PREFACE
1. W. P. Brown, Seven Pillars of Creation: The Bible, Science, and the Ecology of Wonder (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).
2. Transformation of Larch-Dominated Forests and Woodlands Into Mixed Taiga (NASA Proposal 06-IDS06-0078); Optimal Dynamic Predictions of Semiarid Land Cover Change (NASA Proposal 07-LCLUC07-0029); Climate- and Fire-Induced Vegetation, Agricultural, and Albedo Change in Northern Eurasia—Consequences to Gases, Aerosols, and Radiative Fluxes (NASA Proposal 09-IDS09-0116); Carbon Monitoring Science Definition Team (NASA Proposal 10-CMSSDT10-0003); Synthesis of Forest Growth, Response to Wildfires and Carbon Storage for Russian Forests Using a Distributed, Individual-Based Forest Model (NASA Proposal 10-CARBON10-0068); Elephant-Habitat Dynamics in the Serengeti Ecosystem—A Predictive Modeling Approach Using Multiscale Optical and Radar Satellite Imagery (NASA Proposal 11-Earth11R-0092); LCLUC Synthesis—Forested Land Cover and Land Use Change in the Far East of Northern Eurasia Under the Combined Drivers of Climate and Socioeconomic Transformation (NASA Proposal 10-LCLUC10-2-0031); A Program for Computational Education and Internship Training for Environmental Science Students (NASA Proposal 11-CMAC11-0006).
1. INTRODUCTION
1. There is some ambivalence in this interpretation of the Hebrew text. The literal translation of the Hebrew word, 
or brk (to bless), would be “bless God and die,” but, because writing “curse God” would be inappropriate in a holy text, “bless” was used as a gloss on this potentially offensive phrase. Recall the idiomatic phrase in English, “I blessed him out for his foolishness,” in which “blessed” actually means the opposite. An alternate view would be that the Hebrew word was used literally and that his wife’s advice was essentially to pray and then die honorably. See T. Linafelt, “The Undecidability of in the Prologue of Job and Beyond,” Biblical Interpretation 4 (1996): 154–172.
2. Zophor does not speak in the third cycle.
3. G. B. Dalrymple, “The Age of the Earth in the Twentieth Century: A Problem Mostly Solved,” Geological Society of London, Special Publications, 190 (2001): 205–221; G. Manhesa et al., “Lead Isotope Study of Basic-Ultrabasic Layer Complexes: Speculations About the Age of the Earth and Primitive Mantle Characteristics,” Earth and Planetary Science Letters 47 (1980): 370–382.
4. W. P. Brown, Seven Pillars of Creation: The Bible, Science, and the Ecology of Wonder (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).
6. K. Schifferdecker, Out of the Whirlwind: Creation Theology in the Book of Job, Harvard Theological Studies 61 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2008).
7. B. McKibben, The Comforting Whirlwind: God, Job, and the Scale of Creation (Cambridge, Mass.: Cowley, 2010); Schifferdecker, Out of the Whirlwind; Brown, Seven Pillars of Creation.
8. BCE stands for “Before Current Era,” a term equivalent to the BC in the BC/AD (Before Christ/Anno Domini) dating system. It is appropriate for multireligious discussions. BP is also used in this book to denote “Before Present.” This is a term often used in conjunction with radiocarbon dating.
9. Schifferdecker, Out of the Whirlwind.
11. G. Wigoder, The Illustrated Dictionary and Concordance of the Bible (Jerusalem: Jerusalem Publishing House; New York: MacMillan, 1986).
12. O. Lipschits and T. L. Thompson, Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written and Archaeological Sources (Leiden: Brill, 1992).
13. J. Blenkinsopp, “Bethel in the Neo-Babylonian Period,” in Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period, ed. O. Lipschits and J. Blenkinsopp (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2003), 93–108. A. Lemaire, “Nabonidus in Arabia and Judea During the Neo-Babylonian Period,” in Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period, ed. O. Lipschits and J. Blenkinsopp (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2003), 285–300.
14. J. A. Middlemas, The Troubles of Templeless Judah (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 10.
15. Schifferdecker, Out of the Whirlwind.
16. A. Korotayev, Ancient Yemen (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).
17. Schifferdecker, Out of the Whirlwind.
18. N. Sarna, “Epic Substratum in the Prose of Job,” Journal of Bible Literature 75 (1957): 13–25.
20. Brown, Seven Pillars of Creation.
21. B. R. Foster, “Epic of Creation (1.111) (Enŭma Elish),” in The Context of Scripture, ed. W. W. Hallo and K. L. Younger (Leiden: Brill, 1996), 390–402.
22. Martien Halvorson-Taylor, Religious Studies Department, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, personal communication.
23. E. L. Greenstein, “Texts from Ugarit Solve Biblical Puzzles,” Biblical Archaeology Review 36 (2010): 48–53, 70.
24. Sarna, “Epic Substratum in the Prose of Job.”
25. A. E. Killebrew, Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 BCE (Atlanta, Ga.: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005), 10–16.
26. Ugarit was a city from c. 8000 BCE. It was walled c. 6000 BCE.
2. LAYING THE FOUNDATION OF THE EARTH
1. K. Schifferdecker, Out of the Whirlwind: Creation Theology in the Book of Job, Harvard Theological Studies 61 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2008).
2. S. N. Kramer, Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievements in the Third Millennium BC, rev. ed. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997).
3. Schifferdecker, Out of the Whirlwind.
5. Cherokee Creation Story. J. W. Powell, Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part 1, 1897–98 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1900), 242.
6. Bushongo (Central Africa) Creation Story. E. A. W. Budge, Osiris, or the Egyptian Religion of Resurrection, Part 2 (1911; repr. Whitefish, Mt.: Kessinger, 2003), 364.
7. S. Sturluson, Edda, trans. A. Faulkes (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1987).
8. E. Chaisson, Epic of Evolution: Seven Ages of the Cosmos (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006).
9. C. M. Linton, From Eudoxus to Einstein—a History of Mathematical Astronomy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004); M. A. Finocchiaro, The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989).
10. C. R. Chapman, “Surface Properties of Asteroids: A Synthesis of Polarimetry, Radiometry, and Spectrophotometry,” Icarus 25 (1975): 104–130.
11. B. E. Clark, “New News and the Competing Views of Asteroid Belt Geology,” Lunar and Planetary Science 27 (1996): 225–226.
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13. C. T. Cunningham, The First Asteroid: Ceres, 1801–2001 (Surfside, Fla.: Star Lab, 2002).
14. C. T. Russell et al., “Dawn Discovery Mission to Vesta and Ceres: Present Status,” Advances in Space Research 38 (2006): 2043–2048.
