. Rudyard Kipling, “Great Quotes,” http://www.greatquotes.com/quotes/author/Rudyard/Kipling/keyword/san+francisco (accessed June 8, 2011).

16. Hinton Rowan Helper, The Land of Gold (Baltimore, MD: Sherwood & Co., 1855), p. 58.

17. Ransome and Saurbrey, Reinforced Concrete Buildings, p. 2.

18. Ibid., p. 3.

19. Wermiel, “California Concrete,” pp. 2-4.

20. Ransome and Saurbrey, Reinforced Concrete Buildings, p. 2.

21. Raymond H. Clary, The Making of Golden Gate Park: The Early Years: 1865-1906 (San Francisco: Don't Call It Frisco Press, 1988), pp. 100, 103, 158. See also “Sweeney Observatory,” http://www.outsidelands.org/sweeney-observatory.php (accessed June 8, 2011).

22. The many accolades given to reinforced concrete's resiliency to the earthquake and fire will be covered in depth in chap. 9 of this book.

 

CHAPTER 7: THE WIZARD AND THE ARCHITECT

 

1. Michael Peterson, “Thomas Edison's Concrete Houses,” Invention & Technology Magazine 11, no. 3 (Winter 1996).

2. Ibid.

3. Ibid.

4. “Edison Now Making Concrete Furniture,” New York Times, December

9, 1911.

5. Ibid.

6. Ford Richardson Bryan, Beyond the Model T: The Other Ventures of Henry Ford (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1997), p. 76.

7. Ibid., pp. 77-78.

8. Roger Friedland and Harold Zellman, The Fellowship: The Untold Story of Frank Lloyd Wright and the Taliesin Fellowship (New York: Harper Perennial, 2006), pp. 2-11.

9. Meryle Secrest, Frank Lloyd Wright (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), pp. 59-61.

10. Ibid., pp. 419-20.

11. Jackie Craven, “Louis Sullivan, America's First Modern Architect,” About.com, http://architecture.about.com/od/greatarchitects/p/sullivan.htm (accessed June 8, 2011).

12. Edward H. Madden, “Transcendental Influences on Louis H. Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright,” Transactions of the Charles S. Pierce Society 32, no. 2 (Spring 1995): 286-321. See also Mark Mumford, “Form Follows Nature: The Origins of American Organic Architecture,” Journal of Architectural Education 42, no. 3 (Spring 1989): 26-28.

13. Frank Lloyd Wright, Genius and the Mobocracy (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1949).

14. Secrest, Frank Lloyd Wright, pp. 192-93, 202-209, 212-13.

15. Frank Lloyd Wright, Frank Lloyd Wright: Essential Texts, ed. Robert Twombly (New York: W. W. Norton, 2009), p. 86.

16. Judith A. Sebesta, “Spectacular Failure: Frank Lloyd Wright's Midway Gardens and Chicago Entertainment,” Theater Journal 53, no. 2 (May 2001): 291-309.

17. Wikipedia, “Parthenon (Nashville),” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenon_%28Nashville%29 (accessed June 8, 2011).

18. Secrest, Frank Lloyd Wright, pp. 217-24.

19. William Han Kan Lee, “International Handbook of Earthquake & Engineering Seismology,” International Association of Seismology and Physics of the Earth's Interior—Committee of the International Association for Earthquake Engineering 1, no. 1 (Orlando, FL: Academic Press, 2002): 39. See also David J. Wald, “Variable-Slip Rupture Model of the Great 1923 Kanto, Japan Earthquake: Geodetic and Body-Waveform Analysis,” Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 85 (1995): 163.

20. Bryce Walker, Earthquake (New York: Time-Life Books, 1987), p. 153.

21. Ibid., p. 152.

 

CHAPTER 8: THE CONCRETIZATION OF THE WORLD

 

1. Colbert Roberto A. Reid, “The Panama Canal Death Tolls,” December 17, 2008, Silver People Foundation, http://thesilverpeopleheritage.wordpress.com/2008/12/17/the-panama-canal-death-tolls/ (accessed June 10, 2011).

