Please note that some of the links referenced throughout this work are no longer active.
The notes that follow are intended to give more precise information about sourcing, provide transparency about my process, and supply readers with a list of material that was crucial to my thinking but may not have been used directly. There is a growing body of exceptional work on automated decision-making, algorithmic accountability, and new forms of digital discrimination. I hope what follows helps readers find a path to a deeper understanding of the promise of the age of data and the perils of automating inequality.
I list below all of the interviews that I completed, both those that were explicitly quoted in the text, and those that were not. I deeply appreciate each person’s generosity in speaking with me, and their contribution to my understanding was indispensable. The handful of sources who chose to stay off the record are, of course, not listed here.
I started my reporting in each location by reaching out to organizations working closely with families most directly impacted by the systems I explored. Indiana Legal Services, the ACLU of Indiana, and the Generations Project connected me with those who lost their benefits during the eligibility modernization. The Los Angeles Community Action Network, the Downtown Women’s Center, and the Pathways to Home shelter in South LA introduced me to unhoused individuals participating in coordinated entry. And a network of family support centers throughout Allegheny County introduced me to parents being ranked by the Allegheny Family Screening Tool.
My preference was to conduct interviews in person. I made two extended research trips to Indiana, the first in December 2014, and the second in March 2015. I took five research trips to Los Angeles, in January 2015, May–June 2015, December 2015, February 2016, and May 2016. I made four trips to Allegheny County, in July, August, September, and November of 2016. The shortest of these trips was six days, the longest close to a month. Some follow-up interviews took place over the telephone. Very rarely, I interviewed a source solely over the phone or on a video conference call.
Interviews used in the book were transcribed verbatim. A few were only partially transcribed because of length. Where interview material is used directly in the text, it appears in quotes. Quotes have occasionally been edited for clarity. Material attributed to an interviewee but not appearing in quotes is the source’s recollection of an event in the past, or a paraphrase of a longer conversation derived from interview transcripts and my notes.
I used a pseudonym (Dorothy Allen) for one individual who participated in academic research many years ago on the condition of anonymity, and a first name only for another who requested that I do so. As noted in chapter 4, the names Stephen and Krzystof are also pseudonyms. Otherwise, all quoted individuals appear under their full names.
In the final stages of editing, I hired a professional fact-checker to verify the manuscript. Her insight, attentiveness, and hard work were crucial to the story I was able to tell. She checked my historical research. She spoke to sources, read interview transcripts, watched video of public hearings, read newspaper accounts, and pored over my reporting notes to verify identities and events.
INTRODUCTION: RED FLAGS
Interviews
Dorothy Allen
Published Literature
Federal Bureau of Investigations. “What We Investigate: Health Care Fraud.” https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/white-collar-crime/health-care-fraud.
Moretto, Mario. “LePage Releases EBT Data Showing Transactions at Strip Clubs, Bars, Smoke Shops.” Bangor Daily News, Jan. 7, 2014.
National Health Care Anti-Fraud Association. “The Challenge of Health Care Fraud.” https://www.nhcaa.org/resources/health-care-anti-fraud-resources/the-challenge-of-health-care-fraud.aspx.
State of Maine. “EBT Transaction Data.” 2014. https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B2MlKOvJIQRGRnItZGVzaXllY0U/edit. [Accessed Sept. 13, 2017.]
State of Maine House of Representatives. Committee Amendment “A” to H.P. 725, L.D. 1030, Bill, “an Act to Require That Electronic Benefits Transfer System Cash Benefits Are Used for the Purpose for Which the Benefits Are Provided.” 126th Legislature, H.P. 725, L.D. 1030.
Tice, Lindsay. “Mainers Using EBT Cash in Unusual Places.” Bangor Daily News, Jan. 19, 2014.
US Department of Health and Human Services. “Departments of Justice and Health and Human Services Announce over $27.8 Billion in Returns from Joint Efforts to Combat Health Care Fraud.” News Release, Mar. 19, 2015. http://www.hhs.gov/about/news/2015/03/19/departments-of-justice-and-health-and-human-services-announce-over-27-point-8-billion-in-returns-from-joint-efforts-to-combat-health-care-fraud.html.
Xerox Corporation. “Public Welfare Agency Burdened by Paper Processes. Xerox Delivered Needed Relief.” In Case Study: Government, nd. http://docushare.xerox.com/pdf/PADeprofPublicWelfare-CS.pdf. [Accessed May 5, 2015.]
1. FROM POORHOUSE TO DATABASE
Published Literature
Almy, Frederic. Relief: A Primer for the Family Rehabilitation Work of the Buffalo Charity Organization Society. New York: Charity Organization Dept. of the Russell Sage Foundation, 1910.
Ambrose, Jay. “Welfare Clients—Victims or Villains?” Knickerbocker News, Feb. 25, 1971, 1-A, 4-A.
Axelrod, Donald. “Memo to Richard L. Dunham: Welfare Requests for Your Discussion at Governor’s Staff Meeting.” Albany, NY: New York State Archives, 1971. Record 15000-88, Box 30: Welfare Programs: Welfare Administration Computerization Projects.
Bailis, Lawrence Neil. Bread or Justice: Grassroots Organizing in the Welfare Rights Movement. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1974.
Bellesiles, Michael A. 1877: America’s Year of Living Violently. New York: New Press, 2010.
“Body Speculators in Troy.” New York Times, Feb. 3, 1879, 1.
Bolton, Charles C. “Farmers without Land: The Plight of White Tenant Farmers and Sharecroppers.” Mississippi History Now, 2004. http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/articles/228/farmers-without-land-the-plight-of-white-tenant-farmers-and-sharecroppers. [Accessed Sept. 13, 2017.]
“Children of the Poor House.” The Standard (Syracuse, NY), Jan. 21, 1856.
Clement, Priscilla Ferguson. Welfare and the Poor in the Nineteenth-Century City: Philadelphia, 1800–1854. Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1985.
Crannell, Linda. “The Poorhouse Story.” http://www.poorhousestory.com/.
Dawes, Sharon S. New York’s Welfare Management System: The Politics of Information. Nelson A. Rockefeller Institute of Government, State University of New York, 1986.
Du Bois, W.E.B. The Philadelphia Negro. Publications of the University of Pennsylvania, No. 14. Series in Political Economy and Public Law. Millwood, NY: Kraus-Thomson Organization Ltd., 1973.
Federal Government Information Technology: Electronic Record Systems and Individual Privacy. Congress of the United States, Office of Technology Assessment, 1986.
