3  Where to Start: Developmentally Appropriate Practice, Inclusion, and Universal Design

The number of children with identified disabilities included in general education classrooms and programs alongside their peers without disabilities increases every year. While having a child with a disability included in their class may seem overwhelming for teachers with little or no training in special education, the first thing all teachers need to know is that they are not alone. Teaching a young child with a disability involves the support of many different people who are there not only for the child and family but also to provide the teacher with the resources she or he needs to be effective. The more you understand how to effectively teach a child with a disability in an infant, toddler, or preschool program, or in a general education elementary classroom, the more successful the child will be.

So how do you meet the needs of a group of children with widely varying abilities, strengths, and needs? Where do you start? Building on the idea that good practice for children with disabilities is good practice for all children, you start with developmentally appropriate practice. Together with universal design, discussed later in this chapter, developmentally appropriate practice lays the foundation for successful inclusion in early childhood programs.

Developmentally Appropriate Practice

You’re probably keenly aware that while the children in your classroom may all be similar ages, they are not all at the same developmental level. Early childhood is a time of rapid change for most children, and they grow, develop new skills, and acquire new knowledge right before your eyes. Each child comes to your program having many different experiences as well as unique strengths and challenges. You need to be perceptive and flexible to support each child’s learning and development.

Because of children’s varied needs, when planning for all students, effective early childhood teachers remain true to the guidelines of their profession referred to as developmentally appropriate practice (DAP). DAP is an approach to teaching based on research on how young children develop and learn and on what is known about effective early education. It is designed to promote young children’s optimal learning and development.

In its position statement on developmentally appropriate practice, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) (2009) outlines research on the principles of child development and how young children learn to help teachers intentionally plan routines and activities that promote the success of every child, including children with developmental delays or identified disabilities. Developmentally appropriate practice

»  Requires both meeting children where they are—which means that teachers must get to know them well—and enabling them to reach goals that are both challenging and achievable

»  Is appropriate to children’s age and developmental status, attuned to them as unique individuals, and responsive to the social and cultural contexts in which they live

»  Does not mean making things easier for children but ensuring that goals and experiences are suited to their learning and development and challenging enough to promote their progress and interest

»  Is based on knowledge—not on assumptions—from research on how children learn and develop (Copple & Bredekamp 2009)

Core Considerations of DAP and Children with Disabilities

The NAEYC position statement on DAP (2009) highlights three core considerations for identifying developmentally appropriate practices in early childhood classrooms. These considerations, identified below, apply to working with all children. They do not matter less when children with delays or disabilities are included in the classroom.

1.  Knowing about child development and early learning. Understanding child development and what is and is not expected of children at specific ages is helpful when making broad decisions about the classroom. While some children are further behind developmentally than their peers, understanding how children learn at different stages of development (for example, through play and exploring materials) is helpful for designing classroom routines and activities that are broad and flexible enough for children at many different developmental levels to participate and be successful.

2.  Knowing what is individually appropriate. Every child has different strengths and needs, and these vary over time and in different situations. Understanding each child as an individual is a key factor for teaching children with delays or disabilities. Working from a position of strength and what a child can do, instead of focusing on her deficits, helps you adapt and modify routines and activities so the child can participate as independently as possible.

3.  Knowing what is culturally important. Looking at the child as a member of a larger community and understanding his family’s cultural background and values—especially his home language—are essential when you plan classroom routines and activities and when you interact with his family.

The principles and considerations of DAP, along with research-based evidence about curriculum and teaching effectiveness, form a solid basis for decision making in early childhood inclusive classrooms.

Inclusion as a Philosophy and a Practice

Inclusion is part of a philosophy that everyone is more alike than different, that differences make classrooms and experiences richer, that everyone—children with and without disabilities, families, and education professionals—benefits when children are educated together, and that no one should be segregated because they are different in some way.

Successful inclusion offers numerous benefits for everyone. Through everyday classroom interactions with their peers, children with disabilities learn social skills, gain a sense of confidence and independence, and exhibit more appropriate behavior. Their peers often become more understanding and willing to help others. Children feel a sense of belonging. According to the US Departments of Health and Human Services and Education (HHS & ED 2015),

»  Being meaningfully included as a member of society is the first step to equal opportunity, one of America’s most cherished ideals, and is every person’s right—a right supported by our laws.

