Every Living Thing

Endnotes

1. What We All Used to Know

1. Kitchen, A., M. M. Miyamoto, and C. J. Mulligan. 2008. A Three-Stage Colonization Model for the Peopling of the Americas. PLoS ONE 3: 1–7.
2. For example, see Seyfarth, R. M., D. L. Cheney, and P. Marler. 1980. Monkey responses to three different alarm calls: evidence of classification and semantic communication. Science 14: 801–803.
3. Fifer, V. 1970. The Empire Builders: A History of the Bolivian Rubber Boom and the Rise of the House of Suárez. Journal of Latin American Studies 2: 113–146.
4. Posey, D. A. 1981. Wasps, Warriors and Fearless Men: Ethnoentomology of the Kayapo Indians of Central Brazil. Journal of Ethnobiology 1: 165–174.
5. Posey, D. A. 1981. Wasps, Warriors and Fearless Men: Ethnoentomology of the Kayapo Indians of Central Brazil. Journal of Ethnobiology 1: 165–174.
6. Bourdy, G. S., DeWalt, S. J., Chávez de Michel, L. R., Roca, A., Deharo, E., Muñoz, V. Balderrama, L. Quenevo, C. and A. Gimenez. 2000. Medicinal plant uses of the Tacana, an Amazonian Bolivian ethnic group. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 70: 87–109; Boom, B. M. 1989. Use of plant resources by the Chácobo. In Resource Management in Amazonia: Indigenous and Folk Strategies, edited by Posey, D. A., and W. Balée 78–86. New York: The New York Botanical Garden.

2. Common Names

1. Details of Linnaeus’s travels to Lapland are provided in part in Black, D. 1979. Carl Linnaeus, Travels. London: Also, Blunt, W. 1971. The Compleat Naturalist. New York: The Viking Press.
2. As quoted in Blunt, W. 1971. The Compleat Naturalist. New York: The Viking Press.
3. As quoted in Blunt, W. 1971. The Compleat Naturalist. New York: The Viking Press.
4. For details of Linnaeus’s cabinet, see Muller-Wille, S. 2006. Linnaeus’ herbarium cabinet: a piece of furniture and its function. Endeavor 30: 60–64.

3. The Invisible World

1. Quoted in Reustow, E. G. 2004. The Microscope in the Dutch Republic. New York: Cambridge University Press.
2. Reustow, E. G. 2004. The Microscope in the Dutch Republic. New York: Cambridge University Press.
3. Details of Swammerdam’s microscopic techniques can be found in Ruestow, E. G. 2004. The Microscope in the Dutch Republic. New York: Cambridge University Press.
4. Details of Swammerdam’s interactions with Bourignon can be found in part in Cobb, M. 2000. Reading and Writing the Book of Nature: Jan Swammerdam (1637–1680). Endeavor 24: 122–128.
5. Cobb, M. 2000. Reading and Writing the Book of Nature: Jan Swammerdam (1637–1680). Endeavor 24: 122–128.
6. For this traditional version of Leeuwenhoek’s story see, for example, Dobell, C. 1932. Antony van Leeuwenhoek and his “Little animals”; being some account of the father of protozoology and bacteriology and his multifarious discoveries in these disciplines. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
7. Korner, L. 2001. Linnaeus: Nature and Nation. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
8. Leeuwenhoek’s discoveries are described in many books and papers, but nowhere more delightfully than by Leeuwenhoek himself in, for example, von Leeuwenhoek, A. 1977. The Select Works of Antony van Leeuwenhoek: Containing his Microscopical Discoveries in Many of the Works of Nature. New York: Arno Press.
9. “A Letter of the Ingenious and Inquisitive Mr. Leeuwenhoeck of Delft, sent to the Secretary of The Royal Society, 5 October 1677” from Hooke, R., 1678. Lectures and Collections; Microscopium (London: J. Martyn, Printer to the Royal Society, 1678), quoted in, Gest, H. 2004. The Discovery of Microorganisms by Robert Hooke and Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek, Fellows of the Royal Society. Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 58: 187–201.

