Judgment on Israel (2:6–6:14)

For three sins of Israel, even for four (2:6–8). As Amos homes in on his main target, he begins with not just one but several sins: enslavement, judicial corruption, sexual perversion, and economic exploitation. The first may be a specific example of judicial corruption rather than the slavery condemned previously. “A pair of sandals” either indicates a trifling amount or refers proverbially to bypassing legal traditions enacted by sandal-removal (cf. Deut. 25:9; Ruth 4:7); or it may also be a mistranslation of a rare synonym for “bribe.”23

Yabneh-yam ostracon (mesad hashavyahu) in which a worker requests the return of his garment, which has been confiscated by his overseer who accused him of not finishing his work.

Z. Radovan/www.BibleLandPictures.com

Sex with “the same girl” hardly refers to general or cultic prostitution,24 since the sin here is that father and son are both involved. More likely this is the exploitation of female servants who marry into the household (Ex. 21:7–11; cf. Deut. 22:30), but are not given proper honor and protection. Garments taken in pledge should be returned to the poor before sunset (Ex. 22:26–27; Deut. 24:12–13), since they were needed as blankets. In practice this reduced the pledge to a token, emphasizing that in Israelite law people mattered more than possessions.

The Amorite (2:9). This term sometimes indicates one indigenous group in Canaan, sometimes all of them collectively (both uses in Josh. 24:11, 15).25 Several factors support the biblical tradition of their exceptional height. First, the detailed early accounts attribute great height only to the Anakim and Nephilim,26 not indiscriminately. Later there were reportedly giants among the Philistines, but not among other local peoples. Second, the name “Anakite” may well mean “long-necked.”27 Third, a thirteenth-century Egyptian papyrus mentions exceptionally tall Canaanites near Megiddo: “The narrow valley is dangerous with Bedouin, hidden under the bushes. Some of them are four or five cubits [7–8½ ft] from their noses to the heel, and fierce of face. Their hearts are not mild, and they do not listen to wheedling.”28

Nazirites (2:11–12). Numbers 6:1–21 prescribes conditions for those who take a Nazirite vow for a specific purpose and a time-limited period: no alcohol, no shaving or hair-cutting, and no contact with corpses. The variant of “Nazirite-for-life” is not noted in legal texts but is illustrated with Samson and Samuel (Judg. 13:5–7; 1 Sam. 1:11). Amos probably refers to the latter and sees it as a divine calling similar to that of prophet. This is the only reference to Nazirites as a well-known phenomenon, here in poetic parallel with prophets. Perhaps they flourished for a short period in Amos’s day, possibly as a response to the corruption of the society that Amos denounces.

There is no obvious parallel in other ancient cultures of ordinary people (i.e., neither priests nor prophets) undertaking temporary or permanent restrictions for religious reasons other than personal vows. In Sippar, Old Babylonia, a rich young woman could be consigned to the temple as a nadītu and was forbidden to marry. But this was to prevent the family estate being divided, and the practice died out when inheritance laws changed.29

By the late postexilic period, Nazirite vows were again well known, though mostly for personal vows and limited periods. Josephus records several instances (cf. also Acts 18:18; 21:23–24). The Mishnah stipulates that such a vow must last at least thirty days.30

The swift … (2:14–16). The entire Israelite military force is covered by this sevenfold description:31 infantry, the basic force that was swift-footed; archers, who could keep attackers at bay; and “horsemen.” The last term probably means “charioteers,” since chariots were a common feature of ancient warfare from early times–for example, Egypt (Ex. 14:7), Canaan (Judg. 4:3), Philistia (1 Sam. 13:5), Israel (1 Kings 10:26), and Syria (20:20–21). However, as the last text shows, armies could also have cavalry, though it is unclear when cavalry became widespread; some fifty years later the Assyrians mocked Judah for having so few men able to ride horses (2 Kings 18:23). Amos declares that all these powerful forces cannot withstand divine judgment.

Chariots and infantry on Balawat gate

Werner Forman Archive/The British Museum

The whole family (3:1–2). God chose his “family” from “all the families of the earth,” an echo of the promise to Abraham (identical Heb. phrase in Gen. 12:3; 28:14).32 Here special choice implies special responsibility and therefore special punishment.