Gilens, Martin. “How the Poor Became Black: The Racialization of American Poverty in the Mass Media.” In Race and the Politics of Welfare Reform, Sanford F. Schram, Joe Soss, and Richard C. Fording, eds. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003: 101–30.
Grauer, Anne L., Vanessa Lathrop, and Taylor Timoteo. “Exploring Evidence of Nineteenth Century Dissection in the Dunning Poorhouse Cemetery.” In The Bioarchaeology of Dissection and Autopsy in the United States, Kenneth C. Nystrom, ed. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2017: 301–13.
Green, Elna C. This Business of Relief: Confronting Poverty in a Southern City, 1740–1940. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2003.
Greenberg, David H., Wolf Douglas, and Jennifer Pfiester. Using Computers to Combat Welfare Fraud: The Operation and Effectiveness of Wage Matching. New York: Greenwood Press, 1986.
Gustafson, Kaaryn S. Cheating Welfare: Public Assistance and the Criminalization of Poverty. New York: New York University Press, 2011.
Holcomb, Charles. “Rocky to Thin ‘Welfare Gravy.’” Knickerbocker News, Mar. 16, 1971, 1A, 5A.
In the Matter of an Inquiry into the Administration, Discipline, and Moral Welfare of the Rensselaer County Poorhouse. Albany, NY: New York State Archives, 1905.
Jackson, Larry R., and William A. Johnson. “Protest by the Poor: The Welfare Rights Movement in New York City.” New York: RAND Institute, 1973.
Katz, Michael B. In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America. New York: Basic Books, 1996.
________. The Undeserving Poor: From the War on Poverty to the War on Welfare. 1st ed. New York: Pantheon Books, 1990.
Katz, Michael B., and the Committee for Research on the Urban Underclass Social of the Science Research Council . The “Underclass” Debate: Views from History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993.
Kennedy, Howard. “Policy Due on ‘Night Raid’ Checking of Welfare Cases,” LA Times, Feb. 18, 1963, 1.
Killgrove, Kristina. “How Grave Robbers and Medical Students Helped Dehumanize 19th Century Blacks and the Poor.” Forbes, July 13, 2015. https://www.forbes.com/sites/kristinakillgrove/2015/07/13/dissected-bodies-and-grave-robbing-evidence-of-unequal-treatment-of-19th-century-blacks-and-poor/#1c2632f66d12. [Accessed July 27, 2017.]
“Leasing the County Farm and Stone Quarry on the Same.” Troy Daily Whig, Feb. 8, 1869, 1.
Lombardo, Paul. “Eugenics Sterilization Laws.” Dolan DNA Learning Center, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. http://www.eugenicsarchive.org/html/eugenics/essay 8, fs.html. [Accessed June 23, 2017.]
Lombardo, Paul A. Three Generations, No Imbeciles: Eugenics, the Supreme Court, and Buck v. Bell. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008.
Massachusetts General Court Committee on Paupers Laws and Josiah Quincy. Commonwealth of Massachusetts: In the Year of Our Lord One Thousand Eight Hundred and Twenty One: The Committee, to Whom Was Referred, at the Last Session of the General Court, the Consideration of the Paupers Laws of This Commonwealth, with Directions to Report, Whether Any, and If Any, What Amendments, or Alterations May Be Made Therein, with Leave to Report by Bill, or Otherwise, Ask Leave to Report. Boston: Russell & Gardner, 1821.
Mink, Gwendolyn. The Wages of Motherhood: Inequality in the Welfare State, 1917–1942. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995.
Nadasen, Premilla. Rethinking the Welfare Rights Movement. New York: Routledge, 2012.
________. Welfare Warriors: The Welfare Rights Movement in the United States. New York: Routledge, 2005.
Nadasen, Premilla, Jennifer Mittelstadt, and Marisa Chappell. Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935–1996. New York: Routledge, 2009.
New York Legislature, Senate Select Committee Appointed to Visit Charitable Institutions. Report of Select Committee Appointed to Visit Charitable Institutions Supported by the State and All City and County Poor and Work Houses and Jails of the State of New York: Transmitted to the Legislature, January 9, 1857. In Senate; 1857, No. 8; Senate Document (New York State). Albany, NY: C. Van Benthuysen, printer to the legislature, 1857.
New York State Department of Social Services. Welfare Management System: A Proposed Design and Implementation Plan. Albany, NY: Department of Social Services, 1975.
Orwig, Timothy T. “Three Nineteenth-Century Massachusetts Almshouses and the Origins of American Poorhouse Architecture.” Masters Thesis, Boston University, 2001.
“Our County Institutions.” Troy Daily Whig, Feb. 6, 1857, 1.
Peel, Mark. “Charity Organization Society.” In Encyclopedia of American Urban History, David R. Goldfield, ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2007.
Piven, Frances Fox, and Richard A Cloward. Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare. New York: Pantheon, 1971.
Quadagno, Jill S. The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
Reese, Ellen. Backlash against Welfare Mothers: Past and Present. Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2005.
“Revelations Promised: Alleged Mismanagement of the Rensselaer County Poorhouse.” Albany Express, Dec. 5, 1885, 1.
Rezneck, Samuel. “The Depression of 1819: A Social History.” American Historical Review 39, 1 (1933): 30–31.
Richmond, Mary Ellen. Social Diagnosis. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1917.
Rockefeller, Nelson A. Public Papers of Nelson A. Rockefeller, Fifty-Third Governor of the State of New York. Albany, NY: New York State Archives, 1959.
Schneider, David M. The History of Public Welfare in New York State. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938.
“Shot Himself: Financial Troubles Drove Calvin B. Dunham to End His Life with a Pistol Ball.” Illustrated Buffalo Express, Jan. 19, 1896.
Smith, Bruce. “Poor Relief at the St. Joseph County Poor Asylum, 1877–1891.” Indiana Magazine of History 86, 2 (1990): 178–96.
Trattner, Walter I. From Poor Law to Welfare State: A History of Social Welfare in America, 6th ed. New York: Free Press, 1999.
Wagner, David. Ordinary People: In and Out of Poverty in the Gilded Age. New York: Routledge, 2016.
Watkinson, James D. “Rogues, Vagabonds, and Fit Objects: The Treatment of the Poor in Antebellum Virginia.” Virginia Calvacade 49, Winter 2000: 16–29.
Weise, Arthur James. Troy’s One Hundred Years: 1789–1889. London: Forgotten Books, 2015.
Welfare Management System: A Proposed Design and Implementation Plan. Albany: New York Dept. of Social Services, 1975.
Wyman, George K. “Nationwide Demonstration Project Newsletter.” Albany: New York State Dept. of Social Services, 1971.