15. M. Brown, How I Killed Pluto and Why It Had It Coming (New York: Random House, 2010).
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18. 60Fe is radioactive with a half-life of about 2.6 million years. The abundance of 60Ni, the stable decay product of 60Co, which in turn is the radioactive decay product of 60Fe, found in iron meteorites is the remnant of the initiating supernova.
19. A. P. Boss and S. A. Keiser, “Who Pulled the Trigger: A Supernova of an Asymptotic Giant Branch,” Astrophysical Journal Letters 717 (2010): L1–L5.
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22. Au, Co, Fe, Ir, Mn, Mo, Ni, Os, Pd, Pt, Re, Rh, and Ru.
23. Al, At, B, Ba, Be, Br, Ca, Cl, Cr, Cs, F, I, Hf, K, Li, Mg, Na, Nb, O, P, Rb, Sc, Si, Sr, Ta, Th, Ti, U, V, Y, Zr, W, and the lanthanides.
24. B. Wood, “The Formation and Differentiation of Earth,” Physics Today 64 (2011): 40–45.
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27. Wood, “The Formation and Differentiation of Earth.”
29. GRAIL stands for Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory.
30. D. L. Pinti, “The Origin and Evolution of the Oceans,” in Lectures in Astrobiology, ed. M. Gargaud et al. (Berlin: Springer Verlag, 2005), 1:83–211.
31. Uranium has two relatively common isotopes (235U and 238U) that are radioactive. Their radioactive decay eventually produces lead (symbol Pb): 207Pb comes from the decay sequence of 235U; 206Pb from the 238U sequence. The half-life, the time for one-half of the material to undergo radioactive decay is 704 million years for the 235U pathway and 4.47 billion years for the 238U pathway. These two clocks start running when a rock forms, and the ratio of each uranium isotope and its lead decay products can be used as a clock. Zircons are particularly useful for such timing because the crystals easily include uranium but exclude lead. Thus the lead found in a zircon very likely comes from radioactive decay of uranium after the rock has formed.
32. S. J. Mojzsis, M. T. Harrison, and R. T. Pidgeon, “Oxygen-Isotope Evidence from Ancient Zircons for Liquid Water at the Earth’s Surface 4,300 Myr Ago,” Nature 409 (2001): 178–181; S. A. Wilde et al., “Evidence from Detrital Zircons for the Existence of Continental Crust and Oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr Ago,” Nature 409 (2001): 175–178.
33. Wilde et al., “Evidence from Detrital Zircons.”
34. Ibid.; T. Ushikubo et al., “Lithium in Jack Hills Zircons: Evidence for Extensive Weathering of Earth’s Earliest Crust,” Earth and Planetary Science Letters 272 (2001): 666–676.
35. N. H. Sleep, “The Hadean-Archaean Environment,” Cold Spring Harbor Symposium Perspectives on Biology 2 (2010): a002527.
36. Pinti, “The Origin and Evolution of the Oceans.”
37. L. A. Frank, J. B. Sigwarth, and J. D. Craven, “On the Influx of Small Comets Into the Earth’s Atmosphere. I: Observations,” Geophysical Research Letters 13 (1986): 303–306; D. Deming, “On the Possible Influence of Extraterrestrial Volatiles on Earth’s Climate and the Origin of the Oceans,” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, and Palaeoecology 146 (1999): 33–51; L. A. Frank and J. B. Sigwarth, “Trails of OH Emissions from Small Comets Near Earth,” Geophysical Research Letters 24 (1997): 2435–2438.
38. C. E. J. de Ronde et al., “Fluid Chemistry of Archaean Seafloor Hydrothermal Vents: Implications for the Composition of Circa 3.2 Ga Seawater,” Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 61 (1997): 4025–4042; C. G. A. Harrison, “Constraints on Ocean Volume Change Since the Archaean,” Geophysical Research Letters 26 (1999): 1913–1916.
39. Pinti, “The Origin and Evolution of the Oceans.”
40. N. H. Sleep, K. Zahnle, and P. S. Neuhoff, “Initiation of Clement Surface Conditions on the Earliest Earth,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98 (2001): 3666–3672.
41. W. W. Rubey, “Geologic History of Seawater: An Attempt to State the Problem,” Geological Society of America Bulletin 62 (1951): 1111–1147.
42. J. Geiss and G. Gloecker, “Abundance of Deuterium and Helium in the Protosolar Cloud,” Space Science Review 84 (1998): 239–250.
43. D. Gautier and T. Owen, “Cosmological Implication of Helium and Deuterium Abundances of Jupiter and Saturn,” Nature 302 (1983): 215–218.
44. A. Drouart et al., “Structure and Transport in the Solar Nebula from Constraints on Deuterium Enrichment and Giant Planets Formation,” Icarus 140 (1999): 59–76.
45. The much more common 1H, called protium, and 2H, called deuterium or “heavy hydrogen.”
46. D. Bockelée-Morvan et al., “Deuterated Water in Comet C/1996 B2 (Hyakutake) and Its Implications for the Origin of Comets,” Icarus 193 (1988): 147–162; R. Meier et al., “A Determination of the DH2O/H2O Ratio in Comet C/1995O1 (Hale–Bopp),” Science 279 (1998): 842–844; P. Eberhardt, D. Krankowski, and R. R. Hodges, “The D/H and 18O/16O Ratios in Water from Comet P/Halley,” Astron. Astrophys. 302 (1995): 301–316.
47. N. Dauphas, F. Robert, and B. Marty, “The Late Asteroidal and Cometary Bombardment of Earth as Recorded in Water Deuterium-to-Protium Ratio,” Icarus 148 (2000): 508–512.
48. A. H. Delsemme, “The Deuterium Enrichment Observed in Recent Comets Is Consistent with the Cometary Origin of Seawater,” Planet. Space Sci. 47 (1999): 125–131.
49. A. Morbidelli et al., “Source Regions and Timescales for the Delivery of Water to the Earth,” Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 35 (2000): 1309–1320; N. Dauphas, “The Dual Origin of the Terrestrial Atmosphere,” Icarus 165 (2003): 326–339; Pinti, “The Origin and Evolution of the Oceans.”
50. N. H. Sleep et al., “Annihilation of Ecosystems by Large Asteroid Impacts on the Early Earth,” Nature 342 (1989): 139–142.
51. K. K. Takai et al., “Cell Proliferation at 122°C and Isotopically Heavy CH4 Production by a Hyperthermophilic Methanogen Under High-Pressure Cultivation,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 (2008): 10949–10954.