Do two walk together … (3:3–6). These seven rhetorical questions stress that every effect has a cause, and the seventh makes clear that the coming disaster will be caused by the Lord. The images give cameos of ordinary life: traveling together, growling lions, bird hunting, and warning of danger. The trumpet made of ram’s horn (šôpār) was used in such ordinary contexts as well as in religious celebrations (e.g., Ps. 81:3).

Lion on ivory box from Megiddo, 12th century

Z. Radovan/www.BibleLandPictures.com

An enemy (3:11). Overshadowing the preaching of Amos but unmentioned in the book is the emerging power of Assyria.33 Assyria had been an important empire in the fourteenth to eleventh centuries but then declined. In the ninth century it reemerged and advanced westward, to be checked by western states at the battle of Qarqar in 853 B.C. A decade later the Assyrians conducted another campaign to the west and exacted tribute from Jehu, as portrayed on the Black Obelisk (now in the British Museum).34 However, these were more raids than conquests, and they then remained beyond Israel’s horizon for nearly a century.35 But now, in the mid-eighth century, the Assyrians are again advancing westward. Amos sees this ominous development but doesn’t name them; a little later Hosea names them repeatedly. But to no effect–in 722 Assyria conquered Samaria and exiled many Israelites (2 Kings 17).

Relief of Assyrian siege during the time of Ashurnasirpal, 9th century

Caryn Reeder, courtesy of the British Museum

Two leg bones or a piece of an ear (3:12). A shepherd was not responsible for animals devoured by wild beasts, in Israel (Ex. 22:13) or elsewhere.36 However, he had to provide evidence, hence the need to rescue any uneaten bones and scraps. This powerful image is applied to Israel–only a few useless scraps will remain.

Altars of Bethel (3:14). After the schism, Israel’s first king Jeroboam built temples at Dan in the north and Bethel in the south of his new kingdom to prevent its people from traveling to Jerusalem (1 Kings 12:26–30). The Dan temple faded from view, while the Bethel one became the national and royal shrine (cf. Amos 7:13) and received repeated prophetic censure.37 This is the only reference to Bethel altars in the plural–presumably the main altar was complemented by others.

Horned altar from Beersheba which had been broken up for the stones to be reused.

Kim Walton

Horns of the altar (3:14). Many stone altars from ancient Palestine have now been discovered,38 of which the best known is that from Beersheba in the far south (see comment on 5:5). They have different shapes and sizes, but the most common are roughly cubic, with sides and height of about three to five feet (one to one and a half meters), and with elevated corners called “horns.” In some cases altar and horns were carved together out of solid rock, in others they were constructed of shaped stone blocks. Those seeking asylum could cling to an altar’s horns, though this did not guarantee protection (Ex. 21:14; 1 Kings 1:50–53; 2:28–34).

Winter house … ivory … mansions (3:15). The four types of residence mentioned here clearly include the whole range of wealthy homes, all to be swept away in divine judgment (see also 6:11). Ahab had a summer residence in the capital Samaria and a winter one in the warmer Jezreel Valley (1 Kings 21:1, 18). His city palace was even “inlaid with ivory” (1 Kings 22:39), a sign of wealth and prestige (cf. Ps 45:8, which describes a royal wedding).

Ivory sphinx from Samaria shows Egyptian and Syrian motifs.

Z. Radovan/www.BibleLandPictures.com

A century later many others had apparently followed Ahab’s example of extravagance, since excavations at Samaria have revealed many fine ivory decorations that testify to a luxurious lifestyle. These display sphinxes (i.e., cherubim) and palm fronds typical of Bronze Age ivories, as well as a variety of animal, human, and other newer motifs, and they show both Egyptian and Syrian influences. They were probably all luxurious imports.39

Cows of Bashan (4:1). Bashan was the fertile tableland northeast of the Jordan. It was prime cattle country, and its animals were renown.40 Here it is used as a stinging epithet for the women in Israel’s capital who are rich, idle, pampered, and inevitably fatter than those whom they have reduced to poverty.

Cows of Bashan

Niv Maoz

Hooks … fishhooks (4:2). The exact meaning of these two terms is uncertain.41 If this common translation is correct, the verse may refer to a standard form of Assyrian cruelty to captives, depicted in many reliefs and texts.42 In any case, it presages humiliating treatment.

