T. PULLAIAH,1 BIR BAHADUR,2 and K. V. KRISHNAMURTHY3
1Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University,
Anantapur-515003, AP, India.
E-mail: pullaiah.thammineni@gmail.com
2Department of Botany, Kakatiya University, Warangal 506009,
Telangana, India. E-mail: birbahadur5april@gmail.com
3Consultant, R&D, Sami Labs, Peenya Industrial Area,
Bangalore – 560058, Karnataka, India. E-mail: kvkbdu@yahoo.co.in
CONTENTS
Mangroves constitute an important ecosystem. Mangrove forests in India cover an area of 4,461 sq.m./6700 km2 which constitutes ca 7% of the world’s mangroves. 82 species belonging to 52 genera belonging to 36 families are distributed in mangroves of India. In the present chapter ethnobotany of mangroves is described. Plant names, part used, usage and references are given.
Mangroves are salt tolerant plant communities occurring in tidal and intertidal regions of the tropics and subtropics and are known as ‘mangals’ ‘tidal forests,’ ‘coastal woodlands’ or ‘oceanic rain forests.’ These wetlands with distinctive flora and fauna are unique, complex and with adaptations to perform unique functions. These forests, constitute ca 1,81,077 sq. km. in area worldwide (Spalding et al., 1997). The maximum diversity in mangroves occurs in the Asian coasts alone with over 40% of total mangrove forests. Australia, Bangladesh, Brazil, India, Indonesia and Nigeria are with the largest mangrove formations. Mangrove forests in India cover an area of 4,461 sq.m./6700 km2 which constitutes ca 7% of the world’s mangroves, that constitute 0.14% of its total geographical area. The largest stretch of mangroves in India occurs in Sundarbans (West Bengal) which covers an area of about 4200 km2. Sundarbans has been designated as World Heritage site of which 80% of them are restricted to Sundarbans (West Bengal) and in Andaman & Nicobar Islands (Chowdhery and Murti, 2000). The remaining taxa are scattered in the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa and Karnataka. 82 species belonging to 52 genera belonging to 36 families are distributed in mangroves of India (Mandal and Naskar 2008; Debnath, 2004). Some of the dominant mangrove species are Avicennia marina, A. officinalis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B. parviflora, Ceriops tagal, Heritiera fomes, Lumnitzera spp., Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata, R. stylosa, Sonneratia spp., Xylocarpus spp., etc. The shrubby Aegialitis rotundifolia and Acanthus ilicifolius occur commonly on poor saline plains. Herbaceous succulent halophytes are represented by Aegieceras corniculata, Suaeda brachiata, Sesuvium portulacastrum and Salicornia brachiata while Nypa fruticans and Phoenix paludosa are characteristic mangrove palms found in Sundarbans and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Ravindran et al. (2005) described medicinal properties of 11 species of mangroves and halophytes used by local inhabitants. Prabhakaran and Kavitha (2012) gave an account of ethnomedicinal importance of mangroves of Pichavaram in Tamil Nadu. Ethnobotanical and medical aspects of Mangroves from southern Kokan (Maharashtra) was given by Sathe et al. (2014). Chowdhury et al. (2014) reported that a total of 31 species of mangrove flora were found to have different medicinal properties and other usage. Ethnomedicinally useful mangrove species occurring in the Diu and surroundings have been studied by Jadeja et al. (2009) to assess the potentiality of various mangroves for ethnobotanical uses. This work is based on interviews with local physicians practicing indigenous system of medicine, village head men, priests and tribal folks. Many tribes like Khaniya Koli Kharwa, Vaniya, Brahmin, Vanja, Khoja possess a good deal of information about properties and medicinal use of mangrove plants. Further these authors have provided the traditional mangrove uses prevalent amongst the aboriginals of Diu. Ethnobotany of mangroves and their management in Andhra Pradesh was discussed by Swain and Rama Rao (2008) while Venkatesan et al. (2005) gave ethnobotanical report of mangroves of Pichavaram in Tamil Nadu state. According to Govindasamy and Kannan (2012) several mangroves species are used to treat range of conditions from toothache and even diabetes. Dahodouh-Guebas et al. (2006) analyzed ethnobotanical and fishery-related importance of mangroves of the East Godavari delta in Andhra Pradesh for conservation and management purposes.
Selvam et al. (2004) in their publication have mentioned the uses and applications of wetland mangroves of India as under:
1.Minor timber, poles and posts and fire wood.
2.Non-wood products, such as fodder, honey, wax, tannins, dyes and plant mats for thatching
3.Aquaculture: Aquatic food like fishes, prawns, shrimps, crabs, molluscs, etc.
4.Wild life conservation particularly wide variety of birds and other small mammals.
5.Mitigates storms, cyclones, tsunamis, global warming, etc.
The details of ethnobotanical uses of mangrove plants are given below.