52. N. R. Pace, “Time for a Change,” Nature 441 (2006): 289.
53. Y. Koga and H. Morii, “Biosynthesis of Ether-Type Polar Lipids in Archaea and Evolutionary Considerations,” Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 71 (2007): 97–120.
54. E. F. DeLong, “Everything in Moderation: Archaea as ‘Nonextremophiles.’” Current Opinion in Genetics and Development 8 (1998): 649–654.
55. E. F. DeLong and N. R. Pace, “Environmental Diversity of Bacteria and Archaea,” Systematic Biology 50 (2001): 470–478.
56. G. Schleper et al., “Picrophilus gen. nov., fam. nov.: A Novel Aerobic, Heterotrophic, Thermoacidophilic Genus and Family Comprising Archaea Capable of Growth Around pH 0,” Journal of Bacteriology 177 (1995): 7050–7059.
57. E. V. Pikuta et al., “Carnobacterium pleistocaenium sp. nov., a Novel Psychrotolerant, Facultative Anaerobe Isolated from Fox Tunnel Permafrost, Alaska,” International Journal of Evolution and Systematics in Microbiology 55 (2005): 473–478.
58. E. V. Pikuta, R. B. Hoover, and J. Tang, “Microbial Extremophiles at the Limits of Life,” Critical Reviews in Microbiology 33 (2007): 183–209.
59. Sleep, “The Hadean-Archaean Environment.”
60. Sleep et al., “Annihilation of Ecosystems.”
61. J. W. Schopf, “Fossil Evidence of Archaean Life,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Series B 361 (2006): 869–885, lists forty-eight stromolite fossils, fourteen Archaean geological units with forty different types of microfossils and organic geochemicals, and thirteen ancient (3.2 to 3.5 billion years old) Archaean geological units.
62. E. J. Nisbet and N. H. Sleep, “The Habitat and Nature of Early Life,” Nature 409 (2001): 1083–1091.
63. M. Gogarten-Boeckels, E. Hilario, and J. P. Gogarten, “The Effects of Heavy Meteorite Bombardment on the Early Evolution—The Emergence of the Three Domains of Life,” Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres 25 (1992): 251–264.
64. Nisbet and Sleep, “The Habitat and Nature of Early Life.”
65. N. H. Sleep and K. Zahnle, “Refugia from Asteroid Impacts on Early Mars and the Early Earth,” Journal of Geophysical Research 103 (1998): 28529–28544; Sleep et al., “Annihilation of Ecosystems.”
66. The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was founded in 1915 to encourage aeronautical research. On July 18, 1958, in the post-Sputnik era, NACA’s National Integrated Missile and Space Vehicle Development Program reported that their “Type IV” launch vehicle (equivalent to the later Saturn C-3 rocket) would be used to send a 2,300 kg “probe” to Mars in January 1967. In October 1958, NACA was dissolved to become part of NASA. The NACA report evolved to be the Voyager and later the Viking missions. See M. Erickson, Into the Unknown Together—The DOD, NASA, and Early Spaceflight (Maxwell Air Force Base, Ala.: Air University Press, 2005).
67. J. E. Lovelock, “A Physical Basis for Life Detection Experiments,” Nature 207 (1965): 568–570.
68. J. E. Lovelock, Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979); J. E. Lovelock, The Ages of Gaia (New York: Norton, 1988).
69. E. G. Nisbet et al., “The Age of Rubisco: The Evolution of Oxygenic Photosynthesis,” Geobiology 5 (2007): 311–325.
70. The Plantomycetes phylum of bacteria are nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria that can convert nitrite and ammonium to nitrogen gas and water in anaerobic (oxygen-free) environments.
71. J. Zalasiewicz and M. Williams, The Goldilocks Planet: The Four-Billion-Year Story of the Earth’s Climate (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).
72. A. A. Pavlov et al., “Greenhouse Warming by CH4 in the Atmosphere of Early Earth,” Journal of Geophysical Research 105 (2000): 11981–11990; D. E. Canfield, K. S. Habicht, and B. Thamdrup, “The Archaean Sulfur Cycle and the Early History of Atmospheric Oxygen,” Science 288 (2000): 658–661; D. C. Catling, K. J. Zahnle, and C. P. McKay, “Biogenic Methane, Hydrogen Escape, and the Irreversible Oxidation of Early Earth,” Science 293 (2001): 839–843; C. Sagan and C. Chyba, “The Early Faint Sun Paradox: Organic Shielding of Ultraviolet-Labile Greenhouse Gases,” Science 276 (1997): 1217–1221; M. G. Trainer et al., “Haze Aerosols in the Atmosphere of Early Earth: Manna from Heaven,” Astrobiology 4 (2004): 409–419.
73. J .D. Haqq-Misra et al., “A Revised, Hazy Methane Greenhouse for the Archean Earth,” Astrobiology 8 (2008): 1127–1137.
74. Nisbet et al., “The Age of Rubisco.”
75. L. J. Rothschild, “The Evolution of Photosynthesis…Again?” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Series B 363 (2008): 2787–2801.
76. W. P. Brown, Seven Pillars of Creation: The Bible, Science, and the Ecology of Wonder (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).
77. M. S. Smith, The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2002).
78. M. S. Smith, God in Translation: Deities in Cross-Cultural Discourse in the Biblical World (Tübingen: Mohr Siebek, 2008).
79. Brown, Seven Pillars of Creation.
3. TAMING THE UNICORN, YOKING THE AUROCHS: ANIMAL AND PLANT DOMESTICATION AND THE CONSEQUENT ALTERATION OF THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH
1. The Septuagint is a translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek developed over the third to second century BCE in Alexandria. The Vulgate is a Latin translation from the fourth century CE.
2. Persica and Indica are abstracted in Photius’s Bibliotheca or Myriobiblon, a ninth-century CE work. Photius I was the patriarch of Constantinople from 858 to 867 CE. In Bibliotheca, he abstracted 279 ancient books that he had read.
3. T. S. Brown, “The Reliability of Megathenes,” American Journal of Philology 76 (1955): 18–33.
4. J. H. Freese, The Library of Photius, vol. 1 (Suffolk: Richard Clay and Sons, 1920), 117.
6. Called the Physiologus because its chapters began with the phrase, “The physiologus says…”; “physiologus” means naturalist or natural philosopher.
7. F. McCulloch, Medieval Latin and French Bestiaries (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1962).
10. Males with two tusks occur but they are rare; females also rarely can develop a tusk.
11. The coat of arms referred to here is that of the monarchs of Scotland used until the Acts of Union in 1707. The Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom, among other changes, replaces one of the unicorns with an English lion. The Scottish unicorn is sinister (or on the left side when looking out from the coat of arms) in the United Kingdom but is dexter (right side) for its use in Scotland.
