“The purpose of art is washing the dust of daily life off our souls.”
“All good books are alike in that they are truer than if they had really happened and after you are finished reading one you will feel that all that happened to you and afterwards it all belongs to you: the good and the bad, the ecstasy, the remorse, and sorrow, the people and the places and how the weather was.”
In this section you’ll learn the 100 things you need to know about art and literature, from Greek mythology, to the great novels of all time, to trends in the art world. You will learn how abstract art is an artistic representation of objects but not as you and I perceive them. How Moby Dick explores themes of good and evil, and the existence of God. How The Tragedy of Othello by William Shakespeare includes themes of love, betrayal, and even racism. How Tolstoy considered War and Peace more a poem than a novel and many chapters a philosophical treatise rather than narrative storytelling. These ideas and many more are in this chapter.
A 1936 novel by American writer William Faulkner (1897–1962). Absalom, a character from the Old Testament and King David’s favorite son, rebelled against his father. In Faulkner’s novel the main character is Thomas Sutpen, who, like Absalom, fights against the empire his father has built through slavery. The novel tells the story of three families in three different time periods: before the Civil War, during the war, and after its conclusion. Through these three periods, Faulkner describes the rise and fall of the plantation culture in the South.
Artistic representation of objects but not as we perceive them. Abstract art manipulates the form of objects, breaking away from strict realism of form or outline. As new ideas entered the world stage in philosophy, religion, and science, abstract artists felt a freedom to express new ideas as well as break with traditional artistic styles.
A major point of weakness; a weak spot. In Greek mythology, the hero Achilles, as an infant, is dipped in the river Styx by his mother, the nymph Thetis, to make him immortal. This makes him invulnerable except where she holds his heel. Achilles dies during the Trojan War when an arrow pierces his heel.
To protect from invaders, a citadel or city center built on a hill or cliff for defense. Many ancient Greek cities were built in this manner with the acropolis as the city center and the remainder of the city spreading out from there. The most famous acropolis is in Athens, Greece. Other similarly constructed cities include Edinburgh in Scotland and Jerusalem.
An 1884 novel by American writer Mark Twain (1835–1910). It is the first novel to be written in the vernacular language of the southern United States. The book is part satire and provides vivid descriptions of the people and culture along the Mississippi River. The novel’s narrator, Huck Finn, tells of his adventures as a fugitive in company with a runaway slave, Jim. The novel provides a stark realism into the nature of racism in the south in the late nineteenth century.
Some of the world’s first stories that provided a means of teaching moral principles. The fables’ main characters are animals, as in “The Fox and the Grapes.” Aesop is believed to have been a slave in ancient Greece who lived in the fifth century B.C.E. Modern scholars believe that Aesop probably did not invent all the fables attributed to him, but rather he borrowed from other sources.
A 1925 novel by American writer Theodore Dreiser (1871–1945). Clyde Griffiths works his way from poverty to wealth through duplicitous schemes. Although a poor farm girl working under his supervision in the factory is pregnant with his child, Clyde wishes to marry a rich socialite. When the girl threatens to reveal that she is pregnant, Clyde launches a plan to murder her. Dreiser based the characters of this novel on a murder and trial from 1906. Twenty-year-old Grace Brown was found dead at a lake in upstate New York. The resort owner who found her body was tried for the murder, convicted, and executed in the electric chair.
This novel, published by English writer George Orwell (1903–1950) in 1945, is an allegory of the events leading to the Communist takeover of Russia in 1917 and the rise of Stalinist rule. The term “Orwellian” has come to mean totalitarian government systems in which the government exercises its authority by use of language as well as force.
An 1876 novel by Russian writer Lev (Leo) Tolstoy (1828–1910). The main character, Anna Karenina, becomes entangled in an affair with a handsome bachelor, Count Vronsky. The count offers to marry Anna, but she refuses based on the social customs of the aristocracy, and then in desperation throws herself under a train. The novel opens with the insightful statement by Tolstoy: “Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.” American novelist William Faulkner considered Anna Karenina the greatest novel ever written.
Antigone’s name means “opposed to motherhood” or “against men.” The offspring of the mythological King Oedipus’s incestuous marriage, Antigone defies men’s dominant role in Greek family structure. She defies her uncle, Creon, by arranging a burial for her traitorous brother Polynices when the law prohibits mourning for him. As punishment, she is buried alive. She is the heroine of a play of the same name written by Sophocles (ca. 497 B.C.E.–ca. 406 B.C.E.)
