`Index`

Boxes, figures, and glossary entries are designated by b, f, and g, respectively.

Abe, Shinzo, 170
Abengoa, 184
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 50, 67, 69
Access, to energy. See Energy access
Accretive projects, 95
Acemoglu, Daron, 271
Acids, 176
AC microgrids, 130–134
AC transmission lines, 202, 203, 203f
Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E)
defined, 290g
government support of innovation via, 253, 254
R&D investments by, 262–263
support for, 249, 250
and U.S. leadership in energy innovation, 273
Africa. See also specific regions and countries
Pay-As-You-Go model in, 124
public-sector promotion of solar in, 135
solar home systems in, 123
Alexander, Lamar, 249, 250
All-solid-state battery, 172
Alternating current (AC)
conversion losses from DC to, 217
defined, 279g
energy storage technologies for, 228
as grid standard, 131, 202, 217
microgrids using (see AC microgrids)
transmission lines for (see AC transmission lines)
Amazon, 109
Ambri, 230
America First agenda, 272
Ammonia, 182
Amoco, 35
Amorphous silicon, 37, 161, 280g
Anadon, Laura, 259
Anchor clients, 130
Anodes, 175
Apple Computers, 109
Appliances, 132, 214, 244–245
Applied R&D, funding for, 255–260
Arab oil embargo, 35, 255
Arco, 35, 36, 41
Argentina, 68
Argonne National Laboratory, 263
Arizona, 102, 242
ARPA-E. See Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy
ARPA-E Summit, 249–250
ARPANET, 259
Artificial leaf technology
commercialization of, 179
electrolyzers vs., 175
hydrogen fuel from, 142, 172, 173
and solar fuels using bacteria, 182
Asia. See also specific regions and countries
HVDC transmission lines in, 204
off-grid solar in Africa vs., 135
Pay-As-You-Go model in, 124
solar home systems in, 123
supergrids in, 198
Asian Development Bank, 65
Asset-backed securities, 99, 287g
Atacama Desert, 68
Atmospheric losses, 150, 151
Atomic Conference of 1955, 34
“Atoms for Peace” speech, 33–34
Auctions, reverse, 50
Australia, 34, 205, 215
Auto industry, securitization in, 99–100
Azuri, 125

Babati, Tanzania, 115–116
Bacteria, as catalysts for solar fuels, 182–183
Bandgap
defined, 149, 279g
in multijunction solar cells, 152–153
for organic solar cells, 156
for photoelectrochemical cells, 177
for silicon, 149–151
Bangladesh, 6, 120, 123–124, 134
Baseload power plants, 75
Bases (chemical), 176
Basic scientific research, funding, 254–255, 257, 259–260
Batteries. See also Lithium-ion batteries
as back up for grid, 82–83
commercial adoption of, 11
and cost of solar power, 22
DC power in, 132
in deep decarbonization effort, 235–236
defined, 283g–284g
electrochemical, 228
energy storage in, 193, 221–226
flow, 230
lead-acid, 123, 228
nickel, cobalt, and aluminum, 229
nickel-manganese-cobalt, 229
other storage technologies vs., 228–231
for solar home systems, 123
storage capacity of, 235, 235f
Batteries and Energy Storage hub, 263
Bazilian, Morgan, 119
BBOXX, 126–127
Becquerel, Edmond, 32
Bell Laboratories, 37, 260
Berkshire Hathaway Energy Renewables, 108
Bernard, Rob, 213
Bihar, India, 133–134
Biomass, burning of, 59
Birds, CSP plants and, 183
Bitcoin, 134
Black cells, 40–41
Blackouts, 77, 207, 215, 245–247
Blackstone, 93
Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF), 51, 64, 80, 252
Bonds, green/climate, 113, 288g
Boston Celtics, 93
British Petroleum (BP), 35, 41
Brooklyn, New York, 208
Buffett, Warren, 109
Building materials, solar, 162–163
Burning mirrors, 29
Bush, Vannevar, 254–255, 260
Business model innovation
defined, 58b, 288g
and economic appeal of solar, 78–79, 83
for expansion of solar energy, 23–24, 85, 90
and future of solar energy, 2
with microgrids, 130
with off-grid solar, 118, 135
to overcome deployment challenges, 57, 58b
in regulated utilities, 108
BYD (company), 223

Cadmium telluride (CdTe), 38, 151, 155, 280g
CAISO. See California Independent System Operator
California. See also specific cities
duck curve of demand in, 74–77, 75f
grid in, 199, 211, 242
intermittency problems in, 4
power market in, 240, 269
renewable energy growth in, 73, 74
renewable portfolio standard in, 268
rooftop/residential solar in, 100, 104
solar water heaters in, 30
value deflation in, 71, 72f, 83, 146
California Independent System Operator (CAISO), 74–77, 75f, 290g
California Institute of Technology, 174
Canada, 206, 207
Capacity, 47b, 284g
Capacity markets, 240, 284g
Capital
cost of, 90, 287g
debt, 91, 98, 100–101, 126
defined, 287g
equity, 90–91
for new solar projects, 90–92
for off-grid projects, 138–139
for SHS up-front costs, 125, 126
venture, 39, 257, 258f, 288g
working, 128, 138–139
Carbon-based fuels from sunlight. See Solar fuels
Carbon capture, utilization, and storage
cost of, 237–238
in deep decarbonization efforts, 61, 62
defined, 284g
for fossil-fueled power plants, 82, 225
Carbon dioxide, 180, 181, 188
Carbon emissions. See also Deep decarbonization
and climate change, 22
in Deep Decarbonization road map, 245
economics of eliminating, 234
and future of solar energy, 5–6, 10
in India, 16
Carbon intensity, 106
Carbon price (carbon tax)
and global energy transition, 23
political coalitions and, 166
stimulating innovation with, 253, 266, 270–271
Carter, Jimmy, and administration, 30, 35, 255, 256
Catalysts, 176, 177, 182–183
Cathodes, 175
Cavendish Laboratory, 143
CdTe. See Cadmium telluride
Cell phones, 117, 216. See also entries beginning Mobile
Center for Advanced Solar Photo-Physics, 263
Center for Global Development, 119
Central grid
costs of decentralized grid vs., 199
in energy access plan, 136–138
in hybrid grid strategy, 216
and microgrids, 129, 131, 132
and off-grid solar, 118–120
Chapin, Daryl, 33
Chatila, Ahmad, 87, 89
Chernobyl nuclear disaster, 21
Chevy Bolt, 170, 229
Chile
hybrid solar plant in, 185
prices for solar power in, 18, 50
PV solar installations in, 19
value deflation of solar in, 68–71
China
ancient, solar technology in, 29–30
compensation for unused solar power in, 76
deep decarbonization plans in, 236
electric vehicles in, 169, 170
government funding for innovation in, 251, 252
greenhouse gas emissions by, 15
HVDC transmission lines in, 204–205
interconnecting grid of, 205, 206
investment in new solar projects in, 64
lithium-ion battery production in, 223
nuclear reactors in, 237
in pan-Asian supergrid, 195, 196
R&D spending in, 53, 164, 272, 273
renewable energy in, 106
silicon PV panel production in, 1, 7, 28, 39, 44, 44f, 252, 257, 272–273
solar deployment in, 43, 44f, 51, 267
solar industry in, 28–29, 40–45
as solar market leader, 194
solar water heaters in, 31
unregulated power companies in, 108
China Development Bank, 45
China Light and Power (CLP), 105–106, 108
Chlorides, 188
CIGS. See Copper indium gallium (di)selenide
Clean Energy Investment Trust, 97
Clean energy technology(-ies). See also specific types
deployment of, 11
expansion of, 5, 7
global energy transition to, 22–23
institutional investments in, 66
limitations on, xvi
nuclear power as, 21
private funding for, 111, 113
tax incentives for, 266–271
U.S. military support for, 265–266
venture capital for R&D on, 257, 258f
Climate bonds (green bonds), 113, 288g
Climate change
and future of solar power, 1, 6, 7, 10
impact of transition to solar power on, 22–23
and India’s use of solar energy, 15, 16
and natural disasters, 207
solar investment required to limit, 57, 112f
Climate Policy Initiative (CPI), 65, 97, 236
CLP (China Light and Power), 105–106, 108
Coal-fired power plants
baseload power from, 76
carbon capture for, 61, 238
flexible-base, 76, 236
and future of solar, 3, 14, 15
in industrial sector, 60
pollution controls on, 271
U.S. transition away from, 234
Coatings, PV, 12, 24, 27, 80–81, 141, 144
Cobalt-phosphorus alloy, 182
Cogeneration plants, 244
Collateralized debt obligation, 99
Columbia University, 273
Combined cycle CSP plants, 188, 189
Combined-cycle gas turbines, 234
Commercial and industrial (C&I) market segment, 280g. See also Industrial sector
Community solar, 107, 280g
Competitive Renewable Energy Zone (CREZ), 269
Compressed air, 231–232
COMSTAT, 40
Concentrated solar power (CSP), 183–190
commercial success for, 24
cost of, 32, 173, 189
deep decarbonization with, 61
defined, 281g
for desalination plants, 246
exporting power from, 205
in future of solar energy, 8
growth of, 183–184
hybrid approaches using, 188–190
scaling up, 190–191
technological innovation to improve, 185–188
thermal storage for, 184–185
Con Edison, 208
Congo, 230
Connecticut Green Bank, 102
Consumption subsystem, 129
Control algorithms, 214–215
Conversion losses, 217
Coons, Chris, 93, 249, 270
Copper indium gallium (di)selenide (CIGS), 38, 151, 153, 281g
Copper industry, Chilean, 69
Corporate investment, in new solar projects, 105–110. See also Private sector
Cost of capital, 90, 287g
CPI. See Climate Policy Initiative
Credit, for off-grid customers, 127–128
Crescent Dunes CSP plant (Nevada), 185
CREZ (Competitive Renewable Energy Zone), 269
Cross-national grids, 200–207
Crystal lattice, 150, 152
CSP. See Concentrated solar power
Cuomo, Andrew, 207–208
Currency risk, 113
Current (electric current), 148, 149, 279g
Curtailment, 77
Cyclotron Road program, 264
Cypress Semiconductor, 42
Czech Republic, 78