1.Acanthus ilicifolius L. (Acanthaceae)—used for reducing the poisonous snake bite, curing skin diseases, kidney stone, smallpox, ulcer, asthma, cough, diabetes and rheumatism (Prabhakaran and Kavitha, 2012). Given as nerve tonic, for dressing wounds and boils, as aphrodisiac (Sathe et al., 2014). Leaves are traditionally used for treating Tiger bites. Roots are boiled and extract used to treat various diseases like asthma, paralysis, leucorrhoea and debility (Chowdhury et al., 2014). Crushed fruits are used for dressing snake bite. The plant is boiled in water and the patient drinks half of glass each time until the signs and symptoms of kidney stone disappear. The whole plant extract and paste is used for curing skin diseases, small pox, ulcer and for detoxification and health promotion (Ravindran et al., 2005).
2.Acanthus volubilis L. (Acanthaceae). Leaves are dried and taken as a remedy for stomach ulcer (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
3.Acrostichum aureum L. (Pteridaceae). Rhizome paste is used to treat boils and carbuncles.
4.Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco (Myrsinaceae). Cure for asthma, diabetes, rheumatism, and as a fish poison (Prabhakaran and Kavitha, 2012). Root, bark and stem used as fish poison (Sathe et al., 2014; Dahdouh-Guebas, 2006).
5.Atalantia correa Roem. (Rutaceae). Oil from the fruit is used for treatment of rheumatism.
6.Avicennia alba Bl. (Avicenniaceae). Resinous substance exuded and used for birth control purposes (Ravindran et al., 2005).
7.Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. (Avicenniaceae). Leaves used in the treatment of rheumatism, small pox and ulcers; Leaves are also used as fodder for livestock (Prabhakaran and Kavitha, 2012). Bitter aromatic fruit juice is used in a concoction to facilitate abortion. Mainly used by tribal population that settled in Sundarbans during British colonial period (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
8.Avicennia officinalis L. ( Avicenniaceae). Leaves are used to treat smallpox, joint pain, urinary disorders, bronchial asthma, stomach disorders, as an aphrodisiac, diuretic, cure for hepatitis, leprosy (Prabhakaran and Kavitha, 2012). Root bark and seeds used in small pox, boils, abscesses, skin parasites and wounds (Sathe et al., 2014). Seed bitter, but edible. Unripe fruit is used as a remedy to treat boils (Chowdhury et al., 2014). Leaves are used for the treatment of joints pain, urinary disorders, bronchial asthma, stomach disorders and detoxification (Ravindran et al., 2005).
9.Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spr. (Barringtoniaceae). Bark, fruits and kernels used for curing asthma, cough jaundice, skin disorder (Sathe et al., 2014).
10. Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Blume (Rhizophoraceae). Used in the treatment of hepatitis (Prabhakaran and Kavitha, 2012).
11. Bruguiera gymnorhiza L. (Rhizophoraceae). Bark and fruit as eye medicine, also used as astringent (Sathe et al., 2014). Bark is macerated and the extract is said to be useful in controlling diarrhea (Chowdhury et al., 2014). The whole plant boiled in water is given twice daily after meals to relieve constipation (Ravindran et al., 2005).
12. Bruguiera sexangula Poir (Rhizophoraceae). Bark is macerated and the extract is used to control diarrhea (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
13. Cerbera odollam Gaertn. (Apocynaceae). Bark and fruits used for hydrophobia, rheumatism, hemorrhage, ulcer (Sathe et al., 2014).
14. Ceriops decandra (Griff.) Ding Hou. (Rhizophoraceae): Cure for hepatitis, ulcers (Prabhakaran and Kavitha, 2012). The poles of the stem are used as fencing (Chowdhury et al., 2014). Bark used for dyeing fishing nets (Dahdouh-Guebas, 2006).
15. Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Rob. (Rhizophoraceae). Bark, shoot and fruit used to treat hemorrhage and ulcers (Sathe et al., 2014). Stem bark extract is used to stop hemorrhages. It is said that bark is useful for ailment that resembles peptic ulcers. The poles of the stem are used as fencing material (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
16. Clerodendron inerme Gaertn. (Verbenaceae). Leaves contain bitter extract that is used as febrifuge (Chowdhury et al., 2014). Leaves are used for removing pain and in jaundice. Sap of leaves is used for washing dishes. Leaf extract and paste are used in the treatment of malaria, infected wounds, inflammation and itching diseases (Ravindran et al., 2005).