4. The Apostles

1. Quoted in Blunt, W. 1971. The Compleat Naturalist. New York: The Viking Press.
2. W. T. Stearns, for example, suggested that it was the ease of putting species in Linnaeus’s system that is the “clue to the zeal for travel that animated so many of Linnaeus’s students.” Stearns is quoted here from Blunt, W. 1971 The Compleat Naturalist. New York: The Viking Press.
3. Korner, L. 2001. Linnaeus: Nature and Nation. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
4. Korner, L. 2001. Linnaeus: Nature and Nation. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
5. Pain, S. 2007. The Man Who Crossed Carl Linnaeus. New Scientist 195: 41.
6. Ibid.
7. Letter from T. Erwin to P. Darlington about Sweden, May, 1971.
8. Letter from T. Erwin to George E. Ball, November 5, 1971.
9. Alfred Russel Wallace to his agent Stevens, September 12, 1849, published in Annals and Magazine of Natural History, February 5, 1850.
10. Bates, H. W. 1863. A Naturalist on the River Amazons. New York: D. Appleton and Co.
11. Kingston, W. H. G. 1873. Shipwrecks and Disasters at Sea. Oxford: Oxford University.
12. Letter from T. Erwin to George E. Ball, his former advisor on December 14, 1971.
13. Letter from T. Erwin to C. Lindroth, January 25, 1972.
14. Letter from T. Erwin to P. J. Darlington, July 31, 1973.
15. A similar method had been used previously to collect grasshoppers (Roberts, 1973), but the fogging killed all arthropods and so Erwin hoped it would work for beetles too. Roberts, H. R. 1973. Arboreal Orthoptera in the Rain Forest of Costa Rica Collected with Insecticide: A Report on the Grasshoppers (Acrididae), Including New Species. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia 125: 49–66.
16. National Research Council. 1980. Committee on Research Priorities in Tropical Biology. Research Priorities in Tropical Biology.
17. Elton, C. S. 1973. The Structure of Invertebrate Populations inside Neotropical Rain Forests. The Journal of Animal Ecology 42: 55–104.
18. M. Lowman, interview, April 18, 2008.
19. This was Peter Raven’s response. It was Raven’s estimate of global diversity to which Erwin was initially responding. P. Raven, e-mail, January 14, 2008.
20. For example, Erwin, T. L. 1988. The Tropical Forest Canopy: The Heart of Biotic Diversity. In Biodiversity (E. O. Wilson, ed.), pp. 123–129. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
21. May, R. M., and R. J. H. Beverton. 1990. How Many Species? Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences 330: 293–304.

5. Finding Everything

1. Janzen would later, as he would say in a Smithsonian interview, catch “all the meat [he and his family] ate in the last two years” of his undergraduate degree. Much of the detail of the story of Janzen’s life comes from a telephone interview with Janzen on October 24, 2007, during which he could be heard moving boxes and supplies as he pinned moths.
2. Janzen interview, October 24, 2007.
3. Described in part in Allen, W. 2001. Green Phoenix: Restoring the Tropical Forest in Guanacaste, Costa Rica. New York: Oxford University Press.
4. Belt, T. 1874. The Naturalist in Nicaragua. London: J. M. Dent and Sons Ltd.
5. Janzen, D. H. 1966. Coevolution of Mutualism Between Ants and Acacias in Central America. Evolution 20: 249–275.
6. Lessem, D. 1986. From Bugs to Boas, Don Janzen Bags the Rich Coast’s Life. Smithsonian. December 1.
7. Kaesuk, C. 1993. Counting Creatures Great and Small. Science 260: 620–622.
8. Kaesuk, C. 1993. Counting Creatures Great and Small. Science 260: 620–622.
9. Rodrigo Gamez, INBio’s then director, quoted in Kaiser, J. 1997. Unique, All-Taxa Survey in Costa Rica Self-Destructs. Science 276: 893.
10. Sharkey, M. J. 2001. The All Taxa Biological Inventory of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Florida Entomologist 84: 556–564.
11. Letter to Ryan Phelan (CEO of the All Species Foundation) and the members of the executive board from Jody Hey, professor in the Department of Genetics at Rutgers University and thirteen other scientists, dated April 17, 2002.
12. Hebert, P. D. N., E. H. Penton, J. M. Burns, D. H. Janzen, and W. Hallwachs. 2004. Ten species in one: DNA barcoding reveals cryptic species in the neotropical skipper butterfly Astraptes fulgerator. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 101: 14812–14817.
13. Hajibabaei, M., D. H. Janzen, J. M. Burns, W. Hallwachs, and P. D. Hebert. 2006. DNA Barcodes Distinguish Species of Tropical Lepidoptera. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103: 968–971.