DARPA. See Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
Davos, Switzerland, 212
DC microgrids, 130–134, 138, 217
DC transmission lines, 202–203, 203f
high-voltage, 202–204, 203f, 206, 217, 219, 269, 285g
ultra-high-voltage, 196, 204–205
Death spiral, 107
Debt capital, 91, 98, 100–101, 126
Decarbonization, 171, 284g. See also Deep decarbonization
Decentralization, of power, 119, 219
Decentralized control algorithms, 214–215
Decentralized grids
in California, 211
expanding central grid vs. building, 193
in Reforming the Energy Vision program, 208–210
solar power in, 215
systemic innovation to accommodate, 199–200
Deep decarbonization
global electricity mix for, 60–63, 62f
power sources for, 232–239
U.S. roadmap for, 245
Deep learning, 241
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), 249, 259, 265
Delos, 29
Demand for electricity
in cross-national grids, 202
“duck curve” of, 74–78
forecasted growth of, 60–61
in India, 14
Demand response, 212–216, 284g
Demonstration projects, 264–265, 289g
Denmark, 200–201, 244
Department of Water and Power (Los Angeles, California), xiii
Deregulation, of energy industry, 106–107
Derisking insurance, 105
Desalination, 82, 246, 284g
DESERTEC, 205
Developed countries, 64, 122
Developing countries
applications of elastic solar materials in, 162
funding/capital for solar projects in, 64, 65, 105, 113, 114, 126
future of solar power in, 4–5
microgrids in, 129
SunEdison YieldCo for, 88
Development banks, 45, 65, 102, 111, 113, 290g
Devi, Shaiyra, 119
Diesel-powered microgrids, 122
Direct current (DC), 217, 279g. See also DC microgrids; DC transmission lines
Discharge time, 227, 228
Dispatchable resources, 71, 72, 185
Distributed energy resources, 284g
Distributed power markets, 210–212
Distributed solar, 102, 104, 107, 199, 281g
Distribution (stage), 284g
Distribution subsystem, 129
Diversification, revenue stream, 130
d.light, 125
DOD. See U.S. Department of Defense
DOE. See U.S. Department of Energy
Dow Chemical, 110
Downstream developers, 48b, 52–53
Downstream markets, 47f, 48b, 50
Drones, 53
Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 19–21, 50
“Duck curve” of electricity demand, 74–78
Duke Energy Renewables, 108
Durability, of perovskite solar cells, 154–155
Duties, import, 136

