“It is enough that the people know there was an election. The people who cast the votes decide nothing. The people who count the votes decide everything.”
In this chapter you’ll learn the 100 things you need to know about politics from the earliest autocracies to the new political movements in the twenty-first century. You will learn how banana republics are countries in which foreign interests control the natural resources of these nations for their own benefit with little or no concern for the people. How the domino theory was invoked by American policymakers to justify intervention in Southeast Asia. How the Geneva Convention outlines the humane treatment of prisoners of war and is universally accepted by virtually all nations. How political machines use patronage to control voters. The essentials you need to know about politics are right here.
A system of government in which a monarch holds unrestricted political power over the people. A limited monarchy has some form of checks and balances such as a constitution. Monarchies are generally passed from father to son based upon primogeniture (though this is not always the case). Saudi Arabia and Qatar are current absolute monarchies.
An argument made against a person’s character and/or intelligence, and not his or her ideas. An ad hominem attack aims to strike down a person’s credibility or to discredit him or her personally. Ad hominem arguments are logical fallacies, or errors in reasoning. However, they are very effective—and common—in politics.
When a point is made repeatedly, well after the audience understands, and to listen further becomes nearly sickening.
A system of racial segregation of blacks in South Africa that lasted from 1948 to 1994. The segregation was enforced by the government of the National Party of South Africa and started after World War II, but was condemned in 1966 by the United Nations. The 1948 legislation classified people in four categories—native, white, colored, and Asian—and created segregated residential areas. Apartheid was resisted through demonstrations, violence, and trade embargoes. In the 1990s President Frederick Willem de Klerk (1936–) began to end apartheid.
The process by which the U.S. Congress or state legislatures authorize payments for spending measures; also known as the power of the purse. Money is appropriated for special projects or uses, such as funding schools and welfare programs, building roads, and bridges, and so on. Congress and state legislatures have appropriation powers while the judicial and executive branches of government have no such authority.
Tensions between Arabs and Israelis over land rights and positions of borders within Palestine and Israel. The United Nations voted Israel into membership in the late 1940s. However, the Palestinians have continued to protest what they view as an expropriation of their land. Tensions between Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon on one hand and Israel on the other have been the cause of wars and terrorist attacks.
Similar to a monarchy or dictatorship, an autocracy is a governmental system in which one person or group holds unlimited control and authority over the government; also known as unrestricted authority over a group of people.
Nations, though possessing varying amounts of power and resources, can balance one another in order to maintain relative stability in the world. The balance of power ensures that a single nation cannot dominate all other nations. Because of national pride, political leaders want to strengthen their nations’ standing in the world; therefore, the leading nations will all be strong nations. The balance of power between these countries assures there will be no reason for war.
Referring to a situation in which a number of nations possess nuclear weapons. No nation will attack any other nations because of the threat of global nuclear war. For example, during the Cold War the United States and the Soviet Union maintained a balance of terror even as both nations mounted an arms race.
To divide a nation or region into smaller areas, usually leading to circumstances in which each new state is hostile to its neighbors. Balkanization usually makes such states politically ineffectual. The term comes from the 1920s when the Balkan Peninsula, formerly controlled by the Ottoman Empire, was divided into small warring nations.
A derogatory term referring to the politically unstable nations in Central America whose economies are propped up by foreign interests; small tropical countries in the West with economies built on tourism and the export of fruits. Therefore, they are called “banana republics.” The foreign interests control these nations for their own benefit with little or no concern for the people in these countries who are often exploited and underpaid.
An economic system in which private citizens own property, with access to natural resources to manufacture goods and provide services. Adam Smith, in his 1776 book Wealth of Nations, expressed his belief that people seeking their own economic self-interest benefit society more than if they tried to aid society directly. Even when an individual selfishly pursues wealth and personal enrichment, many other people are benefited.
In the justice system of a nation, an offense meriting the death penalty. These offenses usually include murder and, in some cases, treason against the government and its constitution. The word “capital” comes from the Latin word caput, meaning “head.” Capital punishment formerly referred to execution by beheading.