Yates, John Van Ness. “Report of the Secretary of State in 1824 on the Relief and Settlement of the Poor.” In Annual Report for the Year 1900, vol. 1, New York State Board of Charities, 937–1145. Albany, NY: 1824.
Unpublished Documents
Much of my research for the rise of the digital poorhouse in New York State came from the wonderful collection at the New York State Archives. Important resources included: Record 15000-88 Boxes 29 and 30: Welfare Programs: Welfare Administration Computerization Projects.
2. AUTOMATING ELIGIBILITY IN THE HEARTLAND
Interviews
Jamie Andree; Michelle Birden; Glenn Cardwell; John Cardwell; Karen Francisco; Dennis Frick; Fred Gilbert; Patty Goff; Jane Porter Gresham; Chris Holly; Denny Lanane; Senator Tim Lanane; Ruth Lawson; Gene Lushin; Marcia; Maria Martino; Adam Mueller; Kim Murphy; Ginny Nilles; Matt Pierce; Gavin Rose; Dan Skinner; Jeff Stewart; Kim and Kevin Stipes; Marilyn “Kay” Walker; Terry R. West; Myra Wilkie; Lindsay Williams (Kidwell); Kyle Wood
Published Literature
“Bill Would Slow FSSA Rollout.” South Bend Tribune, Jan. 21, 2009.
Bradner, Eric. “Agency Tests a Nun’s Faith (Indiana Welfare Agency in Disarray).” Courier Press, Mar. 20, 2009.
Burdick, Betsy. “Indiana State Government’s Performance Report, July-December 2007.” 2008.
Carr, Mike, and Rich Adams. “The Hybrid System.” http://www.aphsa.org/content/dam/aphsa/pdfs/NWI/2012-07-Business-Model-for-Hybrid-System-Integration.pdf. [Accessed June 23, 2017.]
Cermak, Joe. “Local Representative Wants Legislators to Change Modernized Welfare.” NewsLink Indiana, May 16, 2008.
Cole, Eric, and Sandra Ring. Insider Threat: Protecting the Enterprise from Sabotage, Spying, and Theft. Rockland, MA: Syngress, 2006.
Corbin, Bryan. “Bill Filed to Halt Further Expansion of Indiana’s New Welfare Eligibility Program.” Indiana Economic Digest, Jan. 19, 2009.
________. “Welfare Gripes Persist.” Evansville Courier Press, Dec. 29, 2008.
Creek, Julie. “Losing the ‘Human Factor’: State Focuses on Technology in Privatizing Key Welfare Duties.” Fort Wayne Journal Gazette, May 14, 2006, 13A.
Daniels, Mitch. “Editorial: FSSA Contract with IBM Is Obvious Answer to Obvious Need.” South Bend Tribune, Jan. 3, 2007. http://articles.southbendtribune.com/2007-01-03/news/26769021_1_welfare-system-fssa-indiana-economy. [Accessed June 28, 2017.]
Davis, Martha F. Brutal Need: Lawyers and the Welfare Rights Movement, 1960–1973. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993.
Ernst, Rose, Linda Nguyen, and Kamilah C. Taylor. “Citizen Control: Race at the Welfare Office.” Social Science Quarterly 94, no. 5 (2013): 1283–307.
“FSSA Releases Details of New Eligibility System—the Hybrid System.” News release, Dec 14, 2009. http://blog.ihca.org/2009/12/fssa-releases-details-of-new.html. [Accessed Sept. 13, 2017.]
Greenhouse, Linda. “New Look at an ‘Obscure’ Ruling, 20 Years Later.” New York Times, May 11, 1990.
Harvey, Roger. “Church Leaders Charged with Food Stamp Fraud.” Channel 13 WTHR, May 9, 2006.
Herbers, John. “Reagan Called Warm to Welfare-Work Plan.” New York Times, Feb. 23, 1987.
Higgins, Will. “Falling through Welfare’s Cracks.” Indianapolis Star, July 20, 2009, A1, A4.
Holtz, Maribeth. “Hundreds Line Up to Share Their FSSA Complaints.” Chronicle Tribune, May 14, 2008.
Indiana Family and Social Services Administration (FSSA). Monthly Management Reports. http://www.stats.indiana.edu/fssa_m/index.html. [Accessed Aug. 3, 2017.]
Indiana Inter-Agency Review Committee. “Eligibility Modernization: An Indiana Solution.” June 2005. http://www.in.gov/fssa/transformations/pdf/Eligibility Modernization_ An Indiana Solution.pdf. [No longer accessible.]
Jarosz, Francesca, Heather Gillers, Tim Evans, and Bill Ruthhart. “Rollout of Welfare Changes Halted.” Indianapolis Star, July 31, 2008, A1, A11.
Kusmer, Ken. “IBM Releases Plan for Fixing Indiana’s Welfare Problems.” News and Tribune, July 24, 2009. http://www.newsandtribune.com/news/local_news/ibm-releases-plan-for-fixing-indiana-s-welfare-problems/article_eb1cf1cf-fdd4-5b99-b14b-0c26fb175708.html. [Accessed July 27, 2017.]
Leadership Conference on Civil Rights. “Justice on Trial: Racial Disparities in the American Criminal Justice System.” Washington, DC: 2000. https://web.archive.org/web/20161007113926/http://www.protectcivilrights.org/pdf/reports/justice.pdf. [Accessed July 27, 2017.]
Linville, Erin, and Indiana Family & Social Services Administration. “Eligibility Modernization: The Need for Change.” 2006.
“Mitch Daniels: The Right Stuff.” Economist, Apr. 19, 2010.
Murray, John. “Disputed Welfare Practices Don’t Hold up in Court.” Indianapolis Star, Apr. 1, 2010.
“Numbers Don’t Support State’s Claim That All Is Well.” Star Press (Muncie), May 18, 2008, 2D.
Overmyer, Beth. “Medicaid Enrollment & Modernization–What You Should Know!” Indiana Council of Community Mental Health Centers presentation, 2009.
Riecken, Rep. Gail. “FSSA Disclosure, Transparency, Evaluation Must Be Priorities.” Fort Wayne Journal Gazette, May 21, 2010, 13A.
Rowe, Gretchen, Carolyn O’Brien, Sam Hall, Nancy Pindus, Lauren Eyster, Robin Koralek, and Alexandra Stanczyk. “Enhancing Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) Certification: SNAP Modernization Efforts: Final Report.” Alexandria, VA: US Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, Office of Research and Analysis, 2010.
Roysdon, Keith. “Once-Mighty Borg-Warner Plant Sits Empty, Waiting in Muncie.” Indiana Economic Digest, Mar. 23, 2015.