Vanquished prince, nude, fettered, and drawn by nose ring. Fragment of a steatite vase with relief, Akkadian, 3rd millennium

Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY, courtesy of the Louvre

Harmon (4:3). This Hebrew word is obscure. If it is a place, as NIV implies, its location is unknown.

Go … sin … sacrifices … tithes (4:4–5). Amos’s impressive array of rhetorical devices includes sarcastic mockery. Gilgal lay in the Jordan Valley just northeast of Jericho. It became an important cult center alongside Bethel (cf. 5:5; 1 Sam. 7:16; Hos. 4:15). The sacrifices and offerings echo those prescribed in Leviticus 1–7, though the northern kingdom may have developed its own versions in its schismatic worship (cf. 1 Kings 12:32–33).

The last word of verse 4 is literally “days,” not “years.” It may refer to an otherwise unknown practice of offering tithes on the third day of pilgrimage (see NIV note), or to tithes offered every few days (“three” in Heb. sometimes means “several”), or possibly to the triennial tithe (NIV text; cf. Deut. 14:28–29; the Heb. “days” in the plural sometimes indicates extended time). Whatever their exact rhythm, tithes like offerings were plentiful.

Empty stomachs … (4:6–9). This translates the Hebrew idiom “cleanness of teeth,” which refers not to dental hygiene but to famine. This must have been a recent experience, sufficiently within memory to be meaningful to Amos’s audience. Drought and famine were perpetual dangers in Palestine. Locust swarms are still an occasional menace, devastating everything in their path.43 They are well-attested elsewhere in the ancient Near East; for instance, a Mari letter complains: “On account of the locusts my district could not harvest [anything].”44 All these natural disasters were clearly a divine warning.

I killed … (4:10). This probably refers to the Syrian oppression some fifty years earlier (see comments on 1:3–5), the most recent period of sustained subjugation.

Sodom and Gomorrah (4:11). The tradition of these cities and their fate (cf. Gen. 19) was a popular prophetic motif; it also occurs in different ways in Isaiah 1:9–10.45 Despite many theories, expeditions, and claimed discoveries in recent decades, their ancient location and the exact cause of destruction remain uncertain.46

He who forms … (4:13). Alone of the hymnic verses, this first doxology notes God’s interaction with humans in revealing his thoughts to them (cf. 3:7). This is vibrant theism, not cold deism. It also gives an extended title in its climax: “the Lord God Almighty.”47 He is God of the heavenly hosts, how much more of humans!

Lament (5:1–2). Laments over death, or “funerary laments” (as distinct from psalm laments), were common in the ancient world. Well-known examples are of David for Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. 1:19–27) and Gilgamesh for Enkidu.48 In many biblical laments the first half-line (3 stresses) is longer than the second (2 stresses), giving an effect of tailing off in grief or despair. This “Qinah” meter is particularly characteristic of Lamentations.

Laments were also composed for cities, and examples have survived of some five Sumerian laments from about 2000 B.C., for Sumer, Ur, Nippur, Eridu, and Uruk.49 What is striking here is that Amos’s lament is anticipatory–Israel is still flourishing.50 But Amos mourns its imminent demise.

Virgin (5:2). This title (betûlâ) might be better translated “Maiden” or “Mistress,” since the analogy has more to do with youthful potential than sexual innocence.51 The Hebrew term means a young reputable woman who has not given birth. (Some texts imply she is still a virgin, others not.52) The title also occurs in Jeremiah 18:13; 31:21 and is similar to the expression “daughter of …” used in the Old Testament and other ancient literature.53

Seek me and live (5:4–6; cf. vv. 14–15). This repeated invitation shows that Amos is not a prophet of unrelieved gloom. Like all genuine biblical prophecy, there is a careful balance here between judgment and hope. Defeat and exile are imminent but not inevitable. However, the alternative is catastrophe, with the precious shrines annihilated and their people exiled. Fire was an ever-prevalent danger in a hot, arid country, and the vivid picture of God as a consuming fire is common (e.g., 1:3, 7, etc.; 7:4; cf. Deut. 4:24; 32:22). It would certainly devour “Joseph,” a common epithet for the northern state (also Amos 5:15).