12. Horses are in the order Perissodactyla, the odd-toed ungulates, versus the order Artiodactyla, the even-toed ungulates.
13. Males ranged from 180 to 160 cm; the smaller females were around 150 cm. C. T. Van Vuure, Retracing the Aurochs: History, Morphology, and Ecology of an Extinct Wild Ox (Sofia/Moscow: Pensoft, 2005).
14. E. Thenius, Grundzüge der Faunen–und Verbreitungsgeschichte der Säugetiere. Eine historische Tiergeographie (Jena: V.E.B. Gustav Fischer, 1980).
15. W. von Koenigswald, “Palökologie und Vorkommen des pleistozänen Auerochsen (Bos primigenius Bojanus, 1827) im Vergleich zu den grossen Rindern des Pleistozäns,” in Archäologie und Biologie des Auerochsen, ed. G.-C. Weniger (Mettman: Neanderthal-Museum, 1999), 23–33.
16. G. Curtis, The Cave Painters: Probing the Mysteries of the World’s First Artists (New York: Knopf, 2006), 102.
17. See discussion in chapter 1.
20. F. Galton, “The First Steps Toward the Domestication of Animals,” Transactions of the Ethnological Society, London n.s. 3 (1865): 122–138; J. Clutton-Brock, A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989).
21. S. J. Crockford and Y. V. Kuzman, “Comments on Germonpré et al., Journal of Archaeological Science 36, 2009 ‘Fossil Dogs and Wolves from Palaeolithic Sites in Belgium, the Ukraine, and Russia: Osteometry, Ancient DNA, and Stable Isotopes,’ and Germonpré, Lázkičková-Galetová, and Sablin, Journal of Archaeological Science 39, 2012 ‘Palaeolithic Dog Skulls at the Gravettian Předmostí site, the Czech Republic,’” Journal of Archeological Science 39 (2012): 2797–2801; A. S. Druzhkova et al., “Ancient DNA Analysis Affirms the Canid from Altai as a Primitive Dog” (2013), PLOS One *(3): e57754. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0057754.
22. R. Coppinger and L. Coppinger, Dogs: A New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior, and Evolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001); C. A. Driscoll, D. W. Macdonald, and S. J. O’Brien, “From Wild Animals to Domestic Pets, an Evolutionary View of Domestication,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106 (2009): 9971–9976.
23. W. E. Roth, “An Introductory Study of the Arts, Crafts, and Customs of the Guiana Indians,” in Accompanying Paper to the Thirty-Eighth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1916–1917, transmitted by F. W. Hodge (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1924), 25–745.
25. Bear cubs in North America: F. Galton, “The First Steps Toward the Domestication of Animals,” Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London n.s. 3 (1865): 122–138. Bear cubs in China: J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion (London: Macmillan, 1922). J. Serpell, “Pet-Keeping and Animal Domestication: A Reappraisal,” in The Walking Larder, ed. J. Clutton-Brock (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989), 10–21. This article reviews the role of women in taming a wide variety of animals for pets in a wide range of cultures. J. Macrae, With Lord Bryon in the Sandwich Islands in 1825: Being extracts from the MS Diary of James Macrae, Scottish Botanist (Honolulu: W. F. Wilson, 1922); M. Titcomb, Dog and Man in the Ancient Pacific, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication 59 (Honolulu, 1969).
26. H. H. Shugart, How the Earthquake Bird Got Its Name and Other Tales of an Unbalanced Nature (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2004).
27. A. Newsome (personal communication), who conducted an important series of CSIRO studies on the biology and genetics of dingoes, relates that dingo pups taken into captivity after their eyes opened were always difficult to handle. None ever became tame enough to answer to commands. When given to the public after the lab tests were finished, they were always returned with complaints. Pups with their eyes closed at initial captivity and subsequently given to the public were never returned.
28. J. K. Gollan, Prehistoric Dingo (Ph.D. thesis, Australian National University, 1982).
29. There are earlier reported records (c. 8500 BP) for dingoes in Australia for isolated teeth, which may have dropped from a shallower level during the excavation of the archeological site. Olsen feels the evidence is too meager for a definitive determination, and subsequent scientists have largely upheld this opinion. S. J. Olsen, Origins of the Domesticated Dog: The Fossil Record (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1985).
30. Corbett favors the Thai dog as a source for the dingo; Gollan, the Indian pariah dog. L. K. Corbett, The Dingo in Australia and Asia (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 1995); Gollan, Prehistoric Dingo.
31. Corbett, The Dingo in Australia and Asia.
32. T. F. Flannery, The Future Eaters: An Ecological History of the Australian Lands and People (New York: Grove, 2003).
33. Titcomb, Dog and Man in the Ancient Pacific.
34. C. Vilà et al., “Man and His Dog,” Science 278 (1997): 206–207; C. Vilà et al., “Multiple and Ancient Origins of the Domestic Dog,” Science 276 (1997): 1687–1689.
35. P. Savolainen et al., “A Detailed Picture of the Origin of the Australian Dingo, Obtained from the Study of Mitochondrial DNA,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 33 (2004): 12387–12390.
36. A. E. Newsome and L. K. Corbett, “The Identity of the Dingo. 3. The Incidence of Dingoes, Dogs, and Hybrids and Their Coat Colors in Remote and Settled Areas of Australia,” Australian Journal of Zoology 33 (1985): 363–373; M. J. Daniels and L. Corbett, “Redefining Introgressed Protected Mammals: When Is a Wildcat a Wild Cat and a Dingo a Wild Dog?” Wildlife Research 30 (2003): 213–218.
37. Clutton-Brock, A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals.
38. C. S. Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (London: Murray, 1859).
39. J. Z. Wilczynski, “On the Presumed Darwinism of Alberruni Eight Hundred Years Before Darwin,” Isis 50 (1959): 459–466.
40. D. K. Belyaev, “Destabilizing Selection as a Factor in Domestication,” Journal of Heredity 70 (1979): 301–308.
41. L. Trut, “Early Canid Domestication: The Farm-Fox Experiment,” American Scientist 87 (1999): 160.
43. L. Trut, I. Oskina, and A. Kharlamova, “Animal Evolution During Domestication: The Domesticated Fox as an Example,” BioEssays 31 (2009): 349–360.
44. G. Nobis, “Der älteste Haushund lebte vor 14,000 Jahren,” Umshau in Wissenschaft und Technik 19 (1979): 610; M. Street, “The Archaeology of the Pleistocene/Holocene Transition in the Northern Rhineland, Germany,” Quaternary International 50 (1998): 46–67. S. J. M. Davis and F. R. Valla, “Evidence for Domestication of the Dog 12,000 Years Ago in the Natufian of Israel,” Nature 276 (1978): 608–610; T. Dayan, “Early Domesticated Dogs of the Near East,” Journal of Archeological Science 21 (1994): 633–640.