2. Raul Berreneche, “Mies in Berlin,” MoMA 4, no. 4 (May, 2010): 2.

3. Roger Friedland and Harold Zellman, The Fellowship: The Untold Story of Frank Lloyd Wright and the Taliesin Fellowship (New York: Harper Perennial, 2006), pp. 405-406.

4. Meryle Secrest, Frank Lloyd Wright (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), p. 442.

5. Ibid., p. 443.

6. Friedland and Zellman, The Fellowship, pp. 310-13.

7. Ibid., p. 366; Secrest, Frank Lloyd Wright, pp. 486-87.

8. Friedman and Zellman, The Fellowship, p. 374. See also Wikipedia, “Hilla von Rebay,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilla_von_Rebay (accessed June 10, 2011).

9. “The Gordon Strong Automobile Objective, Sugarloaf Mountain, Maryland, 1924-1925,” in Frank Lloyd Wright: Designs for an American Landscape, 1922-1932 (Library of Congress), http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/flw/flw02.html (accessed June 10, 2011).

10. Secrest, Frank Lloyd Wright, p. 551.

11. John Yeomans, The Other Taj Mahal: What Happened to the Sydney Opera House (London: Longmans, Green and Company, 1968), p. 63.

12. Ibid., pp. 22-23.

13. Ibid., pp. 12-13.

14. Nevill Drury, The Art of Rosaleen Norton, with Poems by Gavin Greenlees (London: Walter Glover, 1982).

15. Wikipedia, “Rosaleen Norton,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosaleen_Norton (accessed June 10, 2011).

16. Yeomans, The Other Taj Mahal, p. 11.

17. Ibid., p. 34.

18. Ibid., p. 26.

19. Ibid.

20. Ibid., p. 27.

21. Robert Hughes, The Shock of the New (New York: Knopf Doubleday, 1991).

22. Wikipedia, “Robert Askin,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Askin (accessed June 10, 2011).

23. Yeomans, The Other Taj Mahal, pp. 130-32.

24. Eric Ellis, “Utzon Speaks,” Good Weekend, October 31, 1992. Copy can be found at http://www.ericellis.com/utzon.htm (accessed May 1, 2011).

25. Yeomans, The Other Taj Mahal, p. 148.

26. Ibid.

27. Ibid., p. 149.

 

CHAPTER 9: THE BAD NEWS

 

1. Myron H. Lewis and Albert H. Chandler, Popular Hand Book for Cement and Concrete Users (New York: Norman W. Henley Publishing Company, 1911), pp. 166-67; see also Charles W. Bates, “Some Advantages of Reinforced Concrete Construction,” Ohio Architect Engineer and Builder 20, no. 5 (November 1912): 57-60.

2. Frederick W. Taylor and Sanford E. Thompson, A Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1916), p. 11. See also Charles Pallisher, Practical Concrete Block Making (New York: Industrial Publishing Company, 1908), p. 8.

3. “Fire and Quake Proof Building,” New York Tribune, January 6, 1907, p. 6; see also Cement Age 3, no. 1 (June 1906): 111.

4. Reinforced Concrete in Factory Construction (New York: Atlas Portland Cement Company, 1907), pp. 47-58.

5. Joseph Freitag, Fire Prevention and Fire Protection as Applied to Building Construction (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1912), pp. 209-210.

6. Emil Mörsch, Der Eisenbetonbau—Seine Theorie und Anwendung (Stuttgart: Konrad Wittwer, 1906), p. 1.

7. Gladys Hansen and Emmett Condon, Denial of Disaster (San Francisco: Cameron and Company, 1989).

8. Bobby Caina Calvin, “San Francisco Revises Death Toll for 1906 Earthquake. Tally Could Exceed 3,400,” Boston Globe, February 27, 2005, http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2005/02/27/san_francisco_revises_death_toll_for_1906_earthquake/ (accessed June 12, 2005).

9. The San Francisco Earthquake and Fire of April 18,1906and Their Effects on Structures and Structural Materials, Reports by Grove Karl Gilbert, Richard Lewis Humphrey, John Stephen Sewell, and Frank Soulé (Washington, DC: Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, 1907): 29-30.