Greek god of light, sun, and knowledge; also, god of medicine and healing, although he can also bring plagues and sickness. He is the leader of the muses and associated with music and poetry. Son of Zeus and Leto, he is the ideal of youth and athleticism to the Greeks. Apollo was a prophetic deity in ancient lore.
A small matter that leads to a larger argument or debate. The term originated from Greek mythology when Eris, the goddess of discord, inscribes “To the fairest” on a golden apple and tosses it into the wedding party of Thetis and Peleus. Aphrodite, Athena, and Hera fight over the golden apple, and the argument among the three women leads to the Trojan War.
Also known as the One Thousand and One Nights, these tales are folklore from the Islamic Golden Age. The stories date back to ancient Arabic, Persian, and Mesopotamian sources. Popular stories include “The Seven Voyages of Sinbad the Sailor,” “Aladdin’s Lamp,” and “Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves.”
In Greek mythology, the “all-seeing” giant, famed for his 100 eyes, serving as the guardian of the heifer-nymph Lo. Lo, a priestess of Hera and a nymph seduced by Zeus, turned into a heifer to escape detection. Hera sends Argus to guard Lo. Argus’s numerous eyes allow him to sleep with only a few eyes closed, so he can be watchful in all situations.
In Greek mythology, the goddess of wisdom, law, justice, and courage. Also known as the goddess of heroic adventures as she accompanies heroes on their conquests. In mythology, she represents the strategic part of war and often leads soldiers into battle. She is also the patroness of crafts such as weaving. The Athenians built the Parthenon in her honor.
Augeas is king of Elis. His stables house more than 1,000 immortal cattle and have not been cleaned in thirty years. Because the cattle are immortal, they produce vast amounts of manure. The task of cleaning the stables is thought impossible and given to Hercules by the gods as part of his punishment for slaying their sons. Thinking the task is impossible, Augeas promises the hero 10 percent of the cattle if he accomplishes the feat. Hercules cleverly diverts two rivers to do the job, but Augeas is furious at his success, and Hercules kills the king.
In Roman mythology, the god of the grape harvest and winemaking. Associated with the Greek god Dionysius, Bacchus is suggestive of pleasure and ecstasy. As a god he comes on the scene to free the people with wine, music, and dancing.
An artistic movement beginning in Rome around 1600 with a flowing, exaggerated architectural style intended to produce dramatic effect and grandeur. Baroque artists encouraged viewers’ emotional involvement with religious symbols and themes in painting, sculpture, architecture, dance, and literature. Promoted by the Roman Catholic Church as a response to the Protestant Reformation, the popularity of this artistic style quickly spread through Europe.
Originally a public building or gathering place in a Roman city located in the forum or town center. After the conversion of the empire to Christianity, many of these buildings became churches. In modern usage, the term generally refers to a church. Many Catholic basilicas around the world have become the object of pilgrimages such as St. Peter’s Basilica in Vatican City or the Basilica of Maxentius in Rome.
An artistic, three-dimensional image that projects off a flat surface to show depth—usually carvings, sculpture, or metal works to show form. First used in the early Renaissance, this technique is exemplified by the raised heads of presidents on American coinage.
A German architectural design school, at its height from 1919 to 1933, which integrated fine arts with crafts. Walter Gropius’s (1883–1969) concept was to create a total work of art in which all art forms could be expressed, including the architecture of the building. The movement was very influential on modern design and architecture but the school closed under Nazi pressure in 1933.
An Old English poem considered one of the earliest and most important works of Anglo-Saxon literature. The poem is thought to have been written between the years 800 and 1100; the author is anonymous. The hero Beowulf helps the king of the Danes defend the mead hall from the monster Grendel. After slaying Grendel, the hero confronts the monster’s mother and defeats her. As the hero, Beowulf proves his strength against supernatural forces and impossible odds.
An 1852 novel by English writer Charles Dickens (1812–1870). The novel centers on a legal case, Jarndyce v. Jarndyce, in which there is one testator but several wills. The protracted lawsuit is so drawn out that eventually its costs consume the entire estate, leaving the heirs with nothing. Dickens drew on his experience as a law clerk, and the novel levels many criticisms at the British legal system. Critics consider Bleak House Dickens’s best-crafted novel with many subplots and minor characters.