45. References and other documentation for a variety of sites can be found in Olsen, Origins of the Domesticated Dog. For the New World c. 8,400 years ago, see D. F. Morey and M. Wiant, “Early Holocene Domestic Dog Burials from the North American Midwest,” Current Anthropology 33 (1992): 224–229. For genetic evidence that the dogs of the New World originated from Asian domesticated wolves that were subsequently brought by humans to the New World, see J. A. Leonard et al., “Ancient DNA Evidence for Old World Origin of New World Dogs,” Science 298 (2002): 1613–1616.
46. J.-F. Pang et al., “mtDNA Data Indicate a Single Origin for Dogs South of Yangtze River, Less Than 16,300 Years Ago, from Numerous Wolves,” Molecular Biology and Evolution 26 (2009): 2849–2864.
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50. F. J. Simoons and E. S. Simoons, A Ceremonial Ox of India: The Mithan in Nature, Culture, and History (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968).
51. Clutton-Brock, A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals.
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54. F. Wendorf et al., “The Earliest Pastoralism in Egypt,” Rechere 21 (1990): 436–445.
55. D. Perkins, “Fauna of Çatal Hüyük: Evidence for Early Cattle Domestication in Anatolia,” Science 164 (1969): 177–179.
56. J. L. Angel, “Early Neolithic Skeletons from Çatal Hüyük: Demography and Pathology,” Anatolian Studies 21 (1971): 77–98.
57. Perkins, “Fauna of Çatal Hüyük.”
58. The Anatolian mufflon (Ovis orientalis anatolica) was the wild sheep. The other wild animal, the onager (Equus hemionus), resembles a donkey. It is slightly larger than the donkey but has other characteristics more like those of horses.
59. J. Mellaart, “Çatal Hüyük: A Neolithic Town in Anatolia,” in New Aspects of Archaeology, ed. M. Wheeler (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967).
60. J. L. Angel, “Porotic Hyperostosis, Anaemias, Malarias, and Marshes in the Prehistoric Eastern Mediterranean,” Science 153 (1966): 760–763.
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63. R. T. Loftus et al., “Evidence for Two Independent Domestications of Cattle,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91 (1994): 2757–2761.
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67. Loftus et al., “Evidence for Two Independent Domestications of Cattle.”
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80. Z. Naveh and J. Dan, “The Human Degradation of the Mediterranean Landscape in Israel: Ecological and Evolutionary Perspectives,” in Mediterranean-Type Ecosystems: Origin and Structure, ed. F. di Castri and H.A. Mooney, vol. 7 of Ecological Studies: Analysis and Synthesis (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1973), 373–389.
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101. Many of the plants in this “kit” would not have survived the frosts of temperate New Zealand. This is likely to have enforced a heightened dependency on the native flora and fauna for the Maori of New Zealand.
102. See P. A. Cox and S. A. Banack, eds., Islands, Plants, and Polynesians: An Introduction to Polynesian Ethnobotany (Portland, Ore.: Dioscorides, 1991). This volume contains several chapters outlining both the use and the transportation of plants by Polynesians and is a useful recent reference summarizing this topic.
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4. FREEING THE ONAGER: FERAL AND INTRODUCED ANIMALS
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105. Vitousek et al., “Introduced Species.”
106. One can argue that truly undisturbed ecosystems are an idealized but not a realized concept given the omnipresent changes in climate and other factors such as the migration and local extinctions. See H. H. Shugart and F. I. Woodward, Global Change and the Terrestrial Biosphere: Achievements and Challenges (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011).
107. P. Hochedez et al., “Chikungunya Infection in Travelers,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 12 (2006): 1565–1567.
5. BOUNDING THE SEAS, FREEZING THE FACE OF THE DEEP: WHEN THE SEA IS LOOSED FROM ITS BONDS
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6. Pytheus’ work has not survived, but he is quoted in the works of later scholars, such as Strabo’s Geographica and Pliny’s Natural History.
7. B. L. Van der Waerden, “The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian, and Hindu Astronomy,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1987): 525–545.
8. From Pauly-Wissowa’s Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft [1931], supplementband V, Agamemnon-Statilius: cols. 962–963; cited in Van der Waerden, “The Heliocentric System.”
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11. From the Old English nēpflōd (neap flood). Ibid.
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26. Parker, “The Tide Predictions for D-Day.”
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31. Parker, “The Tide Predictions for D-Day.”
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39. M. R. Chapman, N. J. Shackleton, and J.-C. Duplessey, “Sea Surface Temperature Variability During the Last Glacial-Interglacial Cycle Assessing the Magnitude and Pattern of Climate Change in the North Atlantic,” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 157 (2000): 1–25.
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46. Lambeck, Esat, and Potter, “Links Between Climate and Sea Levels.” But see M. F. Raymo, “The Initiation of North Hemisphere Circulation,” Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Science 22 (1994): 353–383, for a review of alternate theories.
47. Raymo, “The Initiation of North Hemisphere Circulation.”
48. G. H. Haug et al., “North Pacific Seasonality and the Glaciation of North America 2.7 Million Years Ago,” Nature 433 (2005): 821–825.
49. W. S. Broecker and G. H. Denton, “The Role of Ocean-Atmosphere Reorganizations in Glacial Cycles,” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 53 (1989): 2465–2501; J. F. McManus, D. W. Oppo, and J. L. Cullen, “A 0.5-Million-Year Record of Millennial-Scale Climate Variability in the North Atlantic,” Science 283 (1999): 971–975; D. R. MacAyeal, “Binge/Purge Oscillations of the Laurentide Ice Sheets as a Cause of the North Atlantic’s Heinrich Events,” Paleoceanography 8 (1993): 775–784; R. B. Alley and P. U. Clark, “The Deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere: A Global Perspective,” Annual Reviews of Earth and Planetary Science 27 (1999): 149–182.
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56. K. M. Cuffey and S. J. Marshall, “Substantial Contribution to Sea-Level Rise During the Last Interglacial from the Greenland Ice Sheet,” Nature 404 (2000): 591–594; B. L. Otto-Bliesner et al., “Simulating Arctic Climate Warmth and Icefield Retreat in the Last Interglaciation,” Science 311 (2006): 1751–1753; R. P. Scherer et al., “Pleistocene Collapse of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet,” Science 281 (1998): 82–85.