»  Research indicates that meaningful inclusion is beneficial to children with and without disabilities.

»  Preliminary research shows that operating inclusive early childhood programs is not necessarily more expensive than operating separate early childhood programs for children with disabilities.

»  Meaningful inclusion can support children with disabilities in reaching their full potential, resulting in broad societal benefits. (2)

DEC/NAEYC Joint Position Statement on Early Childhood Inclusion

The Division for Early Childhood (DEC) of the Council for Exceptional Children “promotes policies and advances evidence-based practices that support families and enhance the optimal development of young children (0–8) who have or are at risk for developmental delays and disabilities” (DEC 2017). DEC and NAEYC’s joint position statement on inclusion provides a definition of early childhood inclusion that identifies key components of high-quality inclusive settings:

Early childhood inclusion embodies the values, policies, and practices that support the right of every infant and young child and his or her family, regardless of ability, to participate in a broad range of activities and contexts as full members of families, communities, and society. The desired results of inclusive experiences for children with and without disabilities and their families include a sense of belonging and membership, positive social relationships and friendships, and development and learning to reach their full potential. The defining features of inclusion that can be used to identify high-quality early childhood programs and services are access, participation, and supports. (DEC & NAEYC 2009, 2)

The position statement also identifies ways professionals can improve early childhood services for all children.

Research and experience confirm that many, if not most, children with disabilities can be successfully included in high-quality early childhood programs (Green, Terry, & Gallagher 2014; HHS & ED 2015; Strain & Bovey 2011). Achieving this requires collaboration among all professionals and families, examining your own beliefs, knowing where and how to access resources, and having strong administrative support.

Inclusion looks different for each child—it always depends on what a particular child needs to be successful. Many children have difficulty with some routines and activities during the classroom day, but not with all of them. You might change or modify a specific routine or activity a child has trouble with so it is not as difficult for her, or you might set different expectations for that child for that activity only; most likely, this would not be necessary for every part of the school day.

Depending on a child’s needs, he might participate in a classroom with his peers without disabilities for part of the day rather than full time. Sadly, many children do not have even this opportunity; in schools and programs across the country, large numbers of children with disabilities are still served in segregated special education programs with little chance to participate in high-quality programs designed for all children (HHS & ED 2015). Teachers, families, and others must continue to advocate for change and more resources and work to find opportunities for children to engage in programs and activities with their peers.

Barriers to Including Young Children with Disabilities

There are legitimate challenges and barriers that states, programs, and families face when promoting and providing inclusive opportunities for children with disabilities. The joint policy statement on inclusion from the US Departments of Heath and Human Services and Education identifies several challenges to inclusive programming for young children:

»  Attitudes and beliefs of parents and educators. Many programs report significant misinformation among families and educators about the benefits and practicality of inclusive programs in schools and communities. Many people worry that including children strains the classroom teacher’s resources, resulting in the needs of both the children with disabilities and the children without disabilities going unmet. While this challenge can be overcome in programs with strong collaboration among teachers and specialists and support from administrators, when these are lacking it is a very real concern.

»  Lack of expertise of the early childhood workforce. Many early childhood educators believe they lack knowledge about individualized instruction, child development, and early childhood pedagogy that is needed to effectively educate children with disabilities alongside their peers.

»  Lack of comprehensive services. Children with disabilities frequently receive related, specially designed instruction from professionals in speech-language therapy, physical therapy, and occupational therapy. However, expertise in these areas may not be available in private child care programs in the community, and bringing in outside resources can be costly. When such resources are available, too often teachers are not shown how to implement therapy practices in their daily routines with children.

»  Limited time and commitment to build partnerships. Therapists and special education teachers or early intervention providers often lack the time to collaborate with each other, or with classroom teachers and families, on the goals they are working on with the child and to share the progress or challenges they are seeing. This lack of time and commitment to coordinate services inhibits the development of the strong relationships among the professionals who help make inclusive programs more successful (HHS & ED 2015).

Universal Design

To effectively support the needs of all children in your classroom or program, think about ways to design the classroom space, routines, and activities so they are adaptable and can be used with and by many children in a variety of ways. With flexibility built into the design from the start, all children can access the curriculum, process information in a way that works for them, and demonstrate what they know (Conn-Powers et al. 2006). With a continued focus on developmentally appropriate practices and your school’s or program’s learning standards, this proactive approach supports children’s strengths and balances the needs of all children. It is the most efficient and effective way to develop inclusive classrooms and programs.