6. Finding an Ant-Riding Beetle

1. Stephenson, C. 1938. Leiningen Versus the Ants. Esquire. December.
2. Norton, E. 1868. Notes on Mexican Ants. The American Naturalist 2: 57–72.

7. Dividing the Cell

1. Quoted in McDermott, J. 1991. Lynn Margulis: Vindicated Heretic. In From Gaia to Selfish Genes: Selected Writings in the Life Sciences, edited by C. Barlow 47–56. Cambridge: MIT Press.
2. Robbins, L. H. 1990. Stones, Bones and Ancient Cities. Great Discoveries in Archaeology and the Search for Human Origins. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
3. From di Properzio, J. 2004. Lynn Margulis: Full Speed Ahead. University of Chicago Magazine. February 1.
4. Quoted in Anonymous. 1997. Scientists at play—childhood behavior of scientists and science enthusiasts. Discover, December.
5. Conversation with L. Margulis, March 18, 2008.
6. Ris, H., and W. Plaut. 1962. Ultrastructure of DNA-Containing Areas in the Chloroplast of Chlamydomonas. The Journal of Cell Biology 18: 383–391.
7. According to Margulis (March 18, 2008), she and Ris had both, by this time, read “tens of times” E. B. Wilson’s book The Cell in Development and Inheritance. New York: Macmillan, 1896, in which Wilson discusses (though dismisses) earlier ideas about the symbiotic origins of organelles.
8. From di Properzio, J. 2004. Lynn Margulis: Full Speed Ahead. University of Chicago Magazine. February, 1.
9. Sagan, L. 1967. On the Origin of Mitosing Cells. Journal of Theoretical Biology 14: 255–274.
10. Margulis, L. 1968. Evolutionary Criteria in Thallophytes: A Radical Alternative. Science 161: 1020–1022.
11. Some other Russian scientists would, however, argue for other kinds of symbiosis. Boris Michailovich Kozo-Polyansky (1890–1957) hypothesized that the ability of cells to move was the consequence of a symbiosis. Andrei Sergeivich Faminstyn (1835–1918) tried experimentally to grow chloroplasts in isolation.
12. Quoted in Sapp, J. 1994. Evolution by Association: A History of Symbiosis. New York: Oxford University Press.
13. From di Properzio, J. 2004. Lynn Margulis: Full Speed Ahead. University of Chicago Magazine. February 1.
14. Margulis, L. J. 1970. Origin of Eukaryotic Cells: Evidence and Research Implications for a Theory of the Origin and Evolution of Microbial, Plant and Animal Cells on the Precambrian Earth. New Haven: Yale University Press.