Lifestyle outside society’s conventional norms, usually as part of a small group of people pursuing music, painting, literature, and so on; also refers to wanderers or to someone not having permanent ties to family or location. The term was first used to refer to artists, writers, and actors in European cities living among the lower classes. Bohemians often show disdain for the wealthy and worldly pursuits.
When someone says we live in a “brave new world,” they are referring to a society that is advancing new ideas in science and technology but at the expense of genuine human relations. Aldous Huxley (1894–1963) published his dystopic novel in England in 1932. Set in the year 2540, when sleep-learning and new ideas in human reproduction mold a new society, the novel presents a vision of a society in which humans have become detached from love. The Modern Library ranks Brave New World fifth on the list of 100 best novels of the twentieth century.
Novel published in 1880 by Russian writer Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821–1881). The book tells the story of the murder trial of one of four brothers accused of killing their father. Themes of the novel include morality and ethics, freedom of choice, and a person’s ability to believe and exercise faith in God. Dostoyevsky is known for his cutting psychological analysis of his characters. His work provides insights into their motivations as they are faced with moral and ethical considerations.
Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s great novel. Rodion Raskolnikov, the novel’s main character, hatches a plan to murder a dishonest pawnbroker and rob her. He justifies the crime by telling himself that he can use the money for good and eliminate a reprobate. Convincing himself that the murder is for a higher purpose, he reflects on the life of Napoleon Bonaparte. He also rationalizes his pursuit to test if people are capable of such acts. In the end, having committed the murder, he repents, turns himself in, and redeems himself in exile.
A situation wherein a person is caught between two contradictory sets of imperatives. The term comes from the novel by Joseph Heller (1923–1999) of the same name, set during World War II. U.S. Air Force Captain John Yossarian, the novel’s main character, wants to go home, having completed the required number of missions. When he asks the base doctor to ground him because he’s crazy, Doc tells him he can’t ground him because anyone who wants to get out of combat by being grounded is obviously sane.
A novel about teenage disillusionment and rebellion by J. D. Salinger (1919–2010). Holden Caulfield, the novel’s seventeen-year-old protagonist, rehearses from a hospital the events leading to his breakdown. The novel deals with themes of identity development, loneliness, and teenage angst.
In Greek mythology, Apollo gives Cassandra the gift of prophecy for her charms and beauty. But when she denies Apollo in his temple, he commands that her predictions will not be believed. Because of this, she is known as a tragic figure whose divinations are nonsensical but later prove correct.
A deep emotional release of pent-up feelings or tensions, sometimes through creating or experiencing art. In psychology, the release of pent-up emotions, which can provide insights and clarification into what is bothering you.
In Greek mythology, a fire-breathing monster (part serpent, part lion, and part goat), which ravages the countryside. The term now means something terrible that exists only in the imagination. Chimera also refers to a genetically engineered animal. In medieval art, chimerical figures represent evil or harmful forces in nature.
A painting or sculptural style emphasizing formal structure of geometrical forms over those found in nature. This avant-garde artistic movement broke up objects so they could be viewed simultaneously from multiple perspectives. Developed by Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) and Georges Braque (1882–1963) in the early twentieth century, cubism remains one of the most influential developments in the artistic world.
The first part of Dante’s Divine Comedy, a poem that tells the tale of Dante Alighieri’s (1265–1321) journey through Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven. Hell consists of nine circles in which the souls of the damned suffer, paying for their sins. Each circle represents a class of sins, including lust, gluttony, greed, anger, heresy, violence, fraud, and finally treachery. Through irony, Dante cleverly relates the form of punishment to each class of sins.
Fully titled, The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha, Miguel de Cervantes’ (1547–1616) novel traces the overly romantic pursuits of Alonso Quijano, the novel’s main character. The impressionable Alonso sets out to re-enact the chivalrous acts of knights of old as found in the books he reads. Under the assumed name of Don Quixote, Alonso ventures out into the real world where his unsuppressed romantic nature confronts the decidedly unromantic reality of his surroundings. The novel was published in two volumes, in the years 1605 and 1615. The word “quixotic” has come to mean extremely chivalrous or romantic, though impractical.