10. Ibid., p. 109.

11. Ibid., p. 33.

12. Ibid., p. 125.

13. Ibid., p. 126.

14. Ibid.

15. Ibid., p. 130.

16. Ibid., p. 147.

17. Ibid., p. 150.

18. David Starr Jordan, John Casper Branner, Charles Derleth Jr., Grove Karl Gilbert, F. Omori, Stephen Taber, Harold W. Fairbanks, Mary Austin, The California Earthquake of1906 (San Francisco: A. M. Robertson, 1907), p. 114.

19. Ibid., p. 131.

20. Ibid., p. 133.

21. Ibid., p. 134.

22. A. L. A. Himmelwright, The San Francisco Earthquake and Fire (New York: Roebling Construction Company, 1906), p. 226; see also Burnt Clay Products in Earthquake and Fire (Los Angeles: Brick Construction Company, 1907), pp. 46-47.

23. F. W. Fitzpatrick, “The San Francisco Calamity,” Fireproof Magazine 9, no. 1 (July 1906): 45; see also Burnt Clay Products in Earthquake and Fire, p. 59.

24. The San Francisco Earthquake and Fire of April 18, 1906, p. 109.

25. Burnt Clay Products in Earthquake and Fire, p. 58.

26. The San Francisco Earthquake and Fire of April 18, 1906, p. 33.

27. Mark A. Wilson, Julia Morgan, Architect of Beauty (Layton, UT: Gibbs Smith, 2007), p. 57.

28. “The Cement Market,” Cement and Engineering News, June 1906, p. 134.

29. John R. Freeman, Earthquake Damage and Earthquake Insurance (McGraw-Hill, 1932).

30. Ibid., p. 321.

31. Author's interview with Robert Nason, September 21, 1996.

32. Stephen Tobriner, “An EERI Reconnaissance Report: Damage to San Francisco in the 1906 Earthquake: A Centennial Perspective,” Earthquake Spectra 22, sect. 2 (April 2006): 22.

33. Burnt Clay Products in Earthquake and Fire, p. 4.

34. Fitzpatrick, “The San Francisco Calamity,” p. 27.

35. Ibid., p. 29.

36. Starr Jordan et al., The California Earthquake of1906, p. 134.

37. Author's interview with Robert Nason, September 21, 1996.

38. “You Build Not for a Day, But for 1,000 Years,” Cement and Engineering News 17, no. 12 (December 1905): 40.

39. Richard L. Humphrey, “Concrete and Seawater,” Concrete-Cement Age 7, no. 6 (December 1915): 205.

40. Richard L. Humphrey, “Address of the President,” Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Convention of the American Concrete Institute 10 (1914; published by the Institute, 1917): 52.

41. Ibid.

42. W. G. Gregory, Concrete and Building Work (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1959).

43. Ernest Leslie Ransome and Alexis Saubrey, Reinforced Concrete Buildings (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1912), pp. 10, 12.

44. Philip H. Perkins, Concrete Structures: Repair, Waterproofing and Protection (Elsevier Science, 1977), p. 33; see also Gregory, Concrete and Building Work, p. 37.

45. P. Kumar Mehta and Richard W. Burrows, “Building Durable Structures in the 21st Century,” Concrete International23, no. 3 (March 2001): 59.

46. Ibid., pp. 59-60.

47. Ibid., p. 60.

48. Ibid., p. 61.

49. “Fact Sheet: Bridges,” Infrastructure Report Card (compiled 2006), American Society of Civil Engineers, http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/fact-sheet/bridges (accessed June 13, 2011).

50. “Fact Sheet: Roads,” Infrastructure Report Card, American Society of Civil Engineers, http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/fact-sheet/roads (accessed June 13, 2011).

51. “Fact Sheet: Waste Water,” Infrastructure Report Card, American Society of Civil Engineers, http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/fact-sheet/wastewater (accessed June 13, 2011).