Political meeting. A caucus can be held among people of the same political affiliation to discuss positions on issues, select candidates to seek office, plan political rallies, etc. Within a political party, factions within the party meet to discuss strategies to gain favor for their sides on particular issues. For example, there is the Black Caucus in the U.S. House of Representatives that discusses issues relative to African Americans.
In a republic form of government, the power of the legislative, judicial, and executive branches to void, amend, or otherwise control the actions of one another. The system was created by the Founding Fathers to protect against one branch of government’s obtaining absolute power. Under the U.S. Constitution, both the House of Representatives and the Senate must vote on measures for them to become laws. Even then the president can veto the law, but the law can still be upheld if a two-thirds majority of the House of Representatives and Senate vote in its favor.
Refusing to obey society’s rules or laws to make a political or social point. Nonviolent means of raising awareness of an issue. Gandhi fasted for many days to rally his countrymen in India’s campaign to win its independence from the British. To fight against racial discrimination in the United States in the 1960s, the civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. encouraged movements of civil disobedience including sit-ins and protests.
A phrase made famous by Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. Holmes argued that even though freedom of speech is guaranteed by the First Amendment, it can be limited in order to protect the public. For example, a person does not have a constitutional right to yell, “Fire!” in a crowded theater when there is no fire. This creates, in Holmes’s words, a “clear and present danger” to the public at large.
A vote taken by a legislative body to end debate on an issue; a tactic employed by a political party to force immediate action and a vote on a motion. It comes from the French word for “the action of closing.”
A group formed by people with common interests. Alliances created of groups with similar needs and goals; such groups combine resources in pursuit of those goals. In nations with multiple political parties, coalitions are formed around issues, and compromises are made to get legislation passed.
Government and political system that aims to create a classless society in which the people share common ownership of a country’s natural resources and means of production. Communist ideas were expounded by many thinkers, many of whom argued that a gradual political shift will occur wherein countries’ governments will become more and more socialistic, and eventually become communistic. At the beginning of the twentieth century, after the Russian Revolution, the Soviet Union spread Communist ideology through Eastern European countries. Later in the 1940s, China became a Communist country and remains so today.
An alliance between independent groups or states, which maintain a large degree of autonomy. In the United States, the thirteen colonies initially formed a confederation after the Revolution, which eventually gave way to a new country under the Constitution. Canada is a confederation of provinces, and the Swiss cantons form the oldest known confederation.
When a person in a position of influence must act in an official capacity that could benefit him personally. A conflict between a person’s public obligations and private interests. For example, if a congressional representative votes on a piece of legislation, and the result of that vote impacts her business holdings in a positive way, she is guilty of a conflict of interest. To avoid conflicts of interest, people may recuse themselves from voting or acting on certain matters.
In a democracy, the principle that the voice of people should determine who is elected to public office and thereby have a say in the destiny of the affairs of their nation. This notion emerged in the eighteenth century as new ideas of democracy flourished across Europe and in America. The Declaration of Independence sets forth the principles of consent of the governed.
The desire to minimize government and maximize individual freedom. In the United States, the conservatives promote restoration and preservation of what they view as the principles in the original Constitution of limited government. Historically, conservatives have also opposed changes in social mores.
In politics, a document setting forth the system of principles that constitute a government’s belief and practices; a document that contains, in written form, the principles and laws of the government. The U.S. Constitution was enacted in America in 1789.
Monarchical government in which the sovereign exercises limited control; when a monarch rules with a constitution in place that limits his or her powers; also, in absence of a formal constitution, when a monarch rules and is bound by customs and laws of the country. Throughout history, nations with kings and queens have ranged from absolute monarchies to constitutional monarchies.
United States policy in the twentieth century to limit Communism to the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, Korea, and China. A number of presidents cited the policy of containment as the basis for their actions taken toward the Soviets including U.S. intervention in the Korean and Vietnam wars. The policy of containment fell out of favor during the Nixon administration, which attempted to open diplomatic doors to the Soviet Union and China.