This concept of proactive design and flexibility, known as universal design (UD), was first applied to architecture. For example, when new buildings are designed, ramps are built in place of, or in addition to, stairs, allowing anyone to enter and travel throughout the buildings. Some people are able to use stairs, but a ramp is flexible enough for anyone to use. Similarly, automatic doors that open by themselves when a person approaches a store or other building make entry and exit more flexible, which in turn enables more people to use it—and not just those with disabilities. A person pushing a child in a stroller or pulling luggage may find it easier to use ramps and automatic doors, too. Applying this process of UD proactively results in environments that can be used by everyone in a similar manner.

DEC’s Recommended Practices

The DEC Recommended Practices (2014) provides guidelines for early childhood and special education professionals and families to promote the development of children with delays or disabilities from birth through age 5. The practices “support children’s access and participation in inclusive settings and natural environments and address cultural, linguistic, and ability diversity” (3). The document addresses eight areas:

•  Leadership

•  Assessment

•  Environment

•  Family

•  Instruction

•  Interaction

•  Teaming and Collaboration

•  Transition

Universal design (UD) refers to designing materials, products, and environments to be used by the greatest number of people without the need to adapt or change them (The Center for Universal Design 1997). The principles of UD are discussed.

Universal design for learning (UDL) is the application of UD principles to education to proactively design curriculum and classroom practices so the greatest number of students can benefit without the need for adaptations or changes (Rose & Meyer 2006). The principles of UDL include

•  Multiple means of representation—offering students a range of ways to obtain information and knowledge

•  Multiple means of expression—giving students different ways to demonstrate what they know

•  Multiple means of engagement—providing a variety of ways to challenge and motivate students to participate and learn (CAST 2011)

The concept of UD is also applied in the context of teaching and learning. In the early 1990s the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) began promoting the concept of universal design for learning (UDL) as a way to design curriculum to include many options for accessing clear goals, flexible materials and methods, and embedded assessment to support the needs of many different learners (Rose & Meyer 2006).

While the principles of UDL have piqued the interest of many early childhood teachers and school leaders, current evidence-based classroom practices using the principles of UDL frequently focus on the needs of children in upper elementary, high school, and college classes to access materials such as textbooks and online learning opportunities (Meyer, Rose, & Gordon 2014). While some UDL practices may not be as applicable to classrooms and programs that serve young children, the bigger concept of universal design can be used to increase access and success for children of all ages.

Using the principles of universal design in early childhood classrooms and programs as a framework to design learning environments, routines, and activities to make them as flexible and responsive as possible provides supports for all children and reduces the barriers for children with disabilities. Just as ramps and automatic doors help people without disabilities, UD practices can help children who do not have disabilities, including those who speak a home language other than English or who have developmental delays but not disabilities. UD practices are also useful to consider in your collaboration with families. Provide multiple means for sharing program and child information with families, different opportunities for them to support their child at home and in the program, and many ways for them to be involved.

When designing or redesigning your classroom or program spaces and activities, consider the seven principles of universal design through the lens of developmentally appropriate practices (The Center for Universal Design 1997).

1.  Equitable use: All children use the same materials and spaces, which avoids segregating or calling undue attention to a child with a disability. Instead of an easel for a child who uses a wheelchair and an art table for everyone else, easels are set up for everyone to use. The entire curriculum engages children with diverse abilities.

2.  Flexible use: Children use the same materials and curriculum as everyone else but in varied ways or with adaptations to accommodate a disability or personal preference. Switches added to cause-and-effect toys make them more manageable to activate. Books with paper clips attached to the pages enable a child to turn the pages more easily. Children learn concepts and practice skills at their own pace.

3.  Simple and intuitive: The design of the spaces and materials is easy for everyone to understand. Every material has a specific place and is labeled in different ways, making finding and cleaning up materials easy to understand and accomplish.

4.  Perceptible information: The spaces and materials provide information to children in a number of ways. Pictures, words (in English and children’s home languages), and braille are used together to bring meaning to children with language delays or vision impairments and to dual language learners (children learning English while continuing to develop their home language). Beginning braille signage is posted around the classroom for children who have vision impairments and will be braille readers. Lights flicker when the fire alarm goes off so children with hearing impairments understand the same information as everyone else in the classroom.