52. “Report Cards,” American Society of Civil Engineers, http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/report-cards (accessed June 13, 2011).

53. Deborah N. Huntzinger and Thomas D. Eatmon, “A Life-Cycle Assessment of Portland Cement Manufacturing: Comparing the Traditional Process with Alternative Technologies,” Journal of Cleaner Production 17 (2009): 668.

 

CHAPTER 10: THE GOOD NEWS

 

1. Erica von Tassel, “Alternate Cementitious Materials,” course material, Pennsylvania State College of Engineering, http://www.engr.psu.edu/ce/courses/ce584/concrete/library/materials/Altmaterials/Altmaterialsmain.htm (accessed June 13, 2011).

2. Gabriel Nelson, “EPA Agrees to Rethink Parts of New Cement Kiln Rules,” New York Times, May 13, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/gwire/2011/05/13/13greenwire-epa-agrees-to-rethink-parts-of-new-cement-kiln-66661.html (accessed June 13, 2011); see also “Cement Industry Challenges Pollution Cuts That Would Save Lives and Money,” Aggregate Research, November 9, 2010, http://www.aggregateresearch.com/articles/20717/Cement-industry-challenges-pollution-cuts-that-would-save-lives—money.aspx (accessed June 13, 2011).

3. P. Kumar Mehta, “High-Performance, High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete for Sustainable Development,” International Workshop for Sustainable Development and Concrete Technology 5, Institute for Transportation, Iowa State University, http://www.intrans.iastate.edu/pubs/sustainable/mehtasustainable.pdf (accessed June 13,2011).

4. Wikipedia, “Cathodic Protection,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodic_protection (accessed June 13, 2011).

5. “Galvanic Corrosion, Bimetallic Corrosion,” Corrosionist, http://www.corrosionist.com/Galvanic_Corrosion.htm (accessed June 13, 2011).

6. A. Franchi and P. Crespi, “Some Recent Results of Tests on Steel Rebars,” Vanadium International Technical Committee, http://www.vanitec.org/pdfs/b92231bbe939ca130af90cbe324b524c.pdf (accessed June 14, 2010).

7. “Cathodic Protection,” National Physical Laboratory (UK), http://www.npl.co.uk/upload/pdf/cathodic_protection.pdf (accessed June 13, 2011).

8. Rengaswamy Srinivasan, Periya Gopalam et al., “Design of Cathodic Protection of Rebars in Concrete Structure: An Electrochemical Engineering Approach,” Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest 17, no. 4 (1996): 362.

9. “FRP Rebar,” Emerging Construction Technologies, Division of Construction Engineering and Management, Purdue University, http://rebar.ecn.purdue.edu/ect/links/technologies/civil/frprebar.aspx (accessed June 14, 2011).

10. Doug Gremel and Ryan Koch, “Bridge Construction,” Roads and Bridges, January 2009, p. 31; see also R. V. Balendran et al., “Application of FRP Bars as Reinforcement in Civil Engineering Structures,” Structural Survey 20, no. 2 (2002): 62-72.

11. Doug Gremel, “Commercialization of Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer Rebar,” SEAOH Convention, Concrete for the New Millennium, July 1999, http://www.vectorgroup.com/SEA0%20Hawaii%20Aug%2799.pdf (accessed June 14, 2011).

12. David Stein, “Aluminum Bronze Alloy for Corrosion Resistant Rebar,” IDEA Project (Innovations Deserving Exploratory Analysis Project), Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, NCHRP-ID019 (December 1996): 1-13.

13. Wikipedia, “Bronze,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze (accessed June 14, 2011). Article discusses classic bronze; for aluminum bronze alloys, see n. 12 above).

14. “History of the Hockley Viaduct,” Friends of the Hockley Viaduct, http://www.hockleyviaduct.hampshire.org.uk/index_files/Page298.htm (accessed June 14, 2011).

15. Kathy Riggs Larsen, “Pentagon Memorial: Designed with Corrosion in Mind. Architects, Contractor Plan for Structures to Last 100 Years,” Materials Performance (November 2008): 30-34.