Fighting rebel forces that threaten to bring down the established government; the effort to counterattack efforts of subversive groups to bring down the government by guerrilla warfare. Extensive counterinsurgency tactics were first developed by the U.S. military during the Vietnam War.
In politics, quick and swift action by a small group to take charge of the government, usually by force or threat of force. Occasionally, this can refer to a parliamentary maneuver by one party to take over the government or it can mean the overthrow or seizure of power by an outside political group. A coup d’etat usually does not have mass support. Because the takeover is by a small group, the general population may first hear about it from the new rebel government.
The penetration of a weaker nation’s culture by that of a stronger nation. Also known as the cultural impact of imperialism. The extensive spread of American culture after World War II is an example; today, almost every country in the world contains McDonald’s outlets.
In politics, a surprise candidate for office; when a political candidate reveals few details about himself or herself. A dark horse is someone unknown or unexpected, who often emerges as a top contender to win the race. In 1831 the word appeared in a novel by Benjamin Disraeli (1804–1881), The Young Duke, in which an unknown horse wins a race.
When more money is owed by a government than can be covered with tax revenues. A deficit is not a debt. Deficits occur when government spending is greater than the revenue it collects, usually through taxes or transfer payments. The total deficit is the primary deficit plus interest payments owed on the nation’s debt. Governments operate under deficits because economies go through cycles of high unemployment in which tax revenues decrease and low unemployment in which tax revenues increase. As tax revenues increase, the government is able to reduce its deficits.
A political leader known for flashy rhetoric used to arouse the emotions of constituents. The term originated in ancient Greece, where it referred simply to a leader of the people. Today, it means a person whose speaking ability, often using false arguments, helps to sway public opinion to his or her side of the issue. Demagoguery has a negative connotation, applied to political leaders who distort issues and lie to win over the people.
Government of the people by the people; government officials are elected by the vote of the people; a form of representational government in which elected officials are vested with rights from constituents to represent their interests. The United States is a democratic republic. The term also refers to the idea of equal rights for all citizens under the law.
Typically, a nation whose economic systems are still in the process of evolving. In such nations, farming is usually the main source of wealth, and manufacturing industry is weak or nonexistent. There is little modern innovation in any of a developing nation’s industries.
A government in which all power is wielded by one person, the dictator; governing without the consent of the governed or absolute control by one person. The dictator is not responsible to the people by election for his or her power, but rather has ended all opposition and quells any challenges. The most infamous dictator in modern world history is Adolf Hitler.
The act of negotiating relationships between nations. Each nation has a corps of diplomats stationed around the world who engage in discussions about how the countries can work together to promote their common good. Diplomacy involves negotiation regarding economic and political matters, and can also involve talks on disarmament, human rights, or environmental issues.
Privileges of diplomats and their staffs while living abroad and representing their governments in official capacities. As foreign nationals, they and their families are exempt from the laws of the land. They cannot be arrested or taxed, searched, or have their property seized by the country in which they are residing. When a diplomat from a foreign country is threatened with arrest or search and seizure, she can claim diplomatic immunity.
To divest a person of the right to vote; in another sense, to render a person’s vote ineffective or less effective. Disfranchisement occurs when governments make it difficult for certain less-advantaged groups in a nation to vote or when a political group intimidates voters and implies negative consequences for voting.
When a government, through diplomatic or military efforts, works to implement policies in foreign lands that promote the business interests of private citizens of the country. Also, a nation’s foreign policy designed to ensure increased wealth for investments in foreign countries or in global financial markets.
The idea that if one nation falls prey to conquest by a stronger nation, its neighbors will also be eventually conquered. The domino theory was conceived in the United States to describe the Soviet Union’s expansionist desires to spread Communism worldwide and was used to justify U.S. involvement in Southeast Asia. The argument was made that eastern European countries fell one after another under Communist rule, just like dominos.
In the United States, government policies enacted to protect people’s rights not to be discriminated against in the workplace on account of race, gender, age, or physical limitations. An equal opportunity employer is in compliance with equal opportunity laws.
The Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution requires states to guarantee the same rights, privileges, and protections to all citizens. The amendment requires states to enforce laws equally and not discriminate when creating or enforcing future laws. The amendment was ratified in 1868 as part of Reconstruction after the Civil War.
In the United States, rules regarding radio and television airtime. In the 1960s the Federal Communications Commission required radio and television stations, in order to receive a license to broadcast, to give equal time to responsible opposing viewpoints. The equal-time provisions applied to political campaigns and public issues. In the case of a political candidate, the radio or television station was required to offer the opposing candidate free or paid use based on what had been given to his or her opponent. The provision is no longer U.S. policy.
In politics, to put added pressure on an opponent in war or in foreign relations. In war, a policy of escalation means to step up military campaigns through aggressive action. The desired goal is to increase the pace of the war to ensure enemy defeat. In foreign relations, a policy of escalation means to offer a nation a one-time agreement that can be pulled off the table if it is not immediately accepted.
To exile a person from his or her country; to take away citizenship. An expatriate can also refer to someone who voluntarily resides in another country for an extended period of time. Expatriation is derived from the French word expatrier, meaning “to banish.” After World War I, Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961), James Baldwin (1924–1987), Gertrude Stein (1874–1946), and other artists and writers from the United States lived as expatriates in Paris.
A smaller group within a larger group. In politics, a small group united around an issue. For example, the NAACP was a faction within the larger civil rights movement, pushing for reforms to U.S. government policy on race relations. Factions can also refer to groups within political parties; for instance, the Tea Party is a faction on the right wing of the Republican Party.
In politics, a candidate nominated for national office who is from the state in which the nominating convention is taking place. Sometimes the term refers to a politician who is liked in his or her own home state, but not popular outside it. Favorite sons are sometimes nominated early in the process of choosing a candidate, either as a courtesy or to give them some leverage later in the nomination.
In nuclear war, the ability to conduct a first or surprise attack of overpowering force with the objective of destroying as many of the enemy’s nuclear weapons as possible. The intent of first-strike capability is to weaken the enemy nation’s retaliatory attack. The United States sought to maintain first-strike capability against the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
The rights granted by a government to its citizens to vote for representation. Originally in the United States the rights of franchise were only afforded to property owners. Gradually, the Constitution was amended to make it unconstitutional for the states or federal government to deny franchise, or voting rights, based on skin color—though this right was only fully enforced as a result of the civil rights movement in the 1960s. Women were guaranteed the right to vote in 1920.
Under the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, the right of American citizens to hold public meetings and form groups without government interference. The First Amendment states that people have the right to peaceably assemble. Freedom of assembly allows like-minded people to come together to promote ideas and issues important to them. Freedom of association is sometimes included with freedom of assembly.
Under the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, the rights of like-minded people to form groups to express opinions or dissent from government policies. The Constitution guarantees this right without government interference.
Under the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, the right to publish materials without government interference. In a free and open society, the freedom of the press allows people to publish opinions and ideas, which permits the free flow of ideas and information. There are still laws dealing with publishing obscenity, libel, defamation, etc., though these are far looser in the United States than in many other countries. It is the responsibility of the citizens to support only those media outlets they deem appropriate and factual.
Under the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, the right to worship (or not worship) without government coercion. The Founding Fathers of the U.S. Constitution did not want the government to sanction an official state religion such as the Church of England. Rather they wanted to ensure that people were free to worship according to the dictates of their individual consciences.
Under the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, the right to voice one’s opinion without government censorship or interference. The rights of the people to express opinions in the public square. There are some restrictions on freedom of speech (see “Clear and Present Danger”), but in general, apart from libel and defamation, virtually any speech is permitted.
International rules outlining the humane treatment of prisoners of war. These were created in 1864 in Geneva, Switzerland, and are almost universally accepted. The convention also addresses treatment of the wounded and dead in war, as well as civilians, and contains rules prohibiting attacks upon hospitals and ambulances.