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58. S. Solomon et al., eds., Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
59. S. Rahmstorf, “A Semi-Empirical Approach to Projecting Future Sea-Level Rise,” Science 315 (2007): 368–370.
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61. M. R. Raupach et al., “Global and Regional Drivers of Accelerating CO2 Emissions,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (2007): 10288–10293.
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67. Bindoff et al., “Observations: Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level.”
68. G. A. Meehl et al., “2007: Global Climate Projections,” in Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. S. Solomon et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
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6. THE ORDINANCES OF THE HEAVENS AND THEIR RULE ON EARTH: ADAPTATION AND THE CYCLES OF LIFE
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8. The calculation is actually a bit more complex because of conditions and definitions defined by religious convention. For example, the vernal equinox is set to March 21 for Easter calculations. It occurs around this date but not always on it. See the U.S. Naval Observatory website: http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/easter.php.
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32. According to Dove, “Education, Uncertainty, Humility, and Adaptation,” and Richards, “Iban Augury,” the birds vary in their “authority.” In ascending order they are the Nenak (white-rumped shama), Ketupong (rufous piculet), Beragai (scarlet-rumped trogon), Papau (Diard’s trogon), Memuas (banded kingfisher), Kutok (maroon woodpecker), and Bejampong (crested jay).
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37. W. Markwick, “A Comparative View of the Naturalist’s Calendar, as Kept at Selbourne, in Hampshire, by the Late Gilbert White, M.A.; and at Catsfield, near Battle, in Sussex, by William Markwick from the Year 1768 to the Year 1793,” in The Natural History of Selbourne and the Naturalist’s Calendar, ed. G. C. Davies (London: Frederick Warne and Co., 1825), 447–458.
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54. S. Arrhenius, “On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air Upon the Temperature of the Ground,” Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, Series 5 41 (1896): 237–276.
55. J. E. Kutzbach, “Steps in the Evolution of Climatology: From Descriptive to Analytic,” in Historical Essays on Meteorology, 1919–1995, ed. J. R. Fleming (Boston: American Meteorological Society, 1996), 353–377.
56. L. Partridge and P. H. Harvey, “The Ecological Context of Life History Evolution,” Science 241 (1998): 1449–1455.
57. M. H. Hastings and B. K. Follett, “Toward a Molecular Biological Calendar,” Journal of Biological Rhythms 16 (2001): 424–430.
58. R. C. Babcock et al., “Synchronous Spawnings of 105 Scleractian Coral Species on the Great Barrier Reef,” Marine Biology 90 (1986): 379–394; E. Naylor, “Marine Animal Behaviour in Relation to Lunar Phase,” Earth Moon and Planets 85–86 (2001): 291–302.
59. Caspers, “Spawning Periodicity and Habitat of the Palolo Worm.”
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63. Farner, “Annual Rhythms.”
64. See K. P. Able, “The Scope and Evolution of Migration,” in Gatherings of Angels: Migrating Birds and Their Ecology, ed. K. P. Able (Ithaca, N.Y.: Comstock, 1999), 1–11.
65. I. C. T. Nisbet et al., “Transoceanic Migration of the Blackpoll Warbler: Summary of Scientific Evidence and Response to Criticisms by Murray,” Journal of Field Ornithology 66 (1995): 612–622.
66. J. D. Cherry, D. H. Doherty, and K. D. Powers, “An Offshore Nocturnal Observation of Migrating Blackpoll Warblers,” Condor 87 (1985): 548–549; C. P. McClintock, T. C. Williams, and J. M. Teal, “Autumnal Migration Observed from Ships in the Western North Atlantic Ocean,” Bird-Banding 49 (1978): 262–275.
67. Able, “The Scope and Evolution of Migration.”
68. The same result can be obtained by placing the birds in cages in rooms with controlled lighting conditions and constant temperatures.
69. Zeitgebers (German for “time givers”), in the standard literature of avian physiology.
70. H. G. Wallraff, “Does Pigeon Homing Depend on Stimuli Perceived During Displacement? I. Experiments in Germany,” Journal of Comparative Physiology A139 (1980): 193–201.
71. K. P. Able, ed., Gatherings of Angels: Migrating Birds and Their Ecology (Ithaca, N.Y.: Comstock, 1999).
72. R. Wiltschko and W. Wiltschko, Magnetic Orientation in Animals (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1995).
73. A very readable account about this remarkable capability can be found in K. P. Able, “A Sense of Magnetism,” Birding 30 (1998): 314–321.
74. A. Le Floch et al., “The Polarization Sense in Human Vision,” Vision Research 50 (2010): 2048–2054.
75. K. P. Able, “How Birds Migrate,” in Gatherings of Angels: Migrating Birds and Their Ecology, ed. K. P. Able (Ithaca, N.Y.: Comstock, 1999), 11–26.
76. K. Schmidt-Koenig and H.-J. Schlichte, “Homing in Pigeons with Reduced Vision,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 69 (1972): 2446–2447.
77. M. M. Walker et al., “Structure and Function of the Vertebrate Magnetic Sense,” Nature 390 (1997): 371–376; C. E. Duebel et al., “Magnetite Defines a Vertebrate Magnetoreceptor,” Nature 406 (2000): 299–302.
78. F. Papi, “Pigeons Use Olfactory Clues to Navigate,” Ethology, Ecology, and Evolution 1 (1989): 219–231; K. P. Able, “The Debate Over Olfactory Homing in Pigeons,” Journal of Experimental Biology 199 (1996): 121–124.
79. W. L. Donn and B. Naini, “The Sea-Wave Origin of Microbaroms and Microseisms,” Journal of Geophysical Research 78 (1973): 4428–4488; J. T. Hagstrum, “Infrasound and the Avian Navigational Map,” Journal of Experimental Biology 203 (2000): 1103–1111.
80. P. Berthold, Control of Bird Migration (London: Chapman and Hall, 1996).
81. Able, ed., Gatherings of Angels.
83. W. P. Brown, Seven Pillars of Creation: The Bible, Science, and the Ecology of Wonder (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).
84. The Wisdom of Solomon is composed in Greek and is likely from Alexandria, in Egypt, between the first century BCE and the first century CE. It is included as a deuterocanonical book by the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches and as part of the Apocrypha by Protestant churches. It is noncanonical in the Rabbinical Jewish tradition. See notes on the Wisdom of Solomon, NSRV.
85. R. Przeslawski et al., “Beyond Corals and Fish: The Effects of Climate Change on Noncoral Benthic Invertebrates of Tropical Reefs,” Global Change Biology 14 (2008): 2773–2795.