East Africa, 86, 124, 125, 135–136
East China Sea, 206
Eclipse, total solar, 55–56
Economic growth, off-grid solar and, 119
Economies of scale, 104, 288g
Edison, Thomas, 131, 134, 202, 217
EESL (Energy Efficiency Services Limited), 138
Efficiency
and costs of solar PV panels, 45, 49
of CSP plants, 186–188
defined, 281g
of organic solar cells, 156–157
of perovskite solar cells, 143–148, 154–155
of photoelectrochemical cells, 176–178
of photosynthesis, 174
of quantum dot cells, 157–158
of silicon solar cells, 146, 148–151, 161
of solar PV technologies, 41, 41f, 158–159, 158f
of tandem cells, 153
EFRCs (Energy Frontier Research Centers), 263
Egypt, 31, 175
Einstein, Albert, 32
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 33–34
Elastic solar materials, 162
Electrical technicians, training, 138
Electric current. See Current
Electricity
cost of, xiv–xv, xvf, 49b, 80, 135, 159–161
deep decarbonization of, 60–63, 62f, 232–239, 245
demand for, 14, 60–61, 74–78, 202
in industrial sector, 171
lack of access to, 120–121, 121f
from silicon solar cells, 148–151, 150f
from solar power, 1, 30, 56, 57, 60
from solar PV panels, 12–13
supply of, 69–70, 200, 201
Electricity generation mix
for deep decarbonization, 61–63, 62f, 225
in Japan, 17f
nuclear power in, 21
and renewable portfolio standards, 268
Electricity grids (power grids), 195–219. See also Supergrids
adding solar energy to, xiv
battery storage tied to, 223, 224
central grid, 118–120, 129, 131, 132, 136–138, 199, 216
concentrated solar power in, 183
cross-national, 200–207
decentralized, 193, 199–200, 208–211, 215
demand response strategy for, 212–216
effect of total solar eclipse on, 55–56
expansion of, 116, 198–199, 269
future of, 9–10, 193
hybrid approach to, 216–219
in India, 15
interconnections of national, 200–207
microgrids, 86, 118, 122, 128–134, 138, 200, 216–217, 286g
minigrids, 122
and power markets, 241–242
reliability of (see Grid reliability)
REV program reforms to, 207–212
rooftop/residential solar and, 46b–47b, 46f, 104
smart, 193, 199, 200, 211, 213–214, 244, 286g
solar PV output to, 24
supergrid vs. decentralized models of, 195–200
surges in, 77–78
systemic innovation for, 82–83
top-down, 209
Electric power capacity mix, of India, 13–15, 14f
Electric power companies, 91–92, 106–110. See also Utilities
Electric vehicles (EVs). See also specific models
batteries for, 22, 229
and deep decarbonization, 60
defined, 284g
energy storage in, 169–173, 226
and future of solar power, 5
linking transportation and power systems with, 224, 243–244
systemic innovation involving, 82
Electric voltage. See Voltage
Electrochemical batteries, 228
Electrolysis, 285g
Electrolyzers, 175–176
Electrons
defined, 279g
four-electron reaction, 181
in photovoltaics, 32
in silicon solar cells, 148–150
Electron-volt, 151
Enel, 108
Energiewende, 36, 55, 57, 64
Energy, 60, 148, 279g
Energy access
government plan for, 136–138
and grid reliability, 132–134
microgrids to improve, 129
off-grid solar to improve, 115–120, 123–124, 139
and Pay-As-You-Go systems, 128
solar technologies to improve, 85
Energy density, 279g
Energy Efficiency Services Limited (EESL), 138
Energy Frontier Research Centers (EFRCs), 263
Energy industry (power industry)
connections of water and food systems with, 245–247
deregulation of, 106–107
in India, 114
linking heating and transportation sectors with, 82, 226, 243–245
research and development spending in, 273
Energy Innovation Hubs, 263–264
Energy-only wholesale market, 241
Energy poverty, 8, 15
Energy research, U.S. federal funding for, 254–260
Energy security, 16–18, 29–30
Energy storage, 142, 169–191
in batteries, 193, 221–226
characteristics of technologies for, 224–225, 227f
in concentrated solar power, 183–190
and deep decarbonization, 225, 238
defined, 285g
for electricity grids, 82–83
in electric vehicles, 169–173, 226
global technologies for, 226–232
and grid size, 198
in photoelectrochemical cells, 173–179
with solar fuels, 179–183
superconducting magnetic, 228
and technological innovation in solar power, 190–191
value deflation and technologies with, 81
Energy transfer, in silicon solar cells, 148–151
Energy transitions, 22–23, 36, 234
E.ON, 70
Equity capital, 90–91
Ethiopia, 120, 124
Europe. See also specific countries
compensation for unused solar power in, 76–77
funding for new solar projects in, 65
HVDC transmission lines in, 204
power markets in, 241
solar PV production in, 44–45
supergrids involving, 196, 198, 205–206
YieldCos in, 93–94, 97
European Union, 77, 241
EVs. See Electric vehicles
Experience curve, 289g
Exxon, 34, 35, 87

Facebook, 28
Falling-particle receivers, 188
Farms, solar, xiii–xiv, 14
Feed-in tariffs, 36, 50, 57, 240, 281g
Feynman, Richard, 157
Fiji, 6
Financial engineering, 85, 89, 114, 118
Financial innovation
and capital for new solar projects, 90–92
defined, 289g
for expansion of solar energy, 23–24, 85
and future of solar energy, xvi, 2
overcoming deployment challenges with, 57, 58b
preserving economic appeal of solar with, 78–79, 80f, 83
public policies to encourage, 194, 270
and technology lock-in, 165
Financing new solar projects, 23, 87–114
corporate investment as, 105–110
financial innovation and capital for, 90–92
with Master Limited Partnerships, 92–98
in off-grid solar, 126–128
from public sector, 110–114
securitization for, 98–105
and SunEdison collapse, 87–89
Firm Spread, 243
First Solar, 38, 40, 94, 155, 164, 242
Flexible-base resources
for deep decarbonization, 234–236, 238
defined, 285g
in power market, 239, 242–243
and state incentives for solar deployment, 269
Flexible tandem solar cells, 153
Flow batteries, 230
Flux field, 183
Flywheels, 228
Food production, 245–247
Fossil fuels. See also specific fuels
carbon capture/storage from power plants using, 61, 62, 82, 225, 237–238
continued use of, 3–7
cost of electric energy from, 49b
and decarbonization, 171
defined, 285g
impact of decreasing dependence on, 7–10
India’s use of, 15–16
profits from, 20–21
replacements for, 60, 183
solar PV panels as alternate to, 11
as stores of solar energy, 59
Four-electron reaction, 181
France, 241
Fresnel collectors, 186
Friend, Sir Richard, 143
Fritts, Charles, 32
Fuel cells, 285g
Fuels from Sunlight hub, 263
Fukushima-Daiichi nuclear disaster, 16–17, 17f, 21, 109, 169, 195
Fuller, Calvin, 33

Gaddy, Ben, 39, 257
Gallium arsenide (GaAs), 37–38, 149, 151, 281g
Gasoline, 35, 171, 175–176
Gates, Bill, 12, 262, 272
General Electric, 251
General Motors, 169
Generation IV nuclear reactors, 237
Germany
feed-in tariffs in, 240
grid surges in, 78
in international research collaborations, 273
in Nordic Synchronized Area, 201
nuclear power in, 239
post-WWI, solar energy in, 30
power market in, 241
renewable energy in, 56–57, 73, 73f
reverse auctions for solar power in, 50
solar industry in, 28, 36, 43
solar power targets for, 62–63
solar PV production in, 44
subsidies for renewable energy in, 64
total solar eclipse as test of grid in, 55–56
value deflation in, 70–71, 72f, 146
Gigawatt (GW), 47
Gigifactory, 223
Global Energy Interconnection, 195–196
Global Energy Interconnection (Liu), 196, 197
Global supergrid, 196–198, 197f, 206–207, 219
Goldstein, Anna, 263
Google, 92, 109
Gore, Al, 27
Grätzel, Michael, 143, 145, 151
Great Recession of 2009, 43, 91, 98, 99
Greece, 29, 73, 73f
Green, Martin, 40, 41, 42, 45, 155, 161
Green banks, 102, 113, 290g
Green bonds, 113, 288g
Greenhouse gases, 15, 110–111
Grid-connected solar systems, 67
Grid reliability
and decentralization, 212
and duck curve of demand, 74, 75
and energy access, 132–134
impact of renewable energy on, 56–57, 77
and inertia, 77
Groh, Sebastian, 134
Groundwater, 247
GTM Research, 236
Guarantees, loan, 111, 258
The Guardian, 200
GW (gigawatt), 47