In Aeschylus’s (ca. 525 B.C.E.–ca. 426 B.C.E.) The Oresteia, Electra persuades her brother, Orestes, to avenge their father’s murder by killing their mother and her lover. In psychology in the early twentieth century, an Electra complex refers to the tendency of daughters to feel unconscious attraction toward their fathers and dislike toward their mothers.
A state or place of perfect happiness; paradisiacal state of the dead. In Greek mythology, the fields are the final resting place of heroic and honorable souls.
Legendary sword of King Arthur. In some versions of the legend, by pulling the sword out of a stone, he proves his right to rule England. In other versions, he is given Excalibur by the Lady of the Lake. Throughout Arthur’s life, the sword is associated with magical powers and Arthur’s prowess as king and warrior.
Originating in the early twentieth century, a modern-art movement that presents art in a completely subjective perspective with exaggerated emotion in order to generate new ideas and feelings. Expressionism is found in literature, painting, theater, dance, and film. Among the best-known examples is The Scream, a painting by Edvard Munch (1863–1944). In literature, people’s perceptions of events and objects are distorted for dramatic effect.
Use of evasion and delaying tactics, instead of direct confrontation, to wear down an opponent; named for ancient Roman general Fabius (ca. 280 B.C.E.–203 B.C.E.) who generally avoided a full frontal attack during the Second Punic War. Rather he harassed the enemy through night raids and skirmishes, disrupting supply chains, and otherwise making things difficult for them. Fabian tactics are commonly used in lawsuits as both sides delay and level false allegations to wear each other down.
Pertains to the Christian doctrine of man’s fall from grace to his current mortal state. After Adam and Eve partook of the forbidden fruit, they were cast out of the paradisiacal Garden of Eden, marking humankind’s entrance into a fallen world and bringing death into the world. Christians believe this first sin, or Original Sin, is transmitted to their descendants.
A deal with the devil; willingness to sacrifice that which is most precious for youth and beauty, limitless power, or knowledge. Faust gives Mephistopheles, the devil, his soul for hidden knowledge. This bargain is perilous since at some point the devil will exact his price. Some attribute a person’s remarkable human accomplishments not to one's natural abilities, but—jokingly—to a Faustian bargain.
A twentieth-century design movement stressing that buildings and furniture should be designed based on their purpose. Functionalism also has applications in philosophy and sociology. In philosophy, functionalism is the idea that desires, thoughts, beliefs, and other mental states derive from their functions. In sociology, structural functionalism studies culture and society as a system of interdependent parts that work together to maintain stability.
A Greek myth. A winged ram’s fleece of pure gold is kept in a kingdom by the Black Sea. The hero Jason and his companions, the Argonauts, make a voyage to obtain it in order that Jason can justify his claim to the throne of Iolcus.
Midas, son of Gordias, the king of the Phrygians (a minor kingdom in ancient Asia) tied the Gordian Knot. The myth says that whoever unties the knot can rightfully rule Asia. Alexander the Great, rather than attempt to untie it, sliced through the knot with his sword. Thus the term “cutting the Gordian Knot” has come to mean acting confidently and quickly to solve an apparently intractable problem.
An architectural style of the twelfth through the sixteenth centuries, it originated in France and spread through Europe. It once predominated in cathedrals, featuring high arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses. Notre Dame de Paris and Chartres are two cathedrals built in this style. In literature and film, gothic themes have been preoccupied with gloominess, terror, and the supernatural.
A novel by F. Scott Fitzgerald set during the decade of the Roaring Twenties in America. It captures the essence of post–World War I prosperity and people’s search for meaning in that time. Fitzgerald said, “The whole burden of Gatsby is the loss of those illusions that give such color to the world that you don’t care whether things are true or false as long as they partake of the magical glory.”
Tragedy written by William Shakespeare (1564–1616) exploring themes of madness, revenge, incest, and morality. Prince Hamlet seeks revenge for the murder of his father, King Hamlet, by his uncle Claudius, who has married Prince Hamlet’s mother, Gertrude, and taken the throne. One of Shakespeare’s greatest works, Hamlet raises religious and philosophical questions concerning existentialism and relativism. It is one of the most quoted works in the English language.