Schneider, Mary Beth. “Audit of FSSA Finds 185 Problems.” Indianapolis Star, June 16, 2005.
Schneider, Mary Beth, and Tim Evans. “Shake-Up Pro Will Take Over the FSSA.” Indianapolis Star, Dec. 8, 2004.
________. “Ex-Local Official to Head the FSSA.” Indianapolis Star, Dec. 8, 2004, A1, A8
Schneider, Mary Beth, and Bill Ruthhart. “Daniels: Critics Were Right.” Indianapolis Star, Oct. 16, 2009, A1, A15.
Sedgwick, Weston. “Governor Accepts Recommendation to Modernize FSSA Eligibility Processes.” News release, Nov. 29, 2006.
Soss, Joe, Richard C. Fording, and Sanford Schram. Disciplining the Poor: Neoliberal Paternalism and the Persistent Power of Race. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011.
State of Indiana. “Request for Proposals 6-58: Eligibility Determination Services.” Department of Administration and Indiana Family and Social Service Administration. Indianapolis, IN: 2006.
Taylor, Steve. “Border Lawmakers: Cancellation of Accenture Contract Was Long Overdue.” Rio Granda Guardian, Mar. 13, 2007.
Welch, Matt, Joshua Swain, and Jim Epstein. “Mitch Daniels on How to Cut Government & Improve Services.” Reason, May 19, 2015.
“‘Welfare Queen’ Becomes Issue in Reagan Campaign,” New York Times, Feb. 15, 1976, 51. Reprinted from the Washington Star, no author credited.
Werner, Nick. “Welfare Troubles Prompt Meeting.” Star Press, Apr. 23, 2008, 3A.
Court Materials
Brief of Appellants: Sheila Perdue v. Anne W. Murphy, No. 49A02-1003-PL-00250 (Indiana Court of Appeals 2010).
Complaint for Damages and Declaratory Relief: State of Indiana v. International Business Machines Corporation (Marion County Court 2016).
Finding of Fact, Conclusions of Law, and Judgement for IBM, State of Indiana v. International Business Machines Corporation (Marion County Court, 2012).
Findings of Fact, Conclusion of Law, and Summary Judgment: Sheila Perdue, et al. v. Anne W. Murphy, No. 49D10-0803-PL-013340 (Marion Superior Court 2010).
Goldberg v. Kelly, No. 397 U.S. 254, 62 (United States District Court for the Southern District of New York 1970).
Plaintiff Complaint: International Business Machines v. The State of Indiana (Marion Circuit/Superior Court 2010).
Sheila Perdue, et al. v. Michael A. Gargano, et al., No. 49S02-1107-PL-437 (Indiana Supreme Court 2012).
State of Indiana v. International Business Machines Corporation, No. 49S02-1408-PL-00513 (Indiana Supreme Court 2016).
3. HIGH-TECH HOMELESSNESS IN THE CITY OF ANGELS
Interviews
Jose-Antonio Aguilar; T.C. Alexander; Gary Blasi; Gary Boatwright; Lou Contreras; Devin Desjarlais; General Dogon; Bob Fitzgerald; Kris Freed; Maria Funk; John Horn; Quanetha Hunt; Deon Joseph; Rachel Kasselbrock; Hamid Khan; Chris Ko; Veronica Lewis; Hazel Lopez; Tracy Malbrough; Patricia McHugh; William Menjivar; Christina Miller; Robert Mitchell; Ana Muñiz; Richard Renteria; Tiffany Russell; Molly Rysman; Al Sabo; James Smith; Monique Talley; Tanya Tull; Nathaniel VerGow; Danielle Wildkress; Jennifer Wolch
Published Literature
Aron, Hillel. “L.A.’s Culture War Over the Last True Skid Row in America.” LA Weekly, July 24, 2014.
Barragan, Bianca. “Downtown LA Vacancy Rate Hits 17-year High,” Curbed Los Angeles, Sept 15, 2017. https://la.curbed.com/2017/9/15/16316040/downtown-la-high-vacancy-rate-rent. [Accessed Sept. 21, 2017.]
________. “Historic South-Central Has the Most Crowded Housing in the US.” Los Angeles Curbed, March 10, 2014.
Blasi, Gary, and Forrest Stuart. “Has the Safer Cities Initiative in Skid Row Reduced Serious Crime?” 2008. http://wraphome.org/wraparchives/downloads/safer_cities.pdf. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Boden, Paul. “The Devastating Impacts of Safer Cities Policing in Skid Row.” Huffington Post, 2011. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/paul-boden/on-homeless-memorial-day-_1_b_811966.html. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Boyle, Hal. “Skid Row: The West’s Bowery.” Evening Independent, June 14, 1947: 10.
Culhane, Dennis P. “We Can End Homelessness.” Penn Top Ten, 2016. http://www.penntopten.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Top-10-Homelessness-Essay.pdf. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Cunningham, Mary, Sarah Gillespie, and Jacqueline Anderson. “Rapid Re-Housing: What the Research Says.” New York: Urban Institute, 2015. http://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/54201/2000265-Rapid-Re-housing-What-the-Research-Says.pdf. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Davis, Mike. “Afterword—a Logic Like Hell’s: Being Homeless in Los Angeles.” UCLA Law Review 39 (Dec. 1991): 325–27.
________. City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles. New York: Verso, 1990.
DiMassa, Cara Mia. “Little Tokyo Residents Resent Mental Health Facility.” Los Angeles Times, Feb. 21, 2008.
Downtown Center Business Improvement District. “Downtown Los Angeles Demographic Study 2013.” http://www.downtownla.com/survey/2013/results/DTLA-Demo-Study-2013.pdf. [Accessed March 3, 2016.]
Eng, Lily. “Chief Praised, Rebuked in Crackdown on Homeless.” Los Angeles Times, Aug. 22, 1990.
Gandy, Oscar H. The Panoptic Sort: A Political Economy of Personal Information. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993.
Gerry, Sarah. “Jones v. City of Los Angeles: A Moral Response to One City’s Attempt to Criminalize, Rather Than Confront, Its Homelessness Crisis.” Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 42 (2007): 239–51.
Green, Richard K., Vincent Reina, and Selma Hepp. “2014 USC Casden Multifamily Forecast.” In USC Lusk Center for Real Estate, 2014. https://lusk.usc.edu/sites/default/files/2014-USC-Casden-Multifamily-Forecast.pdf. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Gutierrez, The Honorable Philip S. “Tony Lavan, et al. v. City of Los Angeles, et al. Order Issuing a Preliminary Injunction.” https://cangress.files.wordpress.com/2011/06/lavan-preliminary-injunction-highlights.pdf. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Gustafson, Kaaryn S. “The Criminalization of Poverty.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 99, no. 3 (2009): 643–7160.