Heat energy, 60
Heat engines, 30
Heating appliances, 244–245
Heating sector, 82, 226, 244–245
Heat pumps, 244
Heliocaminus, 29
Heliostats, 186
Hero of Alexandria, 30
High Aswan Dam (Egypt), 175
High-voltage alternating current (HVAC) transmission lines, 202
High-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission lines
for cross-national grids, 202–204, 203f, 206
defined, 285g
for hybrid grids, 217, 219
state support for, 269
Hoffman, Peter, 56
Hong Kong, 108
Hot carrier strategy, 157–158
Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 260
Hungary, 78
Hurricane Sandy (Superstorm Sandy), 199, 207
HVAC (high-voltage alternating current) transmission lines, 202
HVDC transmission lines. See High-voltage direct current transmission lines
Hybrid CSP plants, 188–190
Hybrid grids, 200, 216–219, 218f
Hybrid off-grid systems, 123
Hybrid solar plants, 185
Hydrocarbon fuels, from sunlight, 180
Hydrogen, 285g
Hydrogen fuel
early production of, 30
from integrated solar fuel generators, 174
from PECs, 175
from PV and electrolyzer systems, 175–176
from sunlight, 172, 180
vehicles using, 9, 170
Hydrological cycle, 59
Hydropower (hydroelectric power)
in California, 76
in Chile, 68, 69
defined, 285g
financing for projects involving, 111
in interconnected grids, 206
in Latin America, 19
in Nordic Synchronized Area, 201
popularity of, 5
Hydro storage facilities, 83, 226–228, 231

Iceland, 206
IEA. See International Energy Agency
IFC (International Finance Corporation), 111
Import duties, 136
Incentives. See also specific types, e.g.: Subsidies
for demonstration projects, 265
for deploying solar power, xvi, 45, 70
for new solar projects, 65
in power markets, 240
tax-based, 266–271
and U.S. solar industry, 35–36
An Inconvenient Truth (film), 27
India. See also specific locations
electric power capacity mix in, 13–15, 14f
funding for new solar projects in, 64, 65, 113–114
irrigation and blackouts in, 245–247
microgrids in, 130, 132–134, 136
off-grid solar in, 86, 117, 118
PAYG in, 128
projected solar PV deployment in, 51
public sector promotion of, 113–114, 135
renewable energy in, 106
Softbank’s solar investments in, 109
solar farms in, 4–5
technology costs in, 138
YieldCos in, 97
Indian Institute of Technology, 133
Indonesia, 122
Industrial sector
fossil fuels in, 60, 171
and future of solar power, 5, 8
Internet-connected equipment in, 214
Inertia, 77, 242, 285g–286g
Infrastructure projects
in China, 197, 205
institutional investments in, 93
of Donald J. Trump administration, 269
by utilities, 209, 211
Innovation. See also specific types, e.g.: Financial innovation
defined, 58b, 90, 289g
and future of solar energy, 1–2, 23–25
government inducements for, 260–266
to improve solar energy utilization, 78–83
and mindset of Silicon Valley solar start-ups, 29
overcoming deployment challenges with, 57, 58b
to realize potential of solar energy, 11–12
in solar energy market, xvi–xvii
in solar industry, 53
subsidies for, 267–268
U.S. leadership in, 271–274
by U.S. government, 249–254
Instantaneous power, 71
Institutional investors
clean energy investments by, 98, 111
defined, 288g
infrastructure investments for, 93
in new solar projects, 65–68
Insurance, 103, 105
Insurance companies, 111
Integrated circuits, 259
Integrated solar fuel generators, 174, 178
Intel, 164
Intermittency, 4, 193, 198
International Energy Agency (IEA), 11, 61, 290g
International Finance Corporation (IFC), 111
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 290g
International research collaborations, 273
Internet, 249, 259
Internet of Things, 214
Invention, 58b
Inverters, 53, 82, 212, 242, 281g
Investment tax credit (ITC), 281g
Ion cannons, 39
Iranian Revolution, 35
IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency), 290g
Irrigation systems, 31, 245–247
Italy
growth of renewable energy in, 73, 73f
incentives for solar in, 43
total solar eclipse and grid in, 55
unregulated power companies in, 108
value deflation in, 71
ITC (investment tax credit), 281g
Ivanpah CSP plant (Mojave Desert, California), 183–184, 186

Jacobson, Mark, 232–233
Japan
growth of renewable energy in, 73, 73f
interconnecting grid of, 205, 206
in international research collaborations, 273
orbital solar power satellite in, 163, 164
solar industry in, 28, 36
solar PV production in, 44
solar water heaters in, 30
JCAP. See Joint Center for Artificial Photosynthesis
Jean, Joel, 155
Jenkins, Jesse, 225, 234
Joint Center for Artificial Photosynthesis (JCAP), 177, 178, 178f, 290g
Joint Strike Fighter, 259

Kann, Shayle, 71, 80, 160
Karnataka, India, 133, 247
Kauffman, Richard, 90, 208, 209
Kenya, 117, 124
Kerosene subsidy, 135
Kerry, John, 271, 272
Kilowatt-hour (kWh), 49b, 280g
King’s College London, 32
Knock-on effect, 78, 267–268
Kumar, Saurabh, 138
Kuwait, 20
kWh (kilowatt-hour), 49b, 280g
kWh Analytics, 103
Kyocera, 36

Lancaster, Richard, 105
Latin America, 18–19, 108. See also specific countries
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 263
Lazard, 49b
Lead, in perovskite, 155, 156
Lead-acid batteries, 123, 228
Leases, solar, 124, 126, 288g
Lease-to-own options, 127
LEDs (light-emitting diodes), 132, 286g
Lee, Mike, 144
Leijtens, Tomas, 153
Lendable, 127
Lending, peer-to-peer, 127
Lending Club, 127
Level II EV chargers, 243
Lewis, Nathan “Nate,” 174, 175, 177, 179, 183
LG Chem, 223
Liebreich, Michael, 243
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs), 132, 286g
Light-water reactors, 21, 165, 236
Liquidity, of investments, 66, 67
Listed securities, 66–67
Lithium-ion batteries
applications of, 230–231
as backup for grid, 82–83
characteristics of, 228–229
for electric vehicles, 172
energy stored in, 226, 227
and future of solar power, 4
for solar home systems, 123
and solar PV panels, 223–226, 224f
Littlewood, Peter, 198
Liu Zhenya, 195–198, 200, 205, 206, 219
Loan guarantees, 111, 258
Loans Program Office, 264
Loan syndication, 111
Local distribution circuits, 77
Local power sources, in decentralized grids, 199
Lockheed, 179
Lock-in (technological), 164–167, 231, 289g
Logistic growth, 73–74, 73f
Los Alamos National Laboratory, 263
Los Angeles, California, xiii–xiv, 204
“Low-Cost Solution to the Grid Reliability Problem with 100% Penetration” (Jacobson), 232–233