7. THE DWELLING OF THE LIGHT AND THE PATHS TO ITS HOME: WINDS, OCEAN CURRENTS, AND THE GLOBAL ENERGY BALANCE
1. See National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA), The American Practical Navigator: An Epitome of Navigation, originally by N. Bowditch (Bethesda, Md.: National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 2002), chap. 34; Golden Gate Weather Service, “Names of Winds,” http://ggweather.com/winds.html.
2. Siroccos also have a second peak of occurrence in March. They originate in the Sahara and Arabian deserts.
3. C. D. Whiteman, Mountain Meteorology: Fundamentals and Applications (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
4. G. Masselink, “Sea Breeze Activity and Its Effect on Coastal Processes Near Perth, Western Australia,” Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 79 (1996): 199–205.
5. NIMA, The American Practical Navigator.
6. R. Swap et al., “Saharan Dust in the Amazon Basin,” Tellus 44B (1992): 133–149.
7. This particular chinook produced a temperature rise from −48°C to 9°C (−54°F to 49°F) in a twenty-four-hour period on January 15, 1972. A. H. Horvitz et al., A National Temperature Record at Loma, Montana (National Weather Service, Cooperative Observer Program, 2002), http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/coop/standard.html.
9. North Atlantic Ocean, northeastern Pacific Ocean east of the International Dateline, and South Pacific Ocean east of 160°E. See K. Emanuel, Divine Wind: The History and Science of Hurricanes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).
10. Northwestern Pacific west of the International Dateline. Ibid.
11. Southwestern Pacific Ocean west of 160°E and southeastern Indian Ocean east of 90°E. Ibid.
12. The United States a one-minute average wind to compute the maximum sustained wind; most countries use the World Meteorological Organization standard of using a ten-minute average wind for this calculation. Ibid.
13. H. Piddington, The Sailors’ Horn Book for the Law of Storms in All Parts of the World (New York: John Wiley, 1848), 8.
14. “May originate,” in that another possible origin is from jufeng, a Chinese word implying a wind coming in all directions and with a first appearance in a Chinese text written in 470 CE (Nan Yue Zhi, or Book of the Southern Yue Region). The Cantonese tai-fung, which sounds like typhoon, derives from jufeng. See Emanuel, Divine Wind, chap. 3.
15. Described in the ancient Greek book Bibliotheca, by Pseudo-Apollodorus. See A. Diller, “The Text History of the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus,” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 66 (1935): 296–313.
16. Emanuel, Divine Wind.
18. R. A. Anthes, Tropical Cyclones: Their Evolution, Structure, and Effects. Meteorological Monographs 41 (American Meteorological Society, 1982).
19. Emanuel, Divine Wind.
20. NOAA, Hurricanes: Releasing Nature’s Fury, A Preparedness Guide, NOSS/PA 94050 (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Weather Service, 2001).
21. C. M. Graney, “Coriolis Effect, Two Centuries Before Coriolis,” Physics Today 64 (2011): 8.
22. In classical mechanics, the outward acceleration from centrifugal force increases with the velocity squared and as the inverse of the radius.
23. Emanuel, Divine Wind.
24. See R. H. Thurston, trans., Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1897).
26. Emanuel, Divine Wind.
27. G. Cartwright, “Dan Rather Retorting,” Texas Monthly (March 2005): 136.
28. E. S. Blake et al., The Deadliest, Costliest, and Most Intense United States Tropical Cyclones from 1851 to 2006 (and Other Frequently Requested Hurricane Facts), NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS TPC-5 (Miami, Fla.: National Weather Service, National Hurricane Center, 2007).
29. N. L. Frank and S. A. Husain, “The Deadliest Tropical Cyclone in History,” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 32 (1980): 438–444.
31. G. M. Dunnavan and J. W. Dierks, “An Analysis of Super Typhoon Tip (October 1979),” Monthly Weather Review 108 (1980): 1915–1923.
32. J. M. Wilmshurst et al., “High-Precision Radiocarbon Dating Shows Recent and Rapid Initial Human Colonization of East Polynesia,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 108 (2011): 1815–1820.
33. S. Bedford, C. Sand, and S. P. Connaughton, eds., Oceanic Explorations: Lapita and Western Pacific Settlement (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 2007).
34. E. Halley, “An Historical Account of the Trade Winds, and Monsoons, Observable in the Seas Between and Near the Tropics, with an Attempt to Assign the Physical Cause of Said Winds,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 16 (1686): 153–186.
35. G. Hadley, “On the Cause of the General Trade Winds,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 34 (1735): 58–62; reprinted in C. Abbe, The Mechanics of the Earth’s Atmosphere, Smithsonian Misc. Collections 51, no. 1 (1910); D. B. Shaw, Meteorology Over the Tropical Oceans (Royal Meteorological Society, 1979).
37. G.-G. Coriolis, “Sur les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps,” Journal de l’Ecole Royale Polytechnique 15 (1835): 144–154.
39. A. O. Persson, “Hadley’s Principle: Understanding and Misunderstanding the Trade Winds,” History of Meteorology 3 (2006): 17–42.
40. The Dalton publications of 1793 and 1834 mentioned in his letter to the editor of the Philosophical Magazine are Dalton’s first monograph and its second edition: J. Dalton, Meteorological Observations and Essays, 2nd ed. (London: Baldwin and Cradock, 1834).
41. Persson, “Hadley’s Principle.”
42. M. G. Gardner, The Annotated Ancient Mariner (New York: Clarkson Potter, 1965).
43. M. Garstang, Climate and the Mfecane (draft manuscript, 2012).
44. See R. W. Katz, “Sir Gilbert Walker and the Connection Between El Niño and Statistics,” Statistical Sciences 1 (2002): 97–112, for a scientifically annotated biography. See also G. T. Walker, “Correlation in Seasonal Variations of Weather. II,” Memoirs of the Indian Meteorological Department 21 (1910): 22–45; G. T. Walker, “Correlation in Seasonal Variations of Weather. III. On the Criterion for the Reality of Relationships or Periodicities,” Memoirs of the Indian Meteorological Department 21 (1914): 13–15; G. T. Walker, “Correlation in Seasonal Variations of Weather,” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 44 (1918): 223–224; G. T. Walker, “Correlation in Seasonal Variations of Weather. VIII. A Preliminary Study of World-Weather,” Memoirs of the Indian Meteorological Department 24 (1923): 75–131; G. T. Walker, “Correlation in Seasonal Variations of Weather. IX. A Further Study of World Weather,” Memoirs of the Indian Meteorological Department 24 (1924): 275–332.
45. Garstang, Climate and the Mfecane.
46. J. Bjerknes, “Atmospheric Teleconnections from the Equatorial Pacific,” Monthly Weather Review 97 (1969): 163–172.
47. K. E. Trenberth, “General Characteristics of El Niño–Southern Oscillation,” in Teleconnections Linking Worldwide Climate Anomalies: Scientific Basis and Societal Impact, ed. M. H. Glantz, R.W. Katz, and N. Nicholls (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 13–42.