8. Grafting the Tree of Life

1. Stanier, R. Y. 1970. Some Aspects of the Biology of Cells and Their Possible Evolutionary Significance. In H. Organization and Control in Prokaryotic Cells. Twentieth Symposium of the Society for General Microbiology, edited by Charles, P. and B. C. Knight, 1–38. New York: Cambridge University Press.
2. Interview with Carl Woese. 2008. Current Biology, 15: R111–112.
3. Woese, C. R. (unpublished). The Birth of the Archaea, a Personal Retrospective.
4. Friend, T. 2007. The Third Domain. The Untold Story of Archaea and the Future of Biotechnology. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.
5. Wolf would later say that Woese’s “seminal insight was to recognize that ribosomal RNA was the ideal molecule to follow evolution to a very ancient event,” Wolf, R. S. 2006. The Archaea: A Personal Overview of the Formative Years. Prokaryotes 3: 3–9.
6. Carl Woese, email discussions, January 2008.
7. Woese, C. R. (unpublished). The Birth of the Archaea, a Personal Retrospective.
8. According to Karl Stetter, a hyperthermophile fanatic, quoted in Friend, T. 2007. The Third Domain. The Untold Story of Archaea and the Future of Biotechnology. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.
9. Carl Woese, email discussions, January 2008.
10. Wolfe is quoted here from Morell, V. 1997. Microbiology’s Scarred Revolutionary. Science 276: 699–702.
11. Woese, C. R., and G. E. Fox 1977. Phylogenetic Structure of the Prokaryotic Domain: The Primary Kingdoms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 74: 5088–5090.
12. Morell, V. 1997. Microbiology’s Scarred Revolutionary. Science 276: 699–702.
13. Perhaps as a sign of how deeply the response of Luria was internalized by both Woese and Wolfe, this quote is repeated again. It is reproduced here from Wolfe, R. S. 2006. The Archaea: A Personal Overview of the Formative Years. Prokaryotes 3: 3–9. That the quote is recorded at all must indicate that someone very early wrote it down.
14. Wolfe, R. S. 2006. The Archaea: A Personal Overview of the Formative Years. Prokaryotes 3: 3–9.

9. Symbiotic Cells on the Seafloor

1. Anderson, T. R., and T. Rice. 2006. Deserts on the sea floor: Edward Forbes and His Azoic Hypothesis for a Lifeless Deep Ocean. Endeavor 30: 131–137.
2. Forbes, E. 1844. On the Light Thrown on Geology by Submarine Researches; Being the Substance of a Communication Made to the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Friday Evening, the 23rd February 1844. Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal 36: 319–327.
3. Forbes, E. 1844 Report on the Mollusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea, and on their Distribution, Considered as Bearing on Geology. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science for 1843. 129–193.
4. Forbes had gone wrong in two ways. First, the Aegean is among the least productive and diverse seas and so Forbes extrapolated from an unrepresentative set of samples. But perhaps more important, the methods available to Forbes were crude and simply missed most of what was living below three hundred fathoms. For more detail on Forbes’s influence and influences regarding deep-sea life, see, for example, Anderson, T. R., and T. Rice. 2006. Deserts on the sea floor: Edward Forbes and His Azoic Hypothesis for a Lifeless Deep Ocean. Endeavor 30: 131–137.

5. Carpenter, J., and J. G. Jeffreys. 1870–1871. Report on Deep-Sea Researches Carried on during the Months of July, August, and September 1870, in H. M. Surveying-Ship ‘Porcupine.’ Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 19: 145–221.
6. 1884. The Exploring Voyage of the Challenger Source. Science 3: 576–580.
7. 1885. Work of the Challenger Expedition.—II. From a Zoölogical Stand-Point Source: Science 6: 54–56.
8. Lonsdale, P. 1977. Clustering of suspension-feeding macrobenthos near abyssal hydrothermal vents at oceanic spreading centers. Deep-Sea Research 24: 857–863.
9. Fred Grassle, quoted in Kusek, K. M. 2007. Through the Porthole 30 Years Ago. Oceanography 20: 137–141.
10. Tuttle, J. H., and H. W. Jannasch. 1976. Microbial utilization of thiosulfate in the deep sea. Limnology and Oceanography 21: 697–700.
11. 1977. Research Dives Probe the Galapagos Rift Source. Science News 111: 182–183. Also, conversations with Carl Wirsen, April 2008.
12. Carl Wirsen, email discussions, April 2008.
13. Günter Wächterschäuser, quoted in Morell, V. 1997. Microbiology’s Scarred Revolutionary. Science 276: 699–702.