17. Derris heterophylla Willd. (Fabaceae). Roots are used as fish poison and as larvicide (Sathe et al., 2014).
18. Derris trifoliata Roxb. (Fabaceae). Root is dried and powdered and used to treat person affected by chronic alcoholism, useful as stimulant and antispasmodic (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
19. Dolichandrone spathacea (L.) Schum. (Bignoniaceae). Seed powder is used as antiseptic and in enteric spasms (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
20. Excoecaria agallocha L. (Euphorbiaceae): Latex is used as medication for toothache. The wood smoke is used as anti-epileptic. The roots are used for anti-inflammation (Ravindran et al., 2005). Used as an uterotonic, as purgative, in the treatment of epilepsy, conjunctivitis, dermatitis, haematuria, leprosy, toothache, as a piscicide, dart poison, and a skin irritant, Swelling hands and feet; flatulence; epilepsy, antiinflammation (Prabhakaran and Kavitha, 2012). Root, branches and leaves are used for the treatment of epilepsy, ulcer and leprosy (Sathe et al., 2014). Latex is acrid and poisonous. In local myth, it is said to be blessed by snake god “Manasha” (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
21. Heritiera fomes Buch.-Ham. (Malvaceae). Seed is grounded and used to treat dysentery (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
22. Hibiscus tiliaceus L. (Malvaceae). Leaf extract is used as laxative. Bark mucilage is used to treat dysentery like symptoms. Root is used to prepare herbal tonic for treatment of rheumatism. Seed is used as an emetic (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
23. Kandelia kandel (L.) Druce (Rhizophoraceae). Bark is used to treat diabetes (Sathe et al., 2014). Medicinally useful in the treatment of problems related to frequent urination (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
24. Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. (Combretaceae): Used in antifertility, treatment of asthma, diabetes and snake bite (Prabhakaran and Kavitha, 2012). Bark used to treat asthma and in antifertility (Sathe et al., 2014). Fluid from the stem is used to treat rashes and itch (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
25. Nypa fruticans Wurmb. (Arecaceae). Alcohol production is done by fermenting the fruit pulp (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
26. Phoenix paludosa Roxb. (Arecaceae). The fruit pulp reduces inflammation and used during persistent fevers (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
27. Rhizophora apiculata Blume (Rhizophoraceae). Bark extract is used for diarrhea, nausea, vomiting and amoebiasis, as antiseptic and to stop bleeding (Ravindran et al., 2005). Astringent, used for curing diarrhea, treatment of nausea, vomiting, typhoid, hepatitis, an antiseptic, insecticide and Amoebiasis (Prabhakaran and Kavitha, 2012).
28. Rhizophora lamarckii Montrouz. (Rhizophoraceae). Leaves are used to cure hepatitis (Prabhakaran and Kavitha, 2012).
29. Rhizophora mucronata Lamk. (Rhizophoraceae)). Bark extract is used for controlling diarrhea, nausea and vomiting (Ravindran et al., 2005). Leaves used for the treatment of elephantiasis, haematoma, hepatitis, ulcers, and a febrifuge, Bark-powerful astringent useful in diabetics, hemorrhage (Prabhakaran and Kavitha, 2012). Bark is used to treat diabetes, leprosy, hemorrhage and dysentery (Sathe et al., 2014).
30. Salicornia brachiata Roxb. (Chenopodiaceae). Whole plant ash is applied to treat itches (Ravindran et al., 2005).
31. Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn. (Rubiaceae). Shoot extract is warmed slightly and used for enteric diseases and also used to treat liver ailments (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
32. Sonneratia alba J. Sm. (Sonneratiaceae). Fruits used to treat hemorrhage and swellings (Sathe et al., 2014).
33. Sonneratia apetala Buch.-Ham. (Sonneratiaceae;). Fruit is used as a spice and to improve flavor of cooking (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
34. Sonneratia caseolaris Engler (Sonneratiaceae). Fruits edible and is used to prepare a local cuisine and is valued for it’s sour taste. Fruit extract is used as an anthelmintic medicine (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
35. Sonneratia griffithii Kurz. (Sonneratiaceae). Fruit is used as spice and to enhance flavor of cooked food (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
36. Suaeda nudiflora Moq. (Chenopodiaceae). Leaves made into ointment used to treat wounds, used in ophthalmia and as emetic (Sathe et al., 2014).
37. Xylocarpus granatum Pierre. (Meliaceae). Bark extract cures dysentery. Seed oil extract is used as illuminant of hair. Bark decoction is used for curing diarrhea and cholera (Ravindran et al., 2005). Bark used to treat fevers, malaria, cholera (Prabhakaran and Kavitha, 2012). Leaves, seeds and bark are used for treating jaundice, cholera, dysentery, fever, cough in the new born babies, dysentery, tonic, astringent, for breast cancer, cholera, diarrhea (Sathe et al., 2014). Bark extract is used to treat dysentery. Wood is durable and is suitable for making furniture (Chowdhury et al., 2014).
38. Xylocarpus mekongensis Pierre (Meliaceae). Bark extract is used to treat dysentery. Wood is durable and is suitable for making furniture.
Like many ecohabitats, mangrove forests have been degraded and de-stroyed over the years by humans. Mangrove forests have iconic loss is a source of global concern. It may be relevant to point out that there is considerable loss of mangrove area in Indian coastal and tidal area due to indiscriminate exploitation and multiple uses like fodder, timber, building material, alcohol, paper, charcoal and medicines (Upadhya et al., 2002).
•Ethnobotany
•Indian Mangroves
•West Coast of India
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