Possessing or requiring great strength. A herculean effort is a daunting task. The term derives from the myth of Hercules and his great strength and bravery for accomplishing twelve labors. These include slaying the Nemean lion, capturing the golden hind of Artemis, stealing the mares of Diomedes, and other challenging tasks.
A medieval legend that Joseph of Arimathea brought the cup or bowl used by Jesus Christ at the Last Supper to Britain. (An alternate theory is that Joseph used the cup to catch Christ’s blood as he was dying on the cross.) According to the Arthurian legends, many knights sought the Holy Grail for its supernatural power to bring a person into communion with the divine. Sir Galahad, at last, found the grail, the only one of the knights to do so.
A character from Greek mythology. With wings made of feathers and wax, Icarus and his father, Daedalus, attempt to escape from Crete. Although Daedalus warns him not to fly too close to the sun, Icarus disobeys, the wax melts, and he plunges to his death in the Aegean Sea. Hence, Icarus is associated with the impetuousness and inexperience of youth.
Homer’s epic poem about an episode during the ten-year siege of Troy by the Greeks, although it covers only several weeks of the war’s final year. The Greeks led by Agamemnon seek to avenge the Trojans for the abduction of Helen by Paris, the son of the Trojan king Priam. In the end, the Greeks successfully plunder and burn Troy. The Iliad is often paired with Homer’s The Odyssey as two of the most influential works of literature.
An artistic movement of the nineteenth century. Impressionists painted with bright colors and short brushstrokes to represent the play of light on objects. The artists wanted to record experience as fleeting impressions bathed by natural light, emphasizing immediate aspects of objects without attention to too many details. Impressionist painters include Claude Monet (1840–1926), Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841–1919), and Alfred Sisley (1839–1899).
Poem by English poet William Henley (1849–1903) about the virtues of stoicism. At seventeen, to save his life, Henley’s leg was amputated below the knee because of tuberculosis of the bone. As he was recovering from the surgery he penned this poem, which is famous for its optimism in the face of severe challenges.
Out of the night that covers me,
Black as the Pit from pole to pole,
I thank whatever gods may be,
For my unconquerable soul.
It is a remarkably well written poem for someone so young.
Ancient Roman god of passageways and doorways, he is represented as having one head but with two bearded faces looking in opposite directions. Symbolic of new beginnings and of the setting of the sun closing one day and rising to open a new day.
Art (or any other object) that looks expensive but is in poor taste and lacking substance. Kitsch objects are often designed for popular appeal and are usually gaudy. The term originates from the German kitschen, “to smear.” The famous series of paintings depicting dogs playing poker by C. M. Coolidge (1844–1934) is an example of kitschy art.
An 1826 novel by American writer James Fenimore Cooper (1789–1851). During the French and Indian War, Uncas, an Indian, helps a family of British settlers. This early American novel was one of the most popular English-language novels of its time. Cooper actually confused the Mohegan and Mahican Indian tribes, but this made no difference to the appeal of the novel. Nor was Uncas the last of the Mohicans. Both tribes exist today.
A musical theme that recurs frequently throughout a work of art, most commonly in opera and classical music. Leitmotiv is the German word for “leading motif.” According to Elson’s Music Dictionary, “The leitmotif must be characteristic of the person or thing it is intended to represent.”
The darkest tragedy written by William Shakespeare in which Macbeth, a Scottish noble, murders the king to obtain his throne. At the prodding of his wife and acting on the prophecy of three witches, Macbeth hatches an ambitious scheme to murder the monarch, while King Duncan is his guest. To further his power, while reigning as king, Macbeth continues to murder, sending the country into civil war. As a result of his moral descent, he loses everything, including, eventually, his life.
A group of legends told in poetic form by the Roman poet Ovid (43 B.C.E.–ca. C.E. 17). The poems, which tell numerous stories from mythology, all contain a theme of change. The title is related to the word “metamorphosis,” meaning “transformation.”
Herman Melville’s (1819–1891) masterpiece written in the year 1851 in which the main character, Captain Ahab, in his madness pursues the giant white whale Moby Dick with great force and frenzy. On a previous whaling hunt, Moby Dick thrashed Captain Ahab’s boat and bit off a portion of his leg. Revenge drives the captain in his quest. The novel explores various themes of good and evil, the existence of God, and the nature of obsession.