Majumdar, Arun, 249, 250
Mali, 122
Mandates, on solar, 50
Manhattan Project, 254, 263
Manufacturing USA, 264
Market-clearing prices, 239–240
Markets, power. See Power markets
Marshall Islands, 6
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 155, 236, 261
Master Limited Partnerships (MLPs), 92–98, 270, 288g
Maycock, Paul, 45
McKinsey, 110
MDBs. See Multilateral development banks
Megawatt (MW), 47
Memory chips, xvi
Merchant plants, 69, 70, 71
ME SOLshare, 134
Meters, smart, 209, 214, 286g
Mexico, 18–19, 50, 206
Mexico City, Mexico, 18–19
MGM Resorts, 109
Miami, Florida, 6
Microchips, xv–xvi, xvf
Microgrids, 128–134
AC, 130–134
DC, 130–134, 138, 217
defined, 129–130, 286g
in energy access plan, 136–138, 137f
fossil fuels for powering, 122
in hybrid grid strategy, 200, 216–217
for off-grid solar, 86, 118
Microprocessors, xvi
Microsoft, 92, 213, 215
Middle East, 246. See also specific countries
Middle East Electricity Summit, 19–20
Military. See also U.S. Department of Defense
as customer for new solar technologies, 163
support for clean energy technologies from, 265–266
Minigrids, 122
Mirrors, burning, 29
Missing money problem, 240
Mission Innovation, 254, 272
MIT. See Massachusetts Institute of Technology
MIT Energy Initiative, 161
M-KOPA, 124, 125
MLP Parity Act, 93, 270
MLPs. See Master Limited Partnerships
Mobil, 35, 36
Mobile banking, 117, 128, 135
Mobile money, 125
Mobile payments, peer-to-peer, 134
Mobisol, 125
Modi, Narendra, 13–15, 272
Mongolia, 205
Moore’s Law, xv–xvi
Moran, Jerry, 93, 270
Mortgage-backed securities, 99
Mosaic Solar, 101
Moss, Todd, 119
Mouchot, Augustin, 30, 31
M-PESA, 124, 125
Multijunction solar cells, 38, 152–153
Multilateral development banks (MDBs), 111, 113, 290g
Multinational institutions, financing by, 92
Multiple exciton generation, 157
Munjal, Rahul, 13
Musk, Elon, 59, 63, 163, 170, 221–224, 226, 229, 243, 247, 265
MW (megawatt), 47

Nanda, Raman, 109
Nanometer, 157
Nanosolar, 27–28, 38, 39, 52
Narayanamurti, Venky, 260
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), 265
National Academy of Engineering, 209
National Academy of Sciences, 263
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 265
National Science Foundation, 261
Natural gas
in combined cycle plants, 188, 189
and decline in nuclear power, 239, 240
hydrogen fuel from, 176
power plants running on, 75–76, 105, 234–235
Nature (journal), 145
NCA (nickel, cobalt, and aluminum) batteries, 229
Needles, Arizona, 31
Nemet, Greg, 259
Net metering, 50, 102, 107, 281g–282g
NET Power, 238
Networks, of microgrids, 134
New Delhi, India, 13–16
New Orleans, Louisiana, 6
New solar projects. See also Financing new solar projects
capital for, 90–92
corporate investment in, 105–110
investment in, 64–68
public funding for, 65, 110–114
New York City, 6, 207, 208
New York Green Bank, 113
New York State
decentralized grid in, 199
power market in, 240
Reforming the Energy Vision program in, 207–209
support for solar deployment by, 268–269
New York Times, 233
New Zealand, 67
Nextera, 94
NextEra Energy Resources, 108
Nichols, Ron, xiv
Nickel, cobalt, and aluminum (NCA) batteries, 229
Nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) batteries, 229
Nigeria, 120, 124, 136–137
Nile river, 6
Nitrates, 187
NMC (nickel-manganese-cobalt) batteries, 229
Nocera, Dan, 179–183
Noel, Nakita, 156
Nondispatchable resources, 69, 71
Nordhaus, Ted, 119
Nordic Synchronized Area, 201, 206
North Africa, 196, 205
North America, 198, 204, 206. See also specific countries
Northeast Asia supergrid, 205
Norway, 201
NREL (U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory), 135, 236
NRG, 93, 94, 238
NRG Yield, 93
Nuclear power, 286g
for deep decarbonization, 61–63, 225, 234, 236, 237
flexibility of power plants producing, 76
and future of solar energy, 1, 5, 10
in Japan, 16–18
light-water reactors, 21, 165, 236
as model for solar energy, 21–23
in power markets, 239–240
and renewable portfolio standards, 268
as supplement to solar power, 24
U.S. government support for, 28, 33–34, 36
use of, 60, 82
Nuclear reactors, 21, 165, 236, 237
NV Energy, 109

Obama, Barack, and administration, 38, 39, 169, 170, 184, 245, 249, 263, 272
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), 111
Off-Grid Electric, 115, 116, 118, 125
Off-grid solar, 23–24, 115–139
defined, 282g
funding for, 67–68
history of, 118–124
improving energy access with, 86, 115–118
in India, 14
microgrids for, 128–134
Pay-As-You-Go model for, 124–128
per unit electricity costs for, 122
public-sector promotion of, 135–139
Office of Scientific Research and Development, 254
Offshore oil rigs, 34
Offtaker risk, 111
Offtakers, 68, 104–105
Oil, decarbonization and, 171
Oil and gas industry, 91, 106
Oil companies
applied R&D in energy by, 257
capitalization of solar vs., 89
and carbon prices, 23
investment in solar power by, 35
tax incentives for, 268
Oil exports, profits from, 20
Oil prices, 95–96, 96f, 255, 256
OMC Power, 130
Open-cycle gas turbines, 235
Optical fibers, 215–216
Optical supergrids, 215
Orbital solar power satellite, 163, 164
Organic polymers, 151–152
Organic solar cells, 147, 156–157, 282g
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 111
O’Sullivan, Frank, 39
Ouarzazate, Morocco, 205
Oxford PV, 147, 153, 166–167
Oxford University, 143, 151

Pacific DC intertie, 204
Paint, solar, 12, 147, 162
Pan-Asian supergrid, 195–196
Parabolic trough CSP designs, 186
Paris Agreement on Climate Change
and China Light and Power’s investment in solar, 105–106
global warming limit in, 6
India’s climate pledge under, 15
and Mission Innovation, 271–272
withdrawal of United States from, 24, 254, 272
Paris Climate Change Conference (2015), 271
Pasadena, California, 31
Pay-As-You-Go (PAYG) model
defined, 282g
for microgrids, 130
for off-grid solar, 118, 124–128
for solar home systems, 123
Pearson, Gerald, 33
PECs. See Photoelectrochemical cells
Peer-to-peer lending, 127
Peer-to-peer mobile payments, 134
Penn State University, 177
Pension funds, 111
PERC design, 41
Perovskite(s)
defined, 282g
layering of, on silicon solar cells, 147, 153, 155
in photoelectrochemical cells, 178
size of, 155
in solar fuel production, 181–182
as solar material, 144, 145, 151–156
synthetic, 151
Perovskite solar cells, 141, 143–167
advantages of, over silicon solar cells, 159–164
efficiency and development of, 143–148
efficiency of, 161
and energy transfer in silicon solar cells, 148–151
organic and quantum dot solar cells vs., 156–159
and perovskite as solar material, 151–156
scaling up, 191
and technology lock-in in solar industry, 164–167
and value deflation, 190
Persian Gulf, 246
Peru, 18, 50
Petroleum-fueled vehicles, 170–171
Petro Nova project, 238
Philippines, 122
Phillips, 138
Photoelectrochemical cells (PECs), 173–179
defined, 282g
of JCAP, 177–178, 178f
scaling up, 191
solar PV cells vs., 175–176
tandem structures in, 178–179
Photons, 32, 148–151, 280g
Photosynthesis, 172, 174–175
Photovoltaic effect, 32
Photovoltaics (PV). See also entries beginning Solar PV
defined, 282g
electricity from, 32–33
in hybrid CSP plants, 189–190
Picosolar systems, 122
Plasmonic resonance, 158
PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America), 232, 233
Poland, 78
Political coalitions, 166
Political issues, with global supergrid, 198
Political risk, 111
Polysilicon, 39, 50, 52
Post-silicon solar materials, 52
Poverty, energy, 8, 15
Power. See also specific sources, e.g.: Solar power
defined, 31, 280g
instantaneous, 71
from silicon solar cell, 151
Power capacity, 227, 228, 230
Power density, 150, 229–230
Power-generation subsystem, 129
Power grids. See Electricity grids
Powerhive, 131
Power industry. See Energy industry
Power markets
decentralized, 199
distributed, 210–212
diverse power mix in, 225
effect of renewable energy on, 56–57, 70
REV reforms for, 210
state governments’ work with, 269
systemic innovations in, 239–243
wholesale, 69, 243–244, 287g
Power plants. See also Coal-fired power plants
baseload, 75
combined cycle, 188, 189
in deep decarbonization efforts, 225
derisking of, 105
effects of solar PV on non-solar, 75–76
in electricity grid, 82
inertia of, 77
natural gas-fueled, 75–76, 105, 234–235
solar PV, 31, 61, 183–184
virtual, 215
Power-purchase agreements (PPAs)
defined, 282g
and power markets, 240
prices for solar in, 50, 51f
with regulated utilities, 108
and value deflation, 68–69, 71
Power sources, for deep decarbonization, 232–239
Power supply volatility, 55–56, 82
Power tower CSP designs, 186–188, 187f
Powerwall, 222, 225
Priority dispatch, 76–77
Private equity funds, 66
Private sector
capital for solar industry from, 85
financing for off-grid solar by, 121–122
investment in commercialization by, 263–265
investment in new solar projects by, 64
solar PV technology advances by, 41, 42
support for R&D by government and, 250, 251, 253–257
Prizes, for demonstration projects, 265
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS), 232, 233
Profits, 45, 49–53, 114
Public bond markets, 91
Public Investment Fund, 93
Public policy
distortionary, and off-grid solar, 135–136
encouraging innovation with, 24, 83, 85, 194, 270
and energy access, 86
on global energy transition, 22–23
and technology lock-in, 165–166
Public sector. See also U.S. government
funding for new solar projects by, 65, 110–114
investment in solar projects by, 92
promotion/financing of off-grid solar by, 118, 135–139
Public stock markets, 91
PV. See Photovoltaics
PV coatings, 12, 24, 27, 80–81, 141, 144