5.  Tolerance for error: Teachers design learning environments and materials that provide ongoing assistance and accommodate children when they don’t get things correct the first time. The design eliminates or minimizes hazards and limits the frustration some children feel when they make mistakes. Some wooden blocks can have felt attached to one side, making them less likely to fall over if a child inadvertently knocks into them while building. The settings on classroom touchscreen computers or communication boards can be adjusted so that they do not react to an unintended touch. Software or apps have an undo button so children can go back. Older children can work with easy-to-write-with markers and erasable whiteboards for some tasks typically done with paper and pencil.

6.  Low physical effort: Spaces and materials are set up so they are easier to use by all children. Automatic soap and paper towel dispensers in the bathroom, along with a sink that turns on and off when children place their hands under the faucet, reduce the physical effort needed by children with low strength or who use a wheelchair. Instructional materials are accessible, and the schedule allows for varying energy levels.

7.  Size and space for approach and use: Spaces in the classroom allow everyone physical access and encourage learning. There are chairs for children who use wheelchairs to sit at the table so they are at the same eye level as their classmates. Outdoor areas have ramps and are accessible in other ways to children with physical needs. There are spaces for small and large group activities and lessons, places for one or two children to work together, and quiet retreat areas.

“Universal Design in the Classroom Checklist” offers helpful questions to consider about UD and ways to incorporate its practices in your own setting.

Is Including a Child Enough? Ensuring Access, Participation, and Progress

Together, developmentally appropriate practices, inclusion, and universal design offer a powerful foundation for meeting the needs of children with disabilities. The 1997 amendments to IDEA stipulate, however, that children with disabilities are entitled to access, participation, and progress within the general education curriculum (Hitchcock et al. 2002). These three elements, which often require individualized modifications and supports for children, are key to truly providing children the educational environment they need to develop to their full potential, and they deserve close consideration.

Access

Access refers to the policies put in place to make sure that every student has an equal opportunity to take full advantage of an education. There are different types of access.

Physical access. It may seem basic, but this kind of access is indispensable to a child with a physical disability, so look at ways the child can enter the building and navigate the classroom and whether the widths of the classroom and bathroom doors accommodate a child using a mobility device. Classroom arrangement and physical access to materials also impact a child’s access to education. Is there enough space for the child to access all of the centers? Can he sit with the other children during whole group time? Can a child with a physical disability or visual impairment reach all play and instructional materials and open containers, boxes, or drawers where materials are stored?

Access and the ADA
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requires that all “places of public accommodation,” including child care centers and schools, make reasonable modifications when necessary to accommodate individual needs (Child Care Law Center 2011). These might include adding ramps, changing doorknobs, or lowering water fountains. Such changes cannot impose an “undue hardship,” meaning they would be difficult to complete or would incur a significant expense (Child Care Law Center 2011).

Social and emotional access. Inclusion provides children with access to one of the most essential elements for development: a diverse group of peers and adults with whom to form relationships and friendships and learn social interactions. Participating with peers gives children opportunities to learn and practice sharing, taking turns, resolving conflicts, and exchanging and building on each other’s ideas. These skills benefit them not only in the present but also in later schooling and community and work life.

Access to a high-quality curriculum used by all learners. The general education curriculum is the overall plan that guides the content, expectations, and outcomes for a school or program. A program with a high-quality curriculum sets high, developmentally appropriate expectations for every child and establishes routines, activities, and supports. One of the most vital aspects of access to an inclusive classroom with a high-quality curriculum is the ongoing opportunity for children to interact with peers who are at varying developmental and academic levels. Inclusive classrooms typically have higher expectations for students with disabilities and provide daily opportunities for them to be challenged (Gupta, Henninger, & Vinh 2014). Children in such programs demonstrate stronger cognitive gains than children who are not included in programs where a high-quality early childhood curriculum is implemented (Peters 2004; Strain & Bovey 2011).

Participation

Participation in education goes beyond having access to educational opportunities and being physically included in the classroom. Participation means to be engaged—to be part of the group and of the learning.

Physical participation. Participation goes hand in hand with independence. Giving children ways to be independent within the routines and activities of the day limits the amount of time they are dependent on adults, stretches children’s skills and problem solving, and enables children to participate more naturally.