The conscious policy of elimination directed against a particular ethnic group. Genocide is usually conducted under the pretense of war. The extermination is sometimes motivated by the wish to possess the lands of the group (for example, the policy followed by the American government toward Native Americans in the nineteenth century) and sometimes based on ideology (as was the case with Nazi policy toward the Jews).
In the late 1980s, a time of new openness in the Soviet Union when government officials began to discuss issues relating to the Soviet economy and its geopolitical status in the world. During glasnost the Soviet government for the first time permitted some criticism of the government. Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev (1931–) led glasnost, first mentioning it in a speech in 1985. The term “glasnost” was first used by Vladimir Lenin. Several years after glasnost, the Soviet Union collapsed largely due to the arms race with the United States.
A term that originated in the late 1960s to describe how the world was becoming increasingly connected through technology; shrinking by coming closer. Increasingly, through interdependent relationships, the world has turned into one global village. Scholar Marshall McLuhan (1911–1980) originated the term, describing how the world would, over time, become more and more interdependent as nations cooperated on political issues in their best interests.
Also known as utilitarianism, which holds that the proper course to follow is to maximize the utility of providing the greatest degree of happiness for as many people as possible. It can be argued that the objective of democratic governments is to provide the best life opportunities for the greatest number of its citizens. In a world of limited resources, so the argument goes, no government system is able to provide the greatest good for all of its citizens.
Warfare carried out by small bands of irregular troops against an established army. Guerrilla warfare is unconventional warfare using surprise and destructive attacks not only against the standing army, but against buildings and landmarks; its aim is to send a political message to the people and the government. Guerrilla warfare has been common in South America, where local bands of citizens seek to rise up against oppressive or colonialist governments. It was also practiced by the Vietnamese against the United States in the 1960s and 1970s. The term “guerrilla” comes the Spanish word guerra, for “war.”
When a person is accused of a crime, he or she must be brought before a judge to determine if there are grounds for the arrest and detention. The judge must determine if the charges presented before the court justify charging the defendant or holding him or her in jail. The purpose of habeas corpus is to ensure that a person is not illegally imprisoned prior to the court date, which could impede the defendant’s ability to prepare a rebuttal to the charges.
The concept that every person has the basic right to be free to work and pursue his or her path in life. Governments should not take away or interfere with these basic rights. Human rights are considered universal and form the basis for much international law. After World War II, the United Nations General Assembly, motivated by the horrors of the Holocaust, drafted the Declaration of Human Rights, which spells out these rights in some detail.
Legal rules by which nations agree to work together and accept as binding in international matters. Many of the decisions regarding international law are determined by the World Court in the Hague in the Netherlands. International law serves as the basis or agreed-upon foundation by which nations conduct international relations.
The invisible barrier between West and East during the Cold War. The West represented the ideals of freedom, while the East represented the tightly controlled Communist governments. The Iron Curtain was effectively torn aside with the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. England’s prime minister Winston Churchill (1874–1965) coined the term “Iron Curtain” in 1946 in a speech in Fullerton, Missouri.
Liberal or progressive movements. Leftists believe that government should provide more for the people and control economic growth. They are also proponents of redistribution of wealth throughout society. They pursue government programs that will create greater equality among all classes of society.
The authority given a politician or political body to enact legislation based on wide public support. For example, when a president is re-elected by a wide margin of votes, she can claim that the public supports the platform she ran on and, therefore, Congress should go along with legislation supporting her agenda.
In military strategy or foreign relations, the threat of launching nuclear weapons. In the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union maintained an uneasy peace out of fear that if one attacked the other, it would suffer a massive retaliation. A balance or sorts was achieved because of the threat of nuclear devastation.
A system of government in which the king or queen holds all power. In a monarchy, all ruling authority is handed down through hereditary lines. There have been limited monarchies, in which the sovereign and a parliamentary body shared power, and absolute monarchies, where the king alone wielded all power.