11. Looking Out

1. As quoted in Drake, F., and D. Sobel 1992. The Scientific Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence. New York: Delacorte Press.
2. November 11, 1907, New York Times.
3. The astronomers were William Pickering and Andrew Douglass.
4. di Properzio, J. 2004. Lynn Margulis: Full Speed Ahead. University of Chicago Magazine. February 1.
5. Quoted in Davidson, K. 1999. Carl Sagan, A Life. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
6. Interview with K. Davidson, reported in Davidson, K. 1999. Carl Sagan, A Life. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
7. Davidson, K. 1999. Carl Sagan, A Life. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
8. Cocconi, G., and P. Morrison. 1959. Searching for Interstellar Communications. Nature 184: 844–846.
9. Drake, F., and D. Sobel. 1992. The Scientific Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence. New York: Delacorte Press.
10. As reported by Anonymous. 1966. Is There Life on Mars—or Earth? Time Magazine. January.

12. To Squeeze Life from a Stone

1. On its own, the discovery of a Martian meteorite was exciting. 84001 was just the twelfth Martian meteorite found of a total of seventy-five hundred meteorites known at the time. Treiman, A. (1996) To See a World in 80 Kilograms of Rock. Science 272, 1447–1448.
2. Kerr, R. A. 1997. Martian “Microbes” Cover Their Tracks. Science 276, 30–31.
3. McKay et al. 1996. Search for Past Life on Mars: Possible Relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH84001. Science 273: 924–930.
4. Kerr, R. A. 1997. Martian “Microbes” Cover Their Tracks. Science 276, 30–31.
5. As reported in, for example, Vogel, G. 1998. Finding Life’s Limits. Science 282: 1399.
6. Kajander, interview April 10, 2008.
7. Kajander, interview April 10, 2008.
8. Kajander, interview April 10, 2008.
9. Huber, H., M. J. Hohn, R. Rachel, T. Fuchs, V. C. Wimmer, and K. O. Stetter. 2002. A New Phylum of Archaea Represented by a Nanosized Hyperthermophilic Symbiont.
10. Stetter actually boldly refers to it as a new kingdom in Stetter, K. O. 2006. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 136: 1837–1843.
11. Phone conversations with Andreas Teske and see also Teske, A. and K. B. Sorenson. 2008. Uncultured Archaea in Deep Marine Subsurface Sediments: Have We Caught Them All? International Society for Microbial Ecology 2: 3–18.
12. Workshop on Size Limits of Very Small Microorganisms, 22–23, October 1998.
13. Christian de Duve as quoted in Vogel, G. 1998. Finding Life’s Limits. Science 282: 1399.
14. Boucher, Y., and W. F. Doolittle. 2002. Something New Under the Sea. Science 417: 27–28.
15. See for example, Carson, D. A. 1998. An infectious origin of extraskeletal calcification. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 95: 7846–7847. Carson is a member of the National Academy of Sciences.
16. Vogel, G. 1998. Bacteria to Blame for Kidney Stones? Science 28: 153.
17. Cisar et al. 2000. An Alternative Interpretation of Nanobacteria-Induced Biomineralization. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97: 11511–11515.
18. Kajander, interview April 10, 2008.
19. Urbano & Urbano 2007. Nanobacteria: Facts or Fancies? PLoS Pathogens 3, e55.
20. Raoult, D., M. Drancourt, S. Azza, C. Nappez, R. Guieu, J. M. Rolain, P. Fourquet, B. Campagna, B. La Scola, J. L. Mege, P. Mansuelle, E. Lechevalier, Y. Berland, J. P. Gorvel, and P. Renesto. 2008. Nanobacteria are Mineralo Fetuin Complexes. PLoS Pathogens 4: e41.
21. Wickramasinghe, J. T., and N. C. Wickramasinghe. 2006. A Cosmic Prevalence of Nanobacteria. Astrophysics and Space Science 305: 411–413.