Said to be “the best known, the most visited, the most written about, the most sung about, the most parodied work of art in the world,” according to author John Lichfield in his book The Moving of the Mona Lisa. Painted by Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) between 1503 and 1506, it is believed to be a portrait painting of Lisa Gherardini, wife of a Florentine cloth merchant. It was first acquired by the French king Francis I (1494–1547) and is today on display at the Louvre in France. Mona Lisa’s slight and ambiguous smile has fascinated many people with its mixture of mystery and sorrow.
In Greek mythology, the god of sleep and dreams. Since he appeared in dreams, Morpheus could take any human form. In the Greek language, the word means “the maker of shapes.” The drug morphine derives its name from Morpheus. The land of dreams was believed to be located near the underworld near the dominion of Night.
In Greek mythology, sister goddesses who oversaw creative and artistic acts and passions. The muses—Aoide (song), Melete (meditation), and Mneme (memory)—were sent to inspire the Greek poets, actors, artists, and philosophers. Today, to call upon the muses means to search for the unfolding of your genius. To muse over a subject is to ponder deeply or meditate upon it.
In Greek mythology, a young man who falls in love with his own reflection. Obsessed with himself, he pines away his days unable to tear himself away from his reflection in a pond, wasting away and finally transforming into a flower. Flowers with yellow or white petals in a cup-shape are from the genus Narcissus, similar to a daffodil. A narcissistic person is filled with vanity and extreme self-love to the point of rejecting all other people’s needs and desires.
Homer’s epic poem of Odysseus’s ten-year attempt to return home after the Trojan War. An odyssey is any long series of adventures with setbacks, trials, and hardship. Since Odysseus is assumed dead, his wife, Penelope, must deal with a group of suitors. Meanwhile, Odysseus’s trials include near death on the island of the Cyclopes, the Laestrygonians (giants who eat people), the land of the dead, temptation by the sirens, imprisonment by the sorceress Circe, and other dangers as he makes his way home.
A mythical king of Thebes who unknowingly murders his father and marries his mother. To pay penance, he blinds himself and goes into exile. An oracle predicts that King Laius of Thebes, Oedipus’s father, would be killed by his own son. To prevent this, Laius orders that the infant Oedipus be taken to a mountaintop and left to die. However, the baby is rescued by a shepherd. As an adult, Oedipus meets and kills a man in a quarrel (the man being the king and, unknown to Oedipus, his father). Oedipus goes on to Thebes and saves the city from the Sphinx. He is made king and marries the dead king’s widow, his mother.
A tragedy by William Shakespeare, which deals with themes of love, betrayal, and racism. The villainous Iago convinces Othello, a famous general, that Desdemona, Othello’s wife, has been unfaithful. At the conclusion of the play, Othello suffocates Desdemona. Finally realizing her innocence, Othello attacks and kills Iago.
In Greek mythology, Pandora, the first woman, is given a box by Zeus with strict instructions not to open it. Curious, Pandora opens the box and the evils and suffering that afflict humankind escape into the world. However, also in the box is Hope. The myth is similar to the Adam and Eve story from Genesis. To open a Pandora’s box is to act in a way that sets events in motion with disastrous consequences.
Epic poem by John Milton (1608–1674) about the fall of man as outlined in the Bible. A religious man, Milton’s poem tells of Satan’s rebellion in the war in heaven and his fall to the earth. It also tells the story of the creation of Adam and Eve and their subsequent fall and expulsion from the Garden of Eden. Milton stated that the purpose of the poem was to “justify the ways of God to man.”
A mythical bird that lived 500 years and then burned itself on a funeral pyre, only to re-emerge from the ashes as a chick. The phoenix is a symbol of reborn hope and new beginnings; a person or thing that has been restored after suffering loses; rising from the ashes to rebirth.
Influential school founded by Plato in Greece around 387 B.C.E. in Athens. Rather than espousing a particular doctrine, Plato posed problems to his students for study and debate. Scholars assume that much of the discussions came from the ideas in Plato’s writings in The Republic. Aristotle (384 B.C.E.–322 B.C.E.) studied under Plato for twenty years before starting his own school, the Lyceum.
The belief that earlier or primitive cultures are superior to contemporary cultures or society. Primitives suggest that modern civilization should be scrapped in favor of the simpler agrarian lifestyle of the past. In art, the movement called primitivism arose in the late nineteenth century among such artists as Paul Gauguin (1848–1903) and Henri Rousseau (1844–1910).