A period of delay; when a nation agrees to halt activity for a certain length of time. In the recent past this has referred to nuclear weapons. For periods, the United States and Russia have agreed to a moratorium on developing and deploying nuclear weapons.
Struggle, usually military, by a third-world country to free itself from the rule of a colonial power. Such movements are called wars or revolutions of national liberation. Oftentimes, those fighting for their freedom employ guerrilla warfare tactics.
Rights of people that arise from the natural law; in politics, the idea that people have basic rights given to all humans by God who created them. These rights, because they are God-given or arise from the natural state of the world, cannot be taken away by a government, and governments should exist and operate within the framework of these natural rights. The Declaration of Independence states that natural rights include life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
In politics, an opponent on a bill or issue; in Greek mythology, the goddess of retribution and vengeance. A nemesis refers to someone or something that is difficult to overcome or conquer. At her sanctuary, Nemesis descends as the spirit of divine retribution to put those who display pride and arrogance (hubris) before the gods.
The obligation of people from royal or noble families, or powerful social positions, to act with honor and generosity, both to one another and to the masses. The French phrase means “nobility obliges.” Today, the phrase is often used condescendingly, poking fun at people who feel superior to others based on their social status or wealth.
Nations that do not support or align themselves with or against the main superpowers in the world. In the recent past, this meant nations that were not allies of the United States or the Soviet Union. Today, the Non-Aligned Movement includes 120 member countries. The idea for the organization came in 1961 from Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980), the Yugoslavian president who had broken with Stalin. The Non-Aligned Movement allowed countries in developing parts of the world to stay outside the arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union.
Making political statements through nonviolent means of protest, such as public gatherings, economic boycotts, etc., in order to raise awareness of issues and effect change. Nonviolent resistance movements are designed to seek attention from media and politicians in order to influence public opinion, gaining sympathy for their causes. Sometimes nonviolent resistance involves breaking laws, which results in arrests and prosecution, also raising awareness of the cause.
Government by the few; a structure where all power is held by a few people or a group of people. Usually oligarchies are ruled by the wealthy people of the nation, a royal family, or a few military leaders. An oligarchy can also refer to a small group of people who wield strong influence on government procedures.
Showing dissent from government policies through peaceful methods of protest marches, boycotts, etc. The most famous example of passive resistance is Mohandas Gandhi (1869–1948), whose fasting and marches helped free the Indian nation from British rule. He strongly opposed violent revolution and was horrified by the wave of violence that accompanied Indian independence in 1947.
Policy of maintaining peace between nations with different ideologies. Usually refers to relations between the United States and the former Soviet Union. The government of the Soviet Union under Stalin maintained an official policy of peaceful coexistence, arguing that the Communist countries could exist alongside capitalist countries. This contradicted previous Soviet ideas that Communist and capitalists countries could never exist side by side. Peaceful coexistence became the centerpiece of Soviet policy for much of its existence.
Governmental rule by the wealthy and powerful; when a wealthy class of people rules. The power and ability to govern comes from wealth, and because of wealth this class of people feels it is best suited to rule. The term is often used in a pejorative sense. Plutocracies have included the Roman Republic, ancient Greece, and Japan prior to World War II.
The separation of people and their increased alienation from one another based on beliefs, values, and opinions; a situation in which people’s opinions align around extremes. As people become polarized over issues, their leaders must search for compromise, or gridlock will develop.
A group of people who control a political party either at a national or local level; a political group that seeks to control, usually through patronage, the functioning of a political party and through it, the government.
A swift and surprise attack before an enemy can attack. When intelligence reports demonstrate a likelihood of an enemy attack on a nation, the nation may best be served by attacking first to prevent the attack or, through the might of its force, intimidate the military force of the potential attacker. Often a pre-emptive strike is a show of force to prevent the outbreak of a real war.
Misinformation spread by a government to gain public or world support. Propaganda can also be used to denigrate a group of people or an opposing political force. Propaganda is sometimes true but often only half-true or altogether false. The aim of propaganda is not to tell the truth, but to sway public opinion.