Beersheba, in the far south of Judah, is now mentioned alongside the two northern shrines. Here the remains of a four-horned altar have been discovered, with its sandstone blocks reused in storehouse walls. This may well have been dismantled in Hezekiah’s reforms several decades after Amos’s preaching.54

Pleiades and Orion (5:8–9). Like any premodern people, the Hebrews constantly observed the stars. They did not particularly study them, however, and the only other Old Testament book to name stars or constellations is Job (Job 9:9; 38:31–32).55 They were not mariners like the Phoenicians or omen-seeking astrologers like the Assyrians and Babylonians.56 The seven Pleiades often appear on ancient seals and scaraboids, indicating their religious importance.57

Limestone seal from 8th c., worshiper and astral symbols including Pleiades vertically along back of figure

Z. Radovan/www.BibleLandPictures.com

Stone mansions (5:11). These are literally “houses of dressed stone,” the term used for the stone of the temple (1 Kings 5:17; 6:36). In ancient Israel most dwellings were made of mud bricks; stone was only used for monumental buildings like temple and palace, and for walls and gates. So individuals who could afford to build with dressed stone were very wealthy. But the context implies that their wealth was ill-gotten.

In fulfillment of the covenant curse (Deut. 28:30), Amos declares that they will no longer enjoy their houses or vineyards. Similar curses are found elsewhere in the ancient Near East, such as in Akkadian: “The house which he builds let another person take over.”58

The prudent (5:13). This is a curious verse, which looks much more like a proverb than a prophetic oracle. As we have already seen, prophets like Amos used all sorts of rhetorical and literary devices, so they could include proverbs as well. This shows their versatility and creativeness, not that there was a pervasive “wisdom movement,” as some have proposed.59 Israelite wisdom has many similarities to its ancient counterparts as well as important differences, as discussed elsewhere in this series.60

Wailing (5:16–17). Mourning in the ancient world was public and demonstrative. Mourners would typically weep, wail, tear clothes, wear sackcloth, cut themselves, uncover and/or dishevel their hair, cover themselves with dust, sit and sleep on the ground, walk barefoot, and fast. Many societies had paid “mourning women,” but the Old Testament also mentions male mourners (see 2 Chron. 35:25; Eccl. 12:5).61 Here in Amos mourning will be widespread in every town, village, and farm as a result of God’s punishment. A lament following the destruction of Agade (ca. 2000 B.C.) reads:

The old women did not restrain (the cry) “Alas my city!”

The old men did not restrain (the cry) “Alas its people!”

The lamentation singer did not restrain (the cry) “Alas the Ekur!”

Its young women did not restrain from tearing their hair,

Its young men did not restrain their sharp knives.62

The day of the Lord (5:18–20). This concept first bursts into the biblical story here in Amos. There was already a full-fledged popular concept of a coming day of vindication and celebration. Amos roundly disabuses his audience of that notion!

When and how did the concept emerge? We do not know when, except that by the mid-eighth century it was current in Israel. As to how, two views are proposed. Some think it comes from the concept of “holy warfare” or “Yahweh warfare,” that is, battles conducted at God’s bequest, with his aid, and often with annihilation of the enemy.63 The “day of Yahweh” thus meant the day of victorious battle, and the phrase came to depict the expected glorious future. Others trace it to a great festival in the fall celebrating Yahweh as Israel’s God and King. The “day of Yahweh” thus referred to this annual event, and by extension to the time when his rule would bring peace and prosperity to all.

Neither view is certain. What is clear, however, is that Amos reverses popular expectation by proclaiming that the “day of the Lord” will bring unrelieved “pitch-dark” gloom. He does this with a string of vivid metaphors, the ancient equivalent of “out of the frying pan and into the fire.”

I hate (5:21). Sometimes this verb has the milder meaning of “prefer less,” as in Jacob’s attitude to Leah and presumably the attitude of Jesus’ true disciples to their families.64 But here the parallel verbs and the context make clear that God really does hate all the fervent religious activity taking place.

The whole gamut of religious life is excoriated: festival and assembly, obligatory and voluntary offerings, music and song. This presents a cameo of vibrant, happy worship–yet all empty without repentance and justice. This expectation contrasts markedly with religious celebrations elsewhere in the ancient world, which were not linked to personal morality.