Holland, Gale. “Fears Mount over a Homeless Plan That Residents Say Will ‘End Venice as We Know It.’” Los Angeles Times, Oct. 18, 2016.
________. “L.A. Leaders Are Crafting New Plan to Help Homeless on Skid Row.” Los Angeles Times, July 15, 2014.
________. “Plan to Turn Cecil Hotel into Homeless Housing Is Withdrawn.” Los Angeles Times, Apr. 4, 2014.
________. “Treading a Fine Line, L.A. Council Considers Ordinance to Boost Homeless Sweeps.” Los Angeles Times, Mar. 30, 2016.
________. “Venice Residents Fight over Homeless Housing Project—and Character of the Neighborhood.” Los Angeles Times, Mar. 11, 2017.
Howard, David B. “Unsheltered: A Report on Homelessness in South Los Angeles.” Special Services for Groups, 2008. http://www.ssg.org/wp-content/uploads/Unsheltered_Report.pdf. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Huey, Laura. Negotiating Demands: The Politics of Skid Row Policing in Edinburgh, San Francisco, and Vancouver. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007.
Irvine, Huston. “Skidrow Serenade.” Los Angeles Times Sunday Magazine, Mar. 26, 1939: 6, 21.
Littlejohn, Donna. “San Pedro Meeting Erupts over Homeless Storage Center.” Daily Breeze, Oct. 5, 2016.
Lopez, Steve. “A Corner Where L.A. Hits Rock Bottom.” Los Angeles Times, Oct. 17, 2005.
Los Angeles Central City Committee. “Centropolis: The Plan for the Central City of Los Angeles.” Studies prepared jointly by Los Angeles Central City Committee, Los Angeles City Planning Dept., Traffic Dept., [and others]: 1960.
Los Angeles Department of Mental Health. “Rapid Rehousing: Overview and New Developments.” In 9th Annual Housing Institute, 2016. http://file.lacounty.gov/SDSInter/dmh/246452_RapidRehousing-6-8-16.pdf. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Los Angeles Homeless Services Authority. “The Greater Los Angeles Homeless Count.” 2017. https://www.lahsa.org/homeless-count/reports. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Lyon, David. Surveillance as Social Sorting: Privacy, Risk, and Digital Discrimination. New York: Routledge, 2003.
Massey, Douglas S., and Nancy A. Denton. American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
McDonald, Jeff. “State Ruling May Aid City Crackdown on Homeless: Courts: Decision Will Support Ventura’s Plan to Toughen Municipal Ordinance against Camping in Parks, Officials Say.” Los Angeles Times, Apr. 25, 1995.
O’Brien, J.C. “Loose Standards, Tight Lips: Why Easy Access to Client Data Can Undermine Homeless Management Information Systems.” Fordham Urban Law Journal 35 (3), 2008: 673–93.
Office of Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti. “Comprehensive Homelessness Strategy.” https://www.lamayor.org/comprehensive-homelessness-strategy. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
________. “Mayor Eric Garcetti and City Council Approve Emergency Spending on Homeless Housing and Shelter.” News Release, Dec. 9, 2015. https://www.lamayor.org/mayor-eric-garcetti-and-city-council-approve-emergency-spending-homeless-housing-and-shelter. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
OrgCode Consulting Inc. and Community Solutions. VULNERABILITY INDEX SERVICE PRIORITIZATION DECISION ASSISTANCE TOOL (VI-SPDAT), American Version 2.0 for Single Adults, 2015.
Parson, Don. “Los Angeles’ ‘Headline-Happy Public Housing War.’” Southern California Quarterly 65 (3), 1983: 265.
Posey, Jacquie. “Penn Researcher Says Ending Homelessness Is Possible.” nd. http://www.upenn.edu/spotlights/penn-researcher-says-ending-homelessness-possible. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Rosenberg, Jeremy. “Laws That Shaped L.A.: How Bunker Hill Lost Its Victorians.” KCET, https://www.kcet.org/departures-columns/laws-that-shaped-la-how-bunker-hill-lost-its-victorians. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Sides, Josh. L.A. City Limits: African American Los Angeles from the Great Depression to the Present. Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2003.
Spivack, Donald R. “Community Redevelopment Agency (CRA).” https://www.scribd.com/document/59101874/History-of-Skid-Row. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Stuart, Forrest. Down, Out, and Under Arrest: Policing and Everyday Life in Skid Row. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016.
________. “Policing Rock Bottom: Regulation, Rehabilitation, and Resistance on Skid Row.” Dissertation, Ph.D., Department of Sociology, University of California, Los Angeles, 2012.
Tsemberis, Sam J. Housing First: The Pathways Model to End Homelessness for People with Mental Illness and Addiction. Center City, MN: Hazelden, 2010.
US Commission on Civil Rights. “Understanding Fair Housing.” Washington, DC: US Govt. Printing Office, 1973.
White, Magner. “L.A. Shows the World How to End Slums.” Los Angeles Examiner (Special Pullout), Oct. 12, 1959: 1–6.
Wild, Mark. Street Meeting: Multiethnic Neighborhoods in Early Twentieth-Century Los Angeles. Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2005.
Willse, Craig. The Value of Homelessness: Managing Surplus Life in the United States. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2015.
Wolch, Jennifer, and Michael J. Dear. Malign Neglect: Homelessness in an American City. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1993.
Documents
My understanding of Los Angeles was enlarged by several fascinating research trips to the Central Branch of the Los Angeles Library and I am grateful for the help of its talented and enthusiastic research librarians. I relied especially on their historical newspaper archives and their government documents collection, which holds copies of the legendary “Centropolis” and Silver Book plans for downtown Los Angeles development. I also enjoyed their collection of historical maps, especially the Sanborn Fire Insurance Maps and Baist’s Real Estate Surveys, which helped me re-create the history of Skid Row. Their regular collection also holds a rare copy of a book celebrating the centennial of Rancho Los Amigos, which includes some of the only extant pictures of the Los Angeles County poorhouse.