Qatar, 20
Q-Cells, 36
Quantum dot solar cells, 147, 157–159, 282g

Rajasthan, India, 134
R&D. See Research and development
Reagan, Ronald, and administration, 36, 255–257
Real estate investment trusts (REITs), 98, 288g
Receivers, falling-particle, 188
Refineries, solar, 180
Reforming the Energy Vision (REV) program, 207–212
Regional supergrids, 206, 207
Regulated utilities (regulated power companies), 107–108, 110
REITs (real estate investment trusts), 98, 288g
Renewable energy, 286g. See also specific types
and carbon intensity targets, 106
creating separate market for, 242–243
in cross-national grids, 201–202, 206
for deep decarbonization, 225, 235
effect on power markets of, 56–57, 70
grid reliability issues with, 77
institutional investments in, 67
logistic growth for, 73–74, 73f
public-sector funding for, 110–111
in Saudi Arabia, 20–21
in Texas, 269
Renewable portfolio standard (RPS), 268, 286g
Renew Power, 67
Research and development (R&D), 289g
applied, 255–260
federal investment in nondefense, 261–262, 262f
federal vs. private funding for, 250, 251, 254–260
necessity of current work in, 24–25
shared laboratories for, 264
in solar industry, 52–53
spending on, in China, 53, 164, 272, 273
spending on, in semiconductor industry, 273
U.S. federal funding for, 36, 250–251
Reserve Bank of India, 128
Residential solar
connecting, to electric grid, 46b–47b, 46f
cost of, 100
defined, 282g
off-grid, 116
price of, 103–104
Resilience, of grid, 208
Reverse auctions, 50
REV (Reforming the Energy Vision) program, 207–212
Rickover, Hyman, 165
Rive, Lyndon, 221
Rive, Peter, 221
Rodgers, T. J., 42
Rokkasho, Japan, 16–18
Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant (Rokkasho, Japan), 16–18
Rolls, solar, 161–162
Rome, ancient, 29
Romney, Mitt, 39
Roofs, solar, 222–223, 247
Rooftop solar installations, 162, 212
Rooftop solar panels, 14, 100, 103–104
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 254
Roscheisen, Martin, 27, 52
Royal Dutch Shell, 35
RPS (renewable portfolio standard), 268, 286g
Ruffalo, Mark, 233
Russia, 195, 198, 205, 206, 237
Rwanda, 117, 136
RWE, 70