In politics, a reconciliation followed by new mutually beneficial relationships. To follow a policy of rapprochement is to rebuild and reconcile once-broken relationships. These may involve trade or political relations and their rebuilding may allow nations to work together for peace and other worthwhile causes.
A German word meaning the “politics of reality.” To base government policy on what provides true political power for a nation. Realpolitik implies political conduct that is realistic rather than ideal or moral. Such policies build international relations based on terms that are best for their country, and show little or no concern for other nations.
A vote by the citizens on measures affecting them, as opposed to a vote by elected officials. For example, many state taxes have been subject to referenda. They are usually restricted to state, county, or city measures. A referendum is put on a ballot after a group of citizens articulates the issue and then secures a large number of signatures of citizens who want to vote on it.
Monetary compensation for wrongs or injustices. In war, reparations are often paid by the defeated country to the conquering nations. After World War II, Germany paid reparations to the Jews. Native Americans have been paid reparations from the U.S. government for illegal land acquisitions from tribal nations. Some civil rights leaders have called upon the U.S. government to pay African Americans reparations for injustices inflicted by slaveholders.
A government that functions under a constitution and in which people vote officials into office; government by the people for the people. A republic is an agreement by citizens to abide by a constitution and to elect representatives to represent their interests. The United States is a democratic republic.
Conservative movement, or right-leaning wing of the Republican Party. Traditionally, conservative or right-wing groups support cutting government spending and limited government power. They have also generally opposed certain social issues such as the right to abortion, recognition of gay marriage, and removing religion from public life. Right-wing adherents generally believe in the ability of the individual to make correct choices without government mandates.
Penalty levied against a nation for violation of international laws or standards. For example, a country vigorously pursuing nuclear capabilities could be subject to sanctions imposed by other nations. Sanctions can take the form of extremely high tariffs, refusal to trade in certain goods, etc. Sanctions are used by the international community as a way to move rogue nations toward peace.
Rebellion against the government; inciting other people to harm or rebel against the government; to commit treason or incite an insurrection. Calling for rebellion or government overthrow in a speech or book is considered seditious, as is taking direct action to cause harm to a government institution.
Unity among a group of people involved in a common cause. Solidarity was the name of a Polish labor union movement in the 1980s that increased its ranks to several million workers. The Solidarity movement is credited with bringing down the Communist government of Poland.
A government’s authority and right to rule within its own borders. A government will not accept, generally, extra-national restrictions on its authority. Governments assume they have to rule according to their own authority.
An insubstantial idea that is easy to debate and pick apart. A rhetorical tactic, by which you attribute a weak argument to your opponent—not necessarily one that he’s making—and destroy it. A straw man is often used in debate as a way to draw attention away from the real issue.
The right to vote in public elections. In the United States in the early twentieth century, women fought for the right to vote. They launched a suffragist movement that held mass demonstrations across the country. The Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution, stating that states could not deny the right to vote based on gender, was ratified in 1920.
Poverty-stricken nations in Latin America, Central America, southern Asia, and Africa. People in third-world countries generally subsist through primitive farming methods. These countries are also characterized by limited technology and manufacturing capabilities.
In political negotiation (or, for that matter, in any other kind of negotiation), the final offer or demand. If the ultimatum is not met, there will be, it is implied, serious consequences. In international politics, rejection of an ultimatum might result in a declaration of war, sanctions, or trade embargoes.
A state in which the government provides financial aid and other benefits to lower-income citizens in the form of housing, food, clothing, etc. Government programs in the United States include food stamps, Social Security, and unemployment insurance. Many welfare states are based on the political ideas of redistribution of wealth through high taxation of wealthy citizens. The wealth passes from the highly successful people in society through the government to the lower-income citizens in the form of benefits and government programs.
In game theory, a situation in which the sum of wins and losses equals zero; also, where the sum of all winnings by all players is zero, so no one is declared the winner. In politics, when trade-offs between various parties involved in negotiations balance one another in their effect. Therefore, no one has “won” the negotiation.