4. THE ALLEGHENY ALGORITHM
Interviews
Carmen Alexander; Karen Blumen; Fred Brown; Marc Cherna; Kim Berkeley Clark; Erin Dalton; Doreen Glover; Patricia Gordon; May Gray; Patrick Grzyb; Tanya Hankins; Amanda Green Hawkins; Mary Heards; Rochelle Jackson; Janine; Tracey McKants Lewis; Laurie Mulvey; Bruce Noel; Kate Norton; Emily Putnam-Hornstein; Marcia Raines; Judy Hale Reed; Ken Regal; Jessie Schemm; Angel Shepherd; Pamela Simmons; Tiffany E. Sizemore-Thompson; Barbara Stack; Rhonda Strickland; Kenneth R. Strother; Rhema Vaithianathan; Catherine Volponi; and Colleen Young
Published Literature
Ackerman, Jan. “‘Why Did You Do That’.” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Mar. 30, 1994: B-1, B-6.
Allegheny County Department of Human Services. “Predictive Risk Modeling in Child Welfare in Allegheny County: The Allegheny Family Screening Tool.” http://www.alleghenycounty.us/Human-Services/News-Events/Accomplishments/Allegheny-Family-Screening-Tool.aspx. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Baxter, Joanne. “External Peer Review for Interim findings on the feasibility of using predictive risk modelling to identify new-born children who are at high risk of future maltreatment (April 2013).” Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Social Development, Aug. 2013.
Belser, Ann. “Baby Byron Given Back to His Mom.” North Hills News Record, Dec. 28, 1993: A1, A6.
Billingsley, Andrew, and Jeanne M. Giovannoni. Children of the Storm: Black Children and American Child Welfare. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1972.
Birckhead, Tamar. “Delinquent by Reason of Poverty.” Juvenile Justice Information Exchange, 2012. http://jjie.org/2012/08/20/delinquent-by-reason-of-poverty/. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Bobkoff, Dan. “From Steel to Tech, Pittsburgh Transforms Itself.” In All Things Considered, NPR, Dec. 16, 2010. http://www.npr.org/2010/12/16/131907405/from-steel-to-tech-pittsburgh-transforms-itself. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Bull, John M.R. “County CYS Director Accepts Florida Post.” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Jan. 9, 1995: A1, A2.
Cabrera, Marquis. “Florida Leverages Predictive Analytics to Prevent Child Fatalities—Other States Follow.” HuffPost, Dec. 21, 2015. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/marquis-cabrera/florida-leverages-predictive_b_8586712.html. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Center for the Study of Social Policy. “Predictive Analytics in Child Welfare: A Broader View from the Field.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3VaFEWmynYo. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Collier, Roger. “New United States Mammogram Guidelines Ignite Debate.” Canadian Medical Association Journal 182 (2), 2010: E101-E02.
Compac 21 (The Committee to Prepare Allegheny County for the Twenty-first Century). “Preparing Allegheny County for the 21st Century: A Report to the Allegheny County Board of Commissioners.” 1996.
Dalton, Erin. “Data Sharing.” Actionable Intelligence for Social Policy.” http://www.aisp.upenn.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Dalton-Data-Sharing.pdf. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Dare, Tim, and Eileen Gambrill. “Ethical Analysis: Predictive Risk Models at Call Screening for Allegheny County.” Centre for Social Data Analytics, University of Auckland, 2016.
Deitrick, Sabina, and Christopher Briem. “Allegheny County Economic Trends 2005.” University Center for Social and Urban Research, University of Pittsburgh, 2005. http://ucsur.pitt.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/ACEconomicTrends2005.pdf. [Accessed June 28, 2017.]
Frey, William H., and Ruy Teixeira. “The Political Geography of Pennsylvania: Not Another Rust Belt State.” Brookings Policy Brief, Brookings Institute, April 15, 2008. https://www.brookings.edu/research/the-political-geography-of-pennsylvania-not-another-rust-belt-state/. [Accessed June 28, 2017.]
Fuoco, Michael A. “Dad Held in Death of Girl, 2.” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Mar. 10, 1994: A1, A13.
Gill, Sam, Indi Dutta-Gupta, and Brendan Roach. “Allegheny County, Pennsylvania: Department of Human Services’ Data Warehouse.” http://datasmart.ash.harvard.edu/news/article/allegheny-county-pennsylvania-department-of-human-services-data-warehouse-4. [Accessed June 27, 2017.]
Gillingham, Philip. “Predictive Risk Modelling to Prevent Child Maltreatment and Other Adverse Outcomes for Service Users: Inside the ‘Black Box’ of Machine Learning.” British Journal of Social Work 46 (6), 2016: 1044–58.
________. “Why the PRM Will Not Work.” In Re-Imagining Social Work in Aotearoa New Zealand, RSW Collective, Oct. 8, 2015. http://www.reimaginingsocialwork.nz/2015/10/why-the-prm-will-not-work/. [Accessed June 28, 2017.]
Harcourt, Bernard E. Against Prediction: Profiling, Policing, and Punishing in an Actuarial Age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007.
Hawkes, Jeff. “After the Sandusky Case, a New Pennsylvania Law Creates Surge in Child Abuse Reports.” Lancaster Online, Feb. 20, 2015. http://lancasteronline.com/news/local/after-the-sandusky-case-a-new-pennsylvania-law-creates-surge/article_03541f66-b7a3-11e4-81cd-2f614d04c9af.html. [Accessed June 28, 2017.]
Heimpel, Daniel. “Managing the Flow: Predictive Analytics in Child Welfare.” Chronicle of Social Change, April 6, 2017. https://chronicleofsocialchange.org/analysis/managing-flow-predictive-analytics-child-welfare. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Hickey, Kathleen. “Saving Children, One Algorithm at a Time.” In GCN: Technology, Tools, and Tactics for Public Sector IT, July 26, 2016. https://gcn.com/articles/2016/07/26/child-welfare-analytics.aspx. [Accessed June 28, 2017.]
The Independent Committee to Review CYS. “Report of the Committee to Review Allegheny County Children and Youth Services” (The Murray Report). Submitted to the Advisory Board of Children and Youth Services of Allegheny County, Feb. 17, 1995.
Kelly, John. “Rapid Safety Feedback’s Rapid Ascent.” Chronicle of Social Change, Feb. 28, 2017. https://chronicleofsocialchange.org/child-welfare-2/rapid-safety-feedbacks-rapid-ascent. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Kirk, Stacey. “Paula Bennett Rejects That She Knew about ‘Lab Rat’ Child Abuse Study.” http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/70725871/paula-bennett-rejects-lab-rat-child-abuse-study-greenlit-under-her-watch. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Kitzmiller, Erika M. “Allegheny County’s Data Warehouse: Leveraging Data to Enhance Human Service Programs and Policies.” In Actionable Intelligence for Social Policy. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, May 2014. https://www.aisp.upenn.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/AlleghenyCounty-_CaseStudy.pdf. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Levenson, Michael. “Can Analytics Help Fix the DCF?” Boston Globe, Nov. 7, 2015.