Safaricom, 124
Sahara Desert, 202
Samsung, 223, 229
Sanchez, Dan, 273
Sandia National Laboratory, 188
Sanyo, 36
Satellites, solar power, 34, 163, 164, 283g
Saudi Arabia, 20–21, 50–51, 244
Scarce materials, in batteries, 230
Schumpeter, Josef, 58b, 90
Science (journal), 145
Science: The Endless Frontier (Bush), 254–255
Scotland, 206
S-curve, 73
Seaborg, Glenn, 21
Seasonal variation, in energy storage, 231
“The Secret Tesla Motors Master Plan” (Musk), 221
Securitization
defined, 288g
for off-grid projects, 126–128
for solar projects, 91, 98–105, 101f
Security, energy, 16–18, 29–30
Selenium, 32
Semiconductor industry, 38–40, 259, 273
Semiconductors
current and voltage, 148–149
defined, 280g
improving efficiency of solar cells with, 151
in photoelectrochemical cell, 178
selenium as, 32
wide-gap, 204
Shared laboratories, for R&D, 264
Sharp (company), 36
Shingles, solar, 162, 222–223, 247
Shi Zhengrong, 42
SHSs. See Solar home systems
Shuman, Frank, 31
Siemens, 36
Silicon, 283g
amorphous, 37, 161, 280g
bandgap for, 149
characteristics of perovskite vs., 152
in high-efficiency solar cells, 151
prices of thin-film technologies vs., 39
as solar material, 28, 32–33, 145–146
in solar technologies, 22, 37
Silicon solar cells
advantages of perovskite over, 159–164
efficiency of, 146, 161
energy transfer in, 148–151
global trends in installation of, 252
invention of, 33
perovskite layers on, 141, 147, 153, 155
replacing, 161
in solar roofs, 222–223
Silicon solar PV panels, xiv
Chinese production of, 1, 7, 28, 39, 44, 44f, 252, 257, 272–273
costs of, 159–160
current installations of, 12–21
development of modern, 40–41
and future of solar energy, 3–4, 7–8
incentives for deploying, 267
invention of, 29
and potential of solar energy, 11
rooftop installations of, 14, 100, 103–104
solar PV coatings as alternative to, 27
technology lock-in with, 164–166
value deflation and, 190
Silicon Valley solar start-ups, 27–29, 37–40, 146, 179, 257
Simpa Networks, 128
Skyscrapers, solar building materials for, 162
Slovakia, 78
Smart appliances, 214
Smart grids
decentralization with, 193, 199, 200
defined, 286g
and demand response strategies, 213–214
and electric vehicles, 244
technological innovation for, 211
Smart inverters, 242
Smart meters, 209, 214, 286g
SMES (superconducting magnetic energy storage), 228
Smil, Vaclav, 22
Smith, Willoughby, 32
Snaith, Henry, 143–145, 147–148, 153, 156, 166–167
Socrates, 29
Softbank, 13, 109, 195
Soft costs, 283g
Solar architecture, 29–30
Solar-as-a-service business model, 88
Solar cells. See also Perovskite solar cells; Silicon solar cells
materials for, 37–38
multijunction, 38, 152–153
organic, 147, 156–157, 282g
quantum dot, 147, 157–159, 282g
substrates for, 152, 161–162
tandem, 153, 154f, 156, 161, 283g
SolarCity, 100, 116, 221–223
Solar energy, 3–25
battery storage for, 221–226
current installations of PV panels, 12–21
innovations to improve future of, 23–25
nuclear power as model for, 21–23
optimistic projections about, 7–10
pessimistic projections about, 3–7
potential of, 10–12
scale of, xiii–xiv
Solar energy utilization, 55–83
and “duck curve” of electricity demand, 74–78
economic challenges with, 56–59
innovations for improving, 78–83
and investment in new solar projects, 64–68
power supply volatility as challenge with, 55–56
setting global targets for, 59–63
value deflation as challenge with, 68–74
Solar farms, xiii–xiv, 14
Solar fuels
commercial success for, 24
concentrated solar power vs., 183
energy storage in, 179–183
hydrogen fuel vs., 172–173
investment in, 12
value deflation and, 81
Solar home systems (SHSs)
capital for up-front costs of, 125, 126
costs of, 132, 133f
defined, 283g
in India, 128
lease-to-own options for, 127
microgrids vs., 129, 130
networks of, 134
as off-grid solar, 123
Pay-As-You-Go model for, 124, 125
Solar industry, 27–53
ancient solar technologies, 29–32
in China, 40–45
current state of, 45–53
silicon material in, 32–33
Silicon Valley start-ups in, 27–29, 37–40
technology lock-in for, 164–167
U.S. government support of, 33–37
Solar leases, 124, 126
Solar paint, 12, 147, 162
Solar power
cost of, 22, 48b–49b, 48f, 79, 80
in cross-national grids, 201–202
in decentralized grids, 211–212
and decline in nuclear power, 239, 240
for deep decarbonization, 61–63, 234, 236, 238
with demand response strategies, 215–216
early use of, 31
electricity supplied by, 56, 57
technical potential of, 63
technological innovation in, 190–191
upstream production and downstream markets in, 47b–48b, 47f
U.S. public policies in support of, 266–271
utilization targets in India, 13–15, 14f
Solar Power Corporation, 34
Solar power satellite, 34, 163, 164, 283g
Solar PV panels. See also Silicon solar PV panels
components of, 46b, 46f
costs of, 31–32, 45
defined, 283g
deployment trends, 85
economics of, xvi
with electrolyzers, 175–176
and lithium-ion batteries, 223–226, 224f
of off-grid providers, 118
power from, 31
production costs for, 78–79, 79f
Solar PV power plants, 31, 61, 183–184
Solar PV systems
connecting residential systems to grids, 46b–47b, 46f
deployment projections for, 51–52, 52f
and efficiency of silicon solar cells, 146
expanding capital pool for installing, 90–92
projected costs for, 160, 160f
stand-alone, 117
Solar PV technologies
and concentrated solar power, 173, 191
cost of, 34
efficiency of, 41, 41f, 158–159, 158f
financial and business model innovations for expanding, 78–79
in future of solar energy, 9
grid penetration of, 236, 237f
systemic innovation for, 81–82
technological innovation for, 141
value deflation for, 71, 72f, 198
Solar refineries, 180
Solar rolls, 161–162
Solar technologies
ancient, 29–32
cost of, xv–xvi, xvf
economic appeal of using alternate, 80–81
evolutionary improvements to, 147
and future of solar energy, 7–8
international funding for, 253–254
investment in, 12
in Japan, 18
perovskite-based, 166–167
revolutionary improvements to, 147
silicon in, 37
stagnation in, 22
U.S. federal loan program for, 258–259
U.S. government funding for, 251–253
Solar thermal plants, 31
Solar water heaters, 30–31
Solid-state battery, 172
Solyndra, 38, 39, 258, 264
Son, Masayoshi “Masa,” 109, 195, 198, 200, 205, 206, 219
South Asia, 85, 117, 120
Southern Power, 108
South Korea, 145, 195, 205, 223, 273
Soviet Union, 38. See also Russia
Space-based solar power, 147, 163
Space program, 34
SpaceX, 221, 222, 265
Spain, 43, 69, 73, 73f
Sponsors, YieldCo, 94, 96–97
Sputnik satellites, 34
Stand-alone solar PV systems, 117
Stanford University, 27, 53, 190
Start-ups
demand-side innovations by, 213–214
Silicon Valley solar, 27–29, 37–40, 146, 179, 257
State governments, 264–265, 268–269
State Grid Corporation, 195, 196
Stirling Dish Engine, 186
Stranks, Sam, 145
Strauss, Lewis, 21
Streamers, 183
Sub-Saharan Africa, 85, 117, 120, 121
Subsidies
for deploying solar power, 17, 43, 57, 70, 266–268
for electricity used in agriculture, 247
for kerosene, 135
for new solar projects, 64
for silicon PV panel manufacturing, 43
Substation, 287g
Substrates, for solar cells, 152, 161–162
Sun Catalytix, 179
SunEdison, 87–89, 89f, 91, 94–98, 106
Sunlight
carbon-based fuels from (see Solar fuels)
conversion of, into mechanical work, 30
electricity from, in silicon cells, 148–151, 150f
as energy source, 11, 59
Sunlight Financial, 103
SunPower, 35, 42, 45, 94
SunShot program, 160, 160f, 260
Suntech, 42, 45
Supercapacitors, 228, 230–231
Supercharger stations, 243
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), 228
Superconducting transmission lines, 204
Supercritical carbon dioxide, 188
Supergrids, 195–200
global, 196–198, 197f, 206–207, 219
in Global Energy Interconnection, 195
and hybrid grid, 219
optical, 215
pan-Asian, 195–196
regional, 206, 207
solar power in, 215
systemic innovation for, 199–200
transmission lines for, 205–207
Supermajor(s)
and corporate investment in solar, 105–110
in solar energy, 89, 91–92
SunEdison as, 87, 106
Superstorm Sandy, 199, 207
Supply of electricity, 69–70, 200, 201
Surges, power grid, 77–78
Swanson, Dick, 42, 45
Swanson’s Law, 45
Swarm electrification, 134
Sweden, 201, 204
Sylmar converter station (Los Angeles, California), 204
Synfuels program, 259
Synthetic perovskite, 151
Systemic innovation, 221–247
and battery storage of solar energy, 221–226
defined, 58b, 193, 289g
for expansion of solar energy, 24
and future of solar energy, xvi–xvii, 2
and global energy storage technologies, 226–232
for hybrid grid, 217, 219
and interconnections of energy, water, and food systems, 245–247
linking heating/transportation sectors with power sector, 243–245
overcoming solar deployment challenges with, 57, 58b, 59
in power markets, 239–243
and power sources for deep decarbonization, 232–239
preserving economic appeal of solar with, 80f, 81–83
public policies to encourage, 194
for supergrids or decentralized grids, 199–200
technological vs., 200