13. The Wrong Elephant?

1. Rachel Haymon, phone intereview, April 23, 2000.
2. Rachel Haymon, phone intereview, April 23, 2000.
3. Kunzig, R. 1992. Time Zero. Discover 12, 1.
4. Haymon, R. M., D. J. Fornari, K. L. Von Damm, M. D. Lilley, M. R. Perfit, J. M. Edmund, W. C. Shanks, R. A. Lutz, J. M. Grebmeier, S. Carbotte, D. Wright, E. McLaughlin, M. Smith, E. Beedle, and E. Olson. 1993. Volcanic Eruption of the Mid-ocean Ridge Along the East Pacific Rise Crest at 9° 45–52’N: Direct submersible observations of seafloor phenomena associated with an eruption event in April, 1991. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 119: 85–101.
5. Haymon, R. M., D. J. Fornari, K. L. Von Damm, M. D. Lilley, M. R. Perfit, J. M. Edmund, W. C. Shanks, R. A. Lutz, J. M. Grebmeier, S. Carbotte, D. Wright, E. McLaughlin, M. Smith, E. Beedle, and E. Olson. Volcanic Eruption of the Mid-ocean Ridge Along the East Pacific Rise Crest at 9° 45–52’N: Direct submersible observations of seafloor phenomena associated with an eruption event in April, 1991. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 119: 85–101.
6. Taylor, C. D., and C. O. Wirsen. 1997. Microbiology and Ecology of Filamentous Sulfur Formation. Science 277: 1483–1485; Taylor, C. D., C. O. Wirsen, and F. Gaill. 1999. Rapid Microbial Production of Filamentous Sulfur Mats at Hydrothermal Vents. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 65: 2253–2255.
7. Fredrickson, J. K., and C. T. Onstott. 1996. Microbes Deep Inside the Earth. Scientific American 275: 68.
8. Fredrickson, J. K., and C. T. Onstott. 1996. Microbes Deep Inside the Earth. Scientific American 275: 68.
9. Gold, T. 1992. The deep, hot biosphere. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 89: 6045–6049.
10. Parkes, J. R., B. A. Cragg, and P. Wellsbury. 2000. Recent Studies on Bacterial Populations and Processes in Subseafloor Sediments: A Review. Hydrogeology 8: 11–28.
11. Whitman, W. B., D. C. Coleman, and W. J. Wiebe 1998. Prokaryotes: The Unseen Majority. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 95: 6578–6583.
12. Boutin, C. 2006. Two Miles Underground, Strange Bacteria Are Found Thriving. Princeton University News Release. October 20.
13. Boutin, C. 2006. Two Miles Underground, Strange Bacteria Are Found Thriving. Princeton University News Release. October 20.

14. What Remains

1. Carl Woese, e-mail discussions, January 2008.
2. In fact, I have found no examples where this is not the case, no cases where someone who has made a big biological discovery simply retired content.
3. Thoreau, H. D. 1854. Walden; or, Life in the Woods. Boston: Ticknor and Fields.
4. Carl Woese, e-mail discussions, January 2008.
5. Fichman, M. 2001. Science in Theistic Contexts. A Case Study of Alfred Russel Wallace on Human Evolution. Osiris 16: 227–250.
6. Brockman, J. 1995. The Third Culture. New York: Touchstone.
7. Alliegro, M. C., M. A. Alliegro, and R. E. Palazzo. 2006. Centrosome-associated RNA in surf clam oocytes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103, 9034–9038.
8. Miller, G. 2005. Linnaeus’s Legacy Carries On. Science 307: 1038–1039.