Lindert, Bryan. “Eckerd Rapid Safety Feedback: Summary and Replication Information.” nd. http://static.eckerd.org/wp-content/uploads/Eckerd-Rapid-Safety-Feedback-Final.pdf. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Ministry of Social Development (New Zealand). “The Feasibility of Using Predictive Risk Modelling to Identify New-Born Children Who Are High Priority for Preventive Services.” Feb. 2, 2014. http://www.msd.govt.nz/documents/about-msd-and-our-work/publications-resources/research/predictive-modelling/00-feasibility-study-report.pdf. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
________. “The White Paper for Vulnerable Children, Volume II.” 2012 https://www.mvcot.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/Documents/whitepaper-volume-ii-web.pdf. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Niedecker, Stacy. “Byron’s Mother Ready for Family to Be Together.” North Hills News Record, Dec. 30, 1993: A4.
O’Neil, Cathy. Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy. New York: Crown, 2016.
Pelton, Leroy. “The Continuing Role of Material Factors in Child Maltreatment and Placement.” Child Abuse & Neglect 41 (2015): 30–39.
Piven, Frances Fox, and Richard A. Cloward. Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare. New York: Pantheon, 1971.
________. Poor People’s Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail. New York: Vintage, 1978.
Pro, Johnna A. “Baby’s Death Puts System in Question.” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Mar. 11, 1994: C1, C7.
The Protect Our Children Committee. “Child Protection Report: Digging Deeper to Understand How Pennsylvania Defines Child Abuse.” nd. http://www.protectpachildren.org/files/Child-Protection-Report-On-Defining.pdf. [Accessed July 31, 2017.]
Putnam-Hornstein, Emily, and Barbara Needell. “Predictors of Child Protective Service Contact between Birth and Age Five: An Examination of California’s 2002 Birth Cohort.” Children and Youth Services Review 33 (2011): 2400–07.
Rauktis, Mary E., and Julie McCrae. “The Role of Race in Child Welfare System Involvement in Allegheny County,” Pittsburgh, PA: Allegheny County Dept. of Human Services, 2010. http://www.alleghenycountyanalytics.us/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/The-Role-of-Race-in-Child-Welfare-System-Involvement-in-Allegheny-County.pdf. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Reich, Jennifer A. Fixing Families: Parents, Power, and the Child Welfare System. New York: Routledge, 2005.
Roberts, Dorothy E. Shattered Bonds: The Color of Child Welfare. New York: Basic Books, 2002.
Shroff, Ravi. “Stats and the City: A Data-Driven Approach to Criminal Justice and Child Welfare.” In DataBites. New York City: Data & Society, June 14, 2017. http://listen.datasociety.net/databites-100-series-stats-city-data-driven-approach-criminal-justice-child-welfare/. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Smith, Matthew P. “Authorities Take ‘Baby Byron.’” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Dec. 28, 1993: A1, A2.
Smith, Michael. “Building an Interoperable Human Services System: How Allegheny County Transformed Systems, Services and Outcomes for Vulnerable Children and Families.” Smithtown, NY: Stewards of Change, 2008.
Stack, Barbara White. “Criticized CYS Policies to Be Studied.” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Sept. 28, 1994: C1, C4.
________. “CYS Failed to Tell Judge Facts in Case.” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Oct. 1, 1994: A1, A3.
________. “CYS, Father Betrays Girl, 2.” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Sept. 4, 1994: A1, A8.
________. “U.S. Probe of Youth Agency Sought.” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Oct. 4, 1994: B1, B4.
TCC Group. “Peer Review Report 1.” Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Social Development, 2015. https://www.msd.govt.nz/documents/about-msd-and-our-work/publications-resources/research/predictive-modelling/feasibility-study-schwartz-tcc-interim-review.pdf. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Adverse Childhood Experiences: Looking at How ACEs Affect our Lives and Society.” nd. http://vetoviolence.cdc.gov/apps/phl/resource_center_infographic.html. [Accessed July 31, 2017.]
US Department of Health and Human Services and Children’s Bureau. “Child Maltreatment 2015.” Jan. 19, 2017. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/resource/child-maltreatment-2015. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Vaithianathan, Rhema, Tim Maloney, Nan Jiang, Irene De Haan, Claire Dale, Emily Putnam-Hornstein, and Tim Dare. “Vulnerable Children: Can Administrative Data Be Used to Identify Children at Risk of Adverse Outcomes?” Centre for Applied Research in Economics. Auckland, NZ: University of Auckland Business School, Sept. 2012. http://www.msd.govt.nz/documents/about-msd-and-our-work/publications-resources/research/vulnerable-children/auckland-university-can-administrative-data-be-used-to-identify-children-at-risk-of-adverse-outcome.pdf. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Vaithianathan, Rhema, Tim Maloney, Emily Putnam-Hornstein, and Nan Jiang. “Children in the Public Benefit System at Risk of Maltreatment Identification Via Predictive Modeling.” American Journal of Preventative Medicine 45 (3), 2013: 354–59.
Vaithianathan, Rhema, Emily Putnam-Hornstein, Nan Jiang, Parma Nand, and Tim Maloney. “Developing Predictive Models to Support Child Maltreatment Hotline Screening Decisions: Allegheny County Methodology and Implementation.” Centre for Social Data Analytics, University of Auckland, April 2017. http://www.alleghenycountyanalytics.us/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Developing-Predictive-Risk-Models-package-with-cover-1-to-post-1.pdf. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Wilson, Moira L., Sarah Tumen, Rissa Ota, and Anthony G. Simmers. “Predictive Modeling: Potential Application in Prevention Services.” American Journal of Preventative Medicine 48 (5), 2015: 509–19.
Woods, Darian. “New Zealand’s Child Abuse Analytics Study Hits Political Snag.” Chronicle of Social Change, Aug. 7, 2015. https://chronicleofsocialchange.org/featured/new-zealands-child-abuse-analytics-study-hits-political-snag. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Documents
I visited the Pennsylvania State Archives in Harrisburg early in my research into the Allegheny Family Screening Tool. I found crucial historical context in the Records of the Department of Public Welfare, especially Series RG-23: Boxes 8-1618 Carton 26 (Administrative Correspondence), 8–1638 Carton 61 (Interdepartmental Correspondence), 8–1628 Carton 54 (Interdepartmental Correspondence), and 8-1635 Carton 58 (Interdepartmental Correspondence).
5. THE DIGITAL POORHOUSE
Published Literature
Automating Apartheid: U.S. Computer Exports to South Africa and the Arms Embargo. Philadelphia: NARMIC/American Friends Service Committee, 1984.