Tanaka, Yoshikazu, 169, 170
Tandem solar cells, 153, 154f, 156, 161, 283g
Tandem structures, in photoelectrochemical cells, 178–179
Tanzania, 115–117, 124, 136
Tarangire National Park, 115
Tariffs
feed-in, 36, 50, 57, 240, 281g
and off-grid solar, 135–136
protecting domestic solar manufacturers with, 24–25, 273–274
Tax credits
for clean energy, 266–271
for deployment of solar power, 50, 166
investment, 281g
for new solar projects, 65
and technological innovation, 253
and U.S. solar industry, 35–36
Technological innovation
and carbon tax, 271
and current silicon PV technology, 141
defined, 58b, 289g–290g
for expansion of solar energy, 24
and financial innovation, 165
and future of solar energy, xvi, 2
government support for, 259
overcoming deployment challenges with, 57, 58b
preserving economic appeal of solar with, 80–81, 80f, 83
in solar power, 190–191
systemic vs., 200
U.S. funding for, 252–253
Technology companies, as solar supermajors, 109–110
Technology costs, 138
Technology demonstrations, 264–265
Technology lock-in, 164–167, 231, 289g
Telecom firms, as anchor clients, 130
Temperature, in CSP systems, 185–187, 190
TenneT, 55
Tesla, Inc., 100, 162, 169, 215, 223, 226, 229, 243, 258
Tesla, Nikola, 131, 202, 217
Tesla Model 3, 170, 221, 222, 229
Tesla Model S, 169, 221
Tesla Motors, 221–223
Texas, 71, 72f, 241, 269
Thermalization losses, 151
Thermal storage, for CSP systems, 185
Thin film technologies, 38–40, 163, 283g
Three Gorges Corporation, 108
Tidal energy, 60
Tin-based perovskites, 156
Titanium dioxide, 177
Tokyo University, 144
Top-down grids, 209
Total (company), 35
Total solar eclipse, 55–56
Toyota Mirai, 170, 172, 173, 180, 191
Toyota Motor Corporation, 169–170, 172, 191
Toyota Prius, 169, 170
Track Two, REV program, 208–209
Trade barriers, 24–25, 135–136, 273–274
Transmission, 287g
Transmission lines
AC, 202, 203, 203f
for cross-national grids, 201–202
DC (see DC transmission lines)
superconducting, 204
for supergrids, 205–207
virtual, 215–216
Transportation sector
electric vehicles in, 224
fossil fuels in, 60, 171
and future of solar power, 5
linking power sector with, 82, 226, 243–244
Trembath, Alex, 119
Trump, Donald J., and administration, 24, 65, 194, 250, 254, 255, 269, 270, 272, 273–274
Tuvalu, 6
Twin Creek Technologies, 39
Two-way communications networks, 214

Uganda, 124
Ultra-high-voltage-direct current (UHVDC) transmission lines, 196, 204–205
Underground thermal storage, 233
United Kingdom, 97, 211, 240
United Nations, 6, 33–34
United States. See also entries beginning U.S.
advancement of innovation by, 193–194
battery storage capacity needed to power, 235, 235f
debt capital for solar in, 126
electricity generation via solar power in, 59
electricity grid in, 209
federal tax credits for solar deployment in, 165–166
funding for new solar projects in, 65
and future of solar power, 6, 9
greenhouse gas emissions by, 15
grid interconnections in, 206, 207
in international research collaborations, 273
manufacturing vs. commercialization of solar technologies in, 272–273
Master Limited Partnerships in, 93
net metering in, 102
nuclear power in, 237, 239
Pay-As-You-Go model in, 124
per unit electricity costs in, 122
power markets in, 240
power-purchase agreements in, 71
price of residential solar installation in, 103–104
seasonal variation in solar radiation, 231
smart meters in, 214
solar industry in, 28
solar installations in, 238, 267
solar PV production in, 44–45
SunEdison YieldCo for, 88
UHVDC transmission lines in, 196
unregulated power companies in, 108
utilities in, 91
YieldCos in, 93–94, 97
“United States Mid-Century Strategy for Deep Decarbonization” road map, 245
Universal Studios, 222
University of California, 67
University of Dar es Salaam, 115
University of New South Wales, 40
University of Oxford, xiii, xiv
Unregulated power companies, 91–92, 106–109
Upstream producers, 47b–48b, 47f, 50, 52
U.S. Department of Defense (DOD), 249, 259–260, 265–266
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), 177
applied R&D funding by, 263
applied R&D funding from, 256f, 259–261
described, 290g
Loans Program Office of, 264
microgrid definition from, 129–130
SunShot 2030 program, 160, 160f
U.S. Federal Reserve, 88, 95
U.S. government, 249–274
energy research funding by, 254–260
in history of energy innovation, 249–254
and inducing innovation in energy technology, 260–266
leadership in energy innovation by, 24–25, 271–274
support for nuclear power by, 28, 33–34, 36
support for solar industry by, 33–37
tax incentives for clean energy from, 266–271
U.S. National Laboratories, 263, 264
U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 155, 236
U.S. Navy, 265
U.S. Treasury, 267
Utilities
AC power at, 131
defined, 287g
demand response strategies by, 213–215
impact of renewable energy on, 70
regulated, 107–108, 110
systemic innovation for, 24
top-down grids of, 209
vertically integrated, 106–107
view of net metering by, 102
view of solar power by, 91
Utility-scale solar
benefits for grid of, 242
cadmium telluride panels for, 155
cost of, 103–104, 161, 212
cost of power from, 48b, 49b
defined, 283g
by unregulated power companies, 108

Value deflation
cost of electricity to outpace, 159–161
counteracting, 81–83
defined, 57, 283g
effect of, on grids, 198
and future of solar power, 4
and perovskite solar cells, 146
and silicon PV solar panels, 190
and solar energy utilization, 68–74
Vanguard I satellite, 34
VC. See Venture capital
Venture capital (VC), 39, 257, 258f, 288g
Verizon, 216
Vertical integration, 125
Villaraigosa, Antonio, xiii, xiv, 204
Virtual power plants, 215
Virtual transmission lines, 215–216
Volatility, power supply, 55–56, 82
Volkswagen, 169
Voltage (electric voltage), 148, 149, 280g
Voltage converters, 203, 204
Voltage losses, 151
Voltage source converter, 204
Volvo, 171

W (Watt), 280g
Walmart, 110
WA Parish Generating Station (Houston, Texas), 238
Warehousing approach, 101–102
Washington State, 213
Water heaters, 30–31, 244
Water system, energy sector and, 245–247
Watt (W), 280g
Waxman-Markey Bill, 270
West Africa, 136
Westinghouse, 33, 236
Wholesale power market, 69, 243–244, 287g
Wide-gap semiconductors, 204
Wind power
China Light and Power’s deployment of, 106
commercial adoption of, 11
in cross-national grids, 201–202
and decline in nuclear power, 239, 240
for deep decarbonization, 61, 62, 234
defined, 287g
in Denmark, 200–201
and future of solar energy, 5, 10, 59
Work, from sunlight, 30
Working capital, 128, 138–139
Working fluid, 186
World Bank, 67, 92, 111, 123, 128
World Bank Group, 111
World Economic Forum, 212

Xerox PARC, 27

Yang, Peidong, 182
Yangsui, 29
YieldCos
and Master Limited Partnerships, 92–98, 270
oil and gas industry as model for, 91
of SunEdison, 88, 89

Zero-carbon power sources, 61
Zero-carbon solar fuels, 9