In Greek mythology, a giant and a thief who place travelers on an iron bed. If they are shorter than the bed, he stretches their arms and legs; if they are longer, he amputates those appendages. Thus a procrustean approach is one that tries to force an idea into a predetermined pattern of belief.
This parable from the New Testament tells of a younger son who hastily took his inheritance and spent it foolishly. Impoverished, he swallowed his pride and returned home to the open arms of his father. The term refers to someone who returns home after experiencing the bitterness of life’s lessons.
A Titan who teaches humankind various arts and skills. Legend has it that he shapes humans out of clay and steals fire from the heavens to give to them. For stealing fire from Mount Olympus, he is chained to a rock where an eagle eternally picks at his liver. He is at last released by Hercules. Prometheus is a symbol of aloneness and resistance to authority as well as the human quest for knowledge.
The Bible’s characterization of the land of Canaan, which it said was a land flowing with milk and honey, promised by God to the Israelites. The region of Canaan was promised first to the biblical patriarch Abraham. The Israelites finally possessed Canaan after wandering in the desert for forty years with Moses and then conquering the tribes of people who lived in Canaan. The phrase can refer to a place that one longs for and believes will provide happiness and respite.
In Roman mythology, a beautiful girl loved by Cupid who becomes the personification of the soul; the human soul, spirit, or mind or breath of life; the invisible directing principle of a person; the motivating force or mental structure of a person. Psyche is visited in the night by Cupid who tells her she must not try to see him. When she holds a lamp to see his face, oil spills on Cupid and he flees. After Psyche performs tasks set by Cupid’s mother, she is made immortal and marries Cupid.
A goldsmith of Cyprus who carves a statue of a young girl and falls in love with it. In response to his prayers that he find a woman to love, Aphrodite brings the statue to life. In some versions of the story, Pygmalion is a misogynist who hates women, but he cherishes his newfound love.
A Civil War novel by American writer Stephen Crane (1871–1900). The story’s main character, Henry Fleming, a Union soldier, flees from a battle. Embarrassed and ashamed by his action, he desires a red badge of courage—that is, a wound. He later rejoins his regiment as a standard bearer. The novel is considered remarkable for its accurate detail and portrayal of Civil War battles, even though Crane did not witness the war. He was able to piece together such vivid accounts by talking to veterans of the war.
In the Roman Catholic Church, a mass conducted for the souls of the dead. Not necessarily a funeral for one person, but a service for the repose of the dead. Also a musical hymn or service performed at a funeral.
Architectural style from France from the early eighteenth century. It features elegant and refined details such as ornate shell decorations and foliage. Rococo styles evolved from the baroque style of art and architecture.
European architectural style popular from the ninth to twelfth centuries. Romanesque buildings were made with walls of heavy masonry pierced by round arches and narrow vaults. Used widely in church towers. Romanesque combined architectural features from the Roman and Byzantine empires, particularly the Roman arch.
Beginning in the mid-nineteenth century, a movement in literature and art that stressed emotion, free-flowing imagination, and freedom from rules and constraints. The Romantics, rebelling against the classicism of the eighteenth century, also viewed nature as wild and untamed. Romantic poets included such figures as Lord Byron (1788–1824) and Percy Shelley (1792–1822).
A nineteenth-century American novel by Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804–1864). After her pregnancy becomes known in Puritan Boston where she lives, Hester Prynne is forced to wear a scarlet A to let the townspeople know that she is an adulteress. As she is unwilling to reveal the father of the child, the townspeople are left to gossip among themselves. At last the father is revealed—the local minister, Arthur Dimmesdale—when his guilt has produced a scarlet A on his flesh. Themes of the novel include sin, guilt, and hypocrisy.
In Greek mythology, these creatures, part woman and part bird, would sing seductively from the cliffs, producing a trance-like effect on sailors passing by. If they allow themselves to listen, the sailors could not help but steer their ships toward the beautiful voices and the dangerous cliffs, eventually crashing on the rocks. Siren is used to describe a beautiful woman (or anything beautiful) who beguiles men and leads to their harm.