Shrine … pedestal … star (5:26). As the NIV footnote reveals, this verse is difficult, with many words ambiguous. In the first pair, Sukkoth could be “shrine” or a name, and “your king” (root m-l-k) could be the underworld deity “Molech” or the Ammonite deity “Milcom.” In the second, “pedestal” could be another name, “Kaiwan”–the LXX gives this as “Raphan,” the form quoted in Acts 7:43. Clearly the prophet denounces idolatry, but its exact form is uncertain.

Mari dignitary carrying the standard of Mari, a calf image. Detail of a victory parade, from the Ishtar temple, Mari, Syria, 2400 B.C.

Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY, courtesy of the Louvre

One common view, reflected in the NIV text, is that the prophet condemns various cult objects: shrine, pedestal, and star. Amos’s contemporary Hosea also mentions various cultic accoutrements that were revered by the Israelites and of which they would soon be deprived (e.g., Hos. 3:4; 8:4–6). Sometimes these were lifted up and paraded in the ancient world, as illustrated in graphic art.65 This fits the general context, though is not the easiest way to read the Hebrew words.

The other common view, reflected in the NIV footnote and argued by many commentators, is that a form of astral worship is condemned. The word translated “shrine” is really “Sikkuth” and “pedestal” is “Kaiwan,”66 corrupted forms of names for the god Saturn known from various lists from Mesopotamia, Ebla, and Ugarit.67 This implies that by this stage Israel had succumbed to the worship of heavenly bodies, as did many of their neighbors and as did Judah a century later (cf. Josiah’s reforms, 2 Kings 23:5).

Exile beyond Damascus (5:27). Finally, Amos spells out the coming exile and its location. In context there could only be one meaning to this reference: exile by and to Assyria. Judgment will come.

This text lies behind one of the Qumran community scrolls, the so-called Damascus Document.68 However, this document reinterprets the verse as “I will exile the tabernacle of your king, and the bases of your statues from my tent to Damascus.”69 This exile apparently followed Nebuchadnezzar’s destruction of Jerusalem (i.e., it was applied to Judah) and lasted 390 years (cf. Ezek. 4:5). Then God gave them a “new covenant” and raised up a “Teacher of Righteousness,” references to the Qumran community and its leader.

Calneh … Hamath … Gath (6:2). Calneh was the capital of a late-Hittite state in north-central Syria, roughly halfway between the northeastern corner of the Mediterranean and the Euphrates. It was conquered briefly by the Assyrians under Shalmaneser III in the mid–ninth century (859–853 B.C.), but it is not mentioned again in their records until the mid-eighth century, in reference to reconquest in 739 by Tiglath-Pileser III after a revolt.

Calneh, Hamath, and Gath

Hamath was an important city-state on the Orontes River, roughly halfway between Calneh to the north and Damascus to the south.70 Like Calneh, it was conquered by Shalmaneser III in 859 B.C., but then joined the western coalition that checked the Assyrians at Qarqar in 853. In the following years they lost some territory but soon recovered it. Like Calneh it was reconquered in 739, but its history immediately before this is unclear.

There are three ways to understand these historical references. First, Amos may be referring to the defeats of these cities a century previously. Though a long time ago, they were memorable and the lesson still valuable. Secondly, Amos may be referring to their conquest by Assyria in the immediately preceding years (prior to 760 B.C.). While there are no extant records of this, it provides a suitable context for the revolt and reconquest in 739. Finally, this section may come not from “before the earthquake” (1:1) but from after 739, when their defeat provided a chilling warning.

The lesson from Philistine Gath could refer to possible capture by the Syrians under Hazael in a southern campaign against nearby Jerusalem in the late ninth century (2 Kings 12:18), capture by Judah under Uzziah in the first half of the eighth century (2 Chron. 26:6), or to capture by Tiglath-pileser III in 734 as the Assyrians advanced further south.

Beds inlaid with ivory (6:4). Ivory-inlaid beds are mentioned in Mesopotamian sources, and the later Assyrian king Sennacherib boasted of such beds as tribute from Hezekiah of Judah.71 Many Akkadian texts mention beds inlaid with ivory and covered with precious metals, but these were placed in temples for the gods.72 See also comments on 3:15.