You can adapt certain classroom materials to make it easier for some children to participate without changing the material too drastically for everyone else. For example, if a child has difficulty with hand-eye coordination or lacks strength to snap or button up dress-up clothes, add Velcro fasteners to the clothes. Put no-slip material under a child’s plate at snack time or under his art or work items. Some children with sensory needs focus better during group activities if they have a heavy blanket or small bean bag on their laps.

Look for ways to adapt routines, too. Transitions to snack or lunch time can be hectic, and some children may take longer to complete this transition. Playing a game like musical chairs during the transition can help; with control over the pacing, you can have one child at a time transition to washing her hands and going to the snack table. An activity like this keeps other children engaged while giving some children the extra time they need to be independent.

Language/communication participation. The ability to understand and use language to communicate with adults and peers opens both social and academic opportunities. Enhance participation by children who have communication issues by teaching and using both unaided and aided communication strategies. Unaided communication uses parts of a child’s body, including gestures, facial expressions, and hands (sign language), to communicate (Eisenberg 2015). Use simple sign language throughout the day even if no one in the class has a hearing loss; this adds another way for some students to understand or be understood. Aided communication is the use of objects, pictures, photos, or specific devices to communicate (Eisenberg 2015). Provide simple pictures that express words and feelings to help students communicate with adults or each other. Such devices that help children communicate are called augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices.

The best way for everyone to participate in the classroom is to provide several means of communicating. Remind all children that no one communicates using only speech, and demonstrate how people use simple gestures or facial expressions to understand what others are trying to say.

At times, you need to explicitly teach children with disabilities how to interact appropriately with others. Break down social (or academic) skills into smaller, more manageable parts and teach them one at a time. Children’s peers can also help teach and reinforce these new skills. When you are consistent and have peers model what’s expected, children are less likely to experience frustration and isolation and are more likely to be accepted by others (Gupta, Henninger, & Vinh 2014).

Schedules. While therapies are extremely important for helping a child develop skills, removing a child from the classroom to receive therapy in a separate setting inhibits participation with peers and removes the child from the routines of the day. Embedding these interventions (discussed in more detail in Chapter 4) in the daily routines of the classroom can help increase participation in classroom activities and is often more effective for helping the child learn to use the skills in more situations.

Progress

Progress in the context of early childhood education refers to a child’s growth and development over time. Learning is not linear, and because there are surges and plateaus of development along the way, assessing a young child’s progress is a complex task.

Whether you are assessing a child’s knowledge and skills she’s gained with regard to your program’s learning standards or her progress toward her IFSP or IEP goals, the most effective and reliable way to do so is to embed assessments into daily routines and activities. When you assess a child within the natural setting and routines, the assessment should not look or feel any different than activities or interactions the child normally engages in during the day (Washington State OSPI 2008).

Monitoring a child’s progress toward the early learning standards. Most states have adopted statewide early learning standards that provide a general framework for what children should know and be able to do at specific ages. These standards apply to all children in the state, including those with disabilities. Some children with disabilities may have difficulty reaching the age or grade goals identified in the standards, but they should make measurable progress toward them.

To truly gauge whether a child has made progress, collect multiple sources of evidence over time. Many formal assessment systems—including Teaching Strategies GOLD, The Work Sampling System (WSS), and the HighScope Child Observation Record (COR)—guide teachers on what kind of evidence to collect, how many sources of evidence are needed, and how often to collect the evidence. Together, these pieces become a portfolio reflecting the knowledge and skills a student has gained over time.

Monitoring a child’s progress toward IFSP and IEP goals. Children with disabilities also have individualized goals stated in their IFSP or IEP, and educators must ensure that children are making measurable progress toward these goals. IFSP and IEP goals do not replace the state standards; they add more specific information about what the child needs to work on and how to measure his progress. IFSP and IEP goals are written in a specific format so they are observable and measurable, and they outline specific criteria that indicate how often data must be collected for each goal and what it looks like when a child has mastered a goal. (See the charts in Chapter 4 for examples.)

With your knowledge of developmentally appropriate practice, you can proactively design your classroom and curriculum to provide all children with access, participation, and opportunities to make progress. As you think about the environment, the schedule, and the interactions children have with you and with each other, ask yourself, “What else can I do to make sure a child with a disability is successful in my classroom?”