Masterwork of Michelangelo (1475–1564), who at the behest of Pope Julius II (1443–1513) painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel inside the Vatican between 1508 and 1512. After erecting scaffolding and making elaborate drawings of his designs, which he then transferred to the ceiling, Michelangelo painted lying on his back for four years, 1508–1512. He painted nine scenes from the Bible’s book of Genesis. The work is considered the high point of Renaissance art. The Sistine Chapel is the site of papal conclaves as well as other high-level meetings within the Catholic Church.
A 1929 novel by American writer William Faulkner. The novel is about a once-wealthy southern family, the Compsons, and how they deal with losing their wealth and reputation in the new social order of the post–Civil War South. The novel is written in four sections, each of which tells the Compson family tale through the perspective of a different family member. The novel marks Faulkner’s entry into stream-of-consciousness writing similar to that practiced by James Joyce (1882–1941). In one section of the novel, for instance, he relates the thoughts of a mentally retarded man with no direction to the timing of the events.
The belief in a spirit essence that animates all life forms; the doctrine that after death, disembodied spirits can influence and communicate with those within the mortal sphere. In metaphysics, spiritualism is the belief that the ultimate reality is spiritual or mind; in philosophy, spiritualism is the belief that the nature of reality to some extent contains an immaterial or spiritual substance.
A novel by Ernest Hemingway written after he served in World War I and was living in Paris with other young artists. The novel is set against the background of the Lost Generation of Americans following their disillusionment by World War I. The novel’s main character is injured in the war and, due to his injury, is not able to live fully. Other characters in the novel have also been impacted by the war in one way or another.
In the twentieth century, paintings or literature that tries to represent, through symbols and distortions on reality, the subconscious or nonrational aspects of the mind. Salvador Dali’s (1904–1989) painting The Persistence of Memory, which shows melting clocks in a desertlike landscape, challenges the perception that time is rigid, suggesting that the perception of time is more free-flowing and determined by the viewer.
An impending disaster. According to one version of a Greek myth, Damocles, a courtier, is invited by the king to a banquet and seated under a sword that hangs by a single hair. The king thus delivers the message that Damocles is skating on thin ice. It is from this myth that the expression “hanging by a thread” originates.
A 1925 novel by Franz Kafka (1883–1924). Although the crime that is the subject of the trial is never revealed, the novel tells the tale of a man, Josef K., the chief officer of a bank, arrested by an unapproachable authority. The events in the novel are illogical and it is as if Josef is living a nightmarish dream. The novel is about “everyman’s” struggle for meaning and order in the world and the fight against human weakness. Kafka, in this and other works, depicts an almost-paranoid awareness of the shifting balances of power in society.
In Greek mythology, a war waged by the Greeks against the city of Troy. The cause of the war is the kidnapping of Helen, wife of a Greek king, by Paris, son of King Priam of Troy. The war lasts ten years and ends in the treachery of the wooden horse and the burning of Troy.
A novel by Irish author James Joyce published in 1922. Ulysses is the Latin form of Odysseus, and the novel is a modern-day retelling of the Greek poet Homer’s The Odyssey. Characters in the novel stand in for characters in The Odyssey: Molly Bloom as Penelope, and Stephen Dedalus as Telemachus. The novel follows the main character, Leopold Bloom, through Dublin, Ireland, on June 16, 1904. The novel was controversial for its complex writing style and was banned for a time from the United States due to its graphic portrayal of sex.
An 1852 novel by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811–1896). The novel tells the dark and realistic story of life as a slave in the United States. The novel’s main character, a slave, is finally beaten to death by his overseers. The novel was published prior to the Civil War and helped build antislavery public support.
The point in a drawing or painting where two parallel lines join together in the distance or on the horizon. The vanishing point is a key element of linear perspective, an art technique developed during the Renaissance. The phrase can also indicate the point of disappearance or extinction.
“The mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation.” So wrote Henry David Thoreau in Walden, a book in which he recounts his two years living alone at Walden Pond in Massachusetts. In the book he discussed his daily life in nature and the individual’s ability to live outside and independent of society.
A novel by Russian writer Leo Tolstoy. It recounts the history of several aristocratic Russian families and the impact on their lives from the Napoleonic invasion of 1812. It is written in great descriptive detail, and Tolstoy commented that the novel is more a poem than a novel. It is widely considered one of the greatest novels ever written, largely for its epic scale and complexity, as well as for its writing.