Harps … David … musical instruments (6:5). The harp (nēbel) is often associated in the psalms and elsewhere with the lyre (kinnôr). Both were stringed instruments played by plucking or strumming, though their specific features and the difference between them remain uncertain. A beautifully inlaid lyre from the royal tombs at Ur illustrates the care that could be given to their construction.

Lyre from Ur

© The Trustees of the British Museum

Music plays an important part in most if not all cultures, and ancient Israel was no exception. Many psalms invite worshipers to celebrate with music and song. This oracle is not against music per se, only as part of an indolent and decadent lifestyle that is built on oppression and ignores the “terror” of coming judgment (6:3). Isaiah 5:12 paints a similar picture of Judah. Reference to David shows his long-standing reputation as a gifted musician and “Israel’s singer of songs” (2 Sam. 23:1).

Wine … lotions (6:6). The ancient world had beer, wine, and strong drink, just like today. Wine in the Old Testament could be a sign of divine favor (Ps. 104:15) and an element of true worship (Deut. 14:26),73 but drinking to excess or in idle luxury was frequently condemned. Here “the bowlful” probably indicates excess. Ancient art pictures wine served in bowls,74 and various excavations have uncovered such bowls.75

The use of fine oils or lotions for cosmetic, hygienic, and therapeutic purposes was widespread in the ancient Near East, and in the Old Testament oil is often coupled with wine in descriptions of pleasure (e.g., Ps. 23:5).76 A large number of ostraca recovered from eighth-century Samaria record various commercial transactions and tax payments, and a dozen of these mention “refined oil.”77

Feasting (6:7). The Hebrew noun marzēaḥ occurs only here78 and in Jeremiah 16:5, where it is linked to mourning (NIV “funeral meal”). However, the root mrzḥ occurs throughout the ancient Semitic world in reference to drinking and occasionally eating, in celebration or commiseration. The marzēaḥ was often a social institution, sometimes with members and a specified location, with elements similar to those of a pub, a drinking den, a London Gentlemen’s Club, a Masonic Lodge, an annual fete, and an Irish wake.79 It could be associated with death, as in Jeremiah 16:5, but its primary connotation was drinking. Here it connotes feasting–soon to be abruptly ended.

A relative who is to burn the bodies (6:9–10). These verses portray the horrific aftermath of destruction, where a houseful of dead bodies is discovered by a relative. He searches for survivors but is promptly told not even to mention Yahweh’s name, presumably lest further catastrophe strike.

Cremation was generally abhorred in Israel and beyond. The few Old Testament exceptions concerned not normal corpse disposal but exemplary capital punishment (Lev. 20:14; 21:9), such as Achan’s sin after Jericho (Josh. 7:25) and serious sexual misconduct (Gen. 38:24). The Jabesh-Gileadites burned the corpses of Saul and his sons (1 Sam. 31:12), but this was respectful, partial (since they then buried the bones), and probably necessary for hygiene, given the delay following their death. Earlier in Amos 2:1, the Moabites are fiercely condemned for burning the king of Edom’s bones. So here cremation may have been used as a last resort in an emergency, perhaps to avoid disease.80

Lo Debar … Karnaim (6:13). The first town is usually located just east of the Jordan in Ammonite territory. It is mentioned in several texts, with slightly variant spellings (Josh. 13:26; 2 Sam. 9:4; 17:27); here it is spelled in a mocking manner as “Nothing.” The second town is further north in Transjordan, east of the Sea of Chinnereth (Galilee). The name means literally “horns,” which was a common symbol of strength. But whether the town captured was “Nothingville” or “Stronghold,” the Israelites’ boasting was doomed.

From Lebo-Hamath to the valley of the Arabah (6:14). Again, this section ends with prediction of defeat and oppression. Lebo-Hamath (or “Gate of Hamath”) lay north of Damascus about halfway to Hamath itself. It is often mentioned as the northern edge of ideal Israel (e.g., Num. 34:8; Josh 13:5; 1 Kings 8:65; 1 Chron. 13:5), though the nation seldom reached that far. Israel captured it (and probably the towns of the previous verse) during the expansion by Jeroboam II in the decades before Amos’s ministry (cf. 2 Kings 14:25). However, this would only result in more territory for Assyrian oppression. The “valley of the Arabah,” mentioned only here, was a wadi at the northern end of the Dead Sea marking Israel’s southern boundary.