Black, Edwin. IBM and the Holocaust: The Strategic Alliance between Nazi Germany and America’s Most Powerful Corporation. New York: Crown Publishers, 2001.
Brennan, William J. “Reason, Passion, and ‘the Progress of the Law.’” Cardozo Law Review 3 (1988): 3–23.
Cohen, Adam. Imbeciles: The Supreme Court, American Eugenics, and the Sterilization of Carrie Buck. New York: Penguin Press, 2016.
Cohn, Cindy. “Amicus Brief of the Electronic Frontier Foundation (Case 14-4104, Document 57).” 2015. https://www.eff.org/files/2015/02/11/eff_ibm_apartheid_amicus_brief_final.pdf. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Desilver, Drew. “U.S. Income Inequality, on Rise for Decades, Is Now Highest Since 1928.” Pew Research Center, 2013. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/12/05/u-s-income-inequality-on-rise-for-decades-is-now-highest-since-1928/. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Ehrenreich, Barbara. Fear of Falling: The Inner Life of the Middle Class. New York: Pantheon Books, 1989.
Flaherty, David H. Protecting Privacy in Surveillance Societies: The Federal Republic of Germany, Sweden, France, Canada, and the United States. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1989.
Gandy, Oscar H. Coming to Terms with Chance: Engaging Rational Discrimination and Cumulative Disadvantage. New York: Routledge, 2009.
Gangadharan, Seeta Peña. “Digital Inclusion and Data Profiling.” First Monday 17 (5–7), 2012.
Haney López, Ian. Dog Whistle Politics: How Coded Racial Appeals Have Reinvented Racism and Wrecked the Middle Class. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Killgrove, Kristina. “How Grave Robbers and Medical Students Helped Dehumanize 19th Century Blacks and the Poor.” Forbes, July 13, 2015. https://www.forbes.com/sites/kristinakillgrove/2015/07/13/dissected-bodies-and-grave-robbing-evidence-of-unequal-treatment-of-19th-century-blacks-and-poor/#468b84886d12. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Massey, Douglas S., and Nancy A. Denton. American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
Mounk, Yascha. The Age of Responsibility: Luck, Choice, and the Welfare State. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017.
O’Neil, Cathy. Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy. New York: Crown, 2016.
Rank, Mark R. One Nation, Underprivileged: Why American Poverty Affects Us All. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Stone, Deborah A. Policy Paradox: The Art of Political Decision Making, 3rd ed. New York: W. W. Norton, 2012.
Taube, Aaron. “How Marketers Use Big Data to Prey on the Poor.” Business Insider, Dec. 19, 2013. http://www.businessinsider.com/how-marketers-use-big-data-to-prey-on-the-poor-2013-12. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Vaithianathan, Rhema. “Big Data Should Shrink Bureaucracy Big Time.” Stuff, 2016. http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/opinion/85416929/rhema-vaithianathan-big-data-should-shrink-bureaucracy-big-time. [Accessed June 26, 2017.]
Wong, Julie Carrie. “‘We’re Just Rentals’: Uber Drivers Ask Where They Fit in a Self-Driving Future.” Guardian, Aug. 19, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/aug/19/uber-self-driving-pittsburgh-what-drivers-think. [Accessed June 28, 2017.]
Conclusion: Dismantling the Digital Poorhouse
Published Literature
Alexander, Karl L., Doris R. Entwisle, and Linda Steffel Olson. The Long Shadow: Family Background, Disadvantaged Urban Youth, and the Transition to Adulthood. American Sociological Association, Rose Series in Sociology. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2014.
Deloitte Touche. Public Sector, Disrupted: How Disruptive Innovation Can Help Government Achieve More for Less. 2012. https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/global/Documents/Public-Sector/dttl-ps-publicsectordisrupted-08082013.pdf. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Edin, Kathryn J., and H. Luke Shaefer. $2.00 a Day: Living on Almost Nothing in America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2015.
Garza, Alicia. “A Herstory of the #Blacklivesmatter Movement.” http://blacklivesmatter.com/herstory/. [Accessed June 28, 2017.]
Gillespie, Sarah. “Mark Zuckerberg Supports Universal Basic Income. What Is It?” CNN Money, May 26, 2017. http://money.cnn.com/2017/05/26/news/economy/mark-zuckerberg-universal-basic-income/index.html. [Accessed June 28, 2017.]
Hiltzik, Michael. “Conservatives, Liberals, Techies, and Social Activists All Love Universal Basic Income: Has Its Time Come?” Los Angeles Times, June 22, 2017. http://www.latimes.com/business/hiltzik/la-fi-hiltzik-ubi-20170625-story.html. [Accessed June 28, 2017.]
Holland, Gale. “13,000 Fall into Homelessness Every Month in L.A. County, Report Says.” Los Angeles Times, Aug. 25, 2015. http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-homeless-pathways-20150825-story.html. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
House of Representatives of the State of Hawaii. Requesting the Department of Labor and Industrial Relations and the Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism to Convene a Basic Economic Security Working Group. 29th Legislature. http://www.capitol.hawaii.gov/session2017/bills/HCR89_.HTM. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Jackson, Thomas F. From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Struggle for Economic Justice. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007.
King, Jr., Dr. Martin Luther. “Remaining Awake through a Great Revolution.” Sermon in the National Cathedral. Washington, DC, Mar. 31, 1968 (1968b). http://kingencyclopedia.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/documentsentry/doc_remaining_awake_through_a_great_revolution.1.html. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Kotz, Mick, and Mary Lynn Kotz. A Passion for Equality: George A. Wiley and the Movement. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1977.
McKnight, Gerald. The Last Crusade: Martin Luther King, Jr., the FBI, and the Poor People’s Campaign. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998.
Movement for Black Lives. “Platform: Reparations.” https://policy.m4bl.org/reparations/. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Potts, Monica. “The Other Americans.” Democracy: A Journal of Ideas 32 (2014). http://democracyjournal.org/magazine/32/the-other-americans/. [Accessed Aug. 1, 2017.]
Documents
The online archive of Civil Rights Movement Veterans at http://www.crmvet.org/ is an extraordinary resource. I found many primary materials describing the Poor People’s Campaign here, including:
Martin Luther King. Statement Announcing Poor People’s Campaign. Dec. 4, 1967.
Martin Luther King. Letter to Supporters Regarding Poor People’s Campaign. Apr. 1968 (1968a).
SCLC ~ Martin Luther King. Economic Bill of Rights. 1968.
Unsigned, assumed to be Dr. King and perhaps others associated with SCLC. Draft: To the President, Congress, and Supreme Court of the United States. Feb. 6, 1968.