48. K. E. Trenberth, “Signal Versus Noise in the Southern Oscillation,” Monthly Weather Review 112 (1984): 326–332.
49. Walker, “Correlation in Seasonal Variations of Weather. IX”
50. Walker, “Correlation in Seasonal Variations of Weather. VII.”
51. P. J. Lamb and R. A. Peppler, “North Atlantic Oscillation: Concept and an Application,” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 68 (1987): 1218–1225; J. W. Hurrell, “Decadal Trends in the North Atlantic Oscillation: Regional Temperatures and Precipitation,” Science 269 (1995): 676–679; J. W. Hurrell, “Influence of Variations in Extratropical Wintertime Teleconnections on Northern Hemisphere Temperature,” Geophysical Research Letters 23 (1996): 665–668.
52. J. M. Wallace and D. S. Gutzler, “Teleconnections in the Geopotential Height Field During the Northern Hemisphere Winter,” Monthly Weather Review 109 (1981): 784–812.
53. W. Ferrel, An Essay on the Winds and Currents of the Oceans (Nashville, Tenn.: Nashville Journal of Medicine, 1856).
54. Forty-five days, 13 hours, 42 minutes, and 53 seconds, by Loïck Peyron on the trimaran Banque Populaire V, completed on January 6, 2012. http://www.sailspeedrecords.com.
55. P. E. Russell, Prince Henry “The Navigator”: A Life (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2000).
56. N. Mostert, Frontiers (New York: Knopf, 1992).
57. M. Mitchell, Friar Andrés de Urdaneta, O.S.A. (London: Macdonald and Evans, 1964).
58. C. G. Mann, 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created (New York: Knopf, 2012).
59. A. W. Sleeswyk, “Carvel-Planking and Carvel Ships in the North of Europe,” Archaeonautica 14 (1998): 223–228.
61. C. Wunsch, “What Is the Thermohaline Circulation?” Science 298 (2002): 1179–1180.
63. W. S. Broecker, “The Great Ocean Conveyor,” Oceanography 4 (1991): 79–89.
64. W. H. Berger, “The Younger Dryas Cold Spell: A Quest for Causes,” Global and Planetary Change 3 (1990): 219–237.
65. R. B. Alley et al., “Abrupt Increase in Greenland Snow Accumulation at the End of the Younger Dryas Event,” Nature 362 (1993): 527–529.
66. W. S. Broecker, “Was the Younger Dryas Triggered by a Flood?” Science 312 (2006): 1146–1148.
67. I. Eisenman, C. M. Bitz, and E. Tziperman, “Rain Driven by Receding Ice Sheets as a Cause of Past Climate Change,” Paleoceanography 24 (2009): PA4209.
68. Berger, “The Younger Dryas Cold Spell.”
69. R. B. Firestone et al., “Evidence for an Extraterrestrial Impact 12,900 Years Ago That Contributed to the Megafaunal Extinctions and the Younger Dryas Cooling,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (2007): 6016–6021; T. E. Bunch et al., “Very High-Temperature Impact Melt Products as Evidence for Cosmic Airbursts and Impacts 12,900 Years Ago,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109 (2012): E1903–1912.
70. H. N. Pollack, S. J. Hurter, and J. R. Johnson, “Heat Flow from the Earth’s Interior: Analysis of the Global Data Set,” Reviews in Geophysics 30 (1993): 267–280; J. H. Davies and D. R. Davies, “Earth’s Surface Heat Flux,” Solid Earth 1 (2010):5–24.
71. J. Kiehl and K. Trenberth, “Earth’s Annual Global Mean Energy Budget,” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 78 (1997): 197–206.
74. H. Le Treut et al., “Historical Overview of Climate Change,” in Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. S. Solomon, et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 93–127.
77. J.-B. J. Fourier, “Remarques générales sur les températures du globe terrestre et des espaces planétaires,” Annales de Chiie et de Physique, 2nd Series 27 (1824): 136–167; translation by Ebeneser Burgess in American Journal of Science 32 (1837): 1–20.
78. J. R. Fleming, Historical Perspectives on Climate Change (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).
79. S. Arrhenius, “On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air Upon the Temperature of the Ground,” Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, Series 5 41 (1896): 265.
80. J. Uppenbrink, “Arrhenius and Global Warming,” Science 272 (1996): 1122.
81. See Arrhenius, “On the Influence of Carbonic Acid”; summary in Fleming, Historical Perspectives on Climate Change.
82. S. Solomon et al., eds., Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
83. J. E. Kutzbach, “Steps in the Evolution of Climatology: From Descriptive to Analytic,” in Historical Essays on Meteorology, 1919–1995, ed. J. R. Fleming (Boston: American Meteorological Society, 1996), 353–377.
8. MAKING THE GROUND PUT FORTH GRASS: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION
1. K. Schifferdecker, Out of the Whirlwind: Creation Theology in the Book of Job, Harvard Theological Studies 61 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2008).
2. G. M. Tucker, “Rain on a Land Where No One Lives: The Hebrew Bible and the Environment,” Journal of Biblical Literature 116 (1997): 3–17.
4. The standard references are J. Grinnell, “The Niche Relations of the California Thrasher,” Auk 34 (1917): 364–382; J. Grinnell, “Field Tests and Theories Concerning Distributional Control,” American Naturalist 51 (1917): 115–128. However, many of the ideas are presented in the less frequently cited J. Grinnell, “The Origin and the Distribution of the Chestnut-Backed Chickadee,” Auk 21 (1904): 364–382. For early uses of the word in an ecological context, see P. M. Gaffney, “The Roots of the Niche Concept,” American Naturalist 109 (1975): 490; D. L. Cox, “A Note on the Queer History of ‘Niche,’” Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 61 (1980): 201–202. The later references illustrate that the word “niche” was in common use to describe where animals were found. Grinnell formalized the niche concept but did not invent its general use.
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17. For example, see Yāqūt ibn ʿAbd Allāh al-Ḥamawī, The Introductory Chapters of Yāqūt’s Muʿjam al-Buldān (Leiden: Brill, 1959).
18. C. Linnaeus, Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species (Lugduni Batavorum: Haak, 1735).
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20. C. M. von Sternberg, Versuch einer geognostisch-botansuchen Darstellung der Flora der Vorvelt (Leipzig: Fleischer, 1820–1838).
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23. T. Rice, Voyages of Discovery (London: Allen and Unwin, 2010).
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26. G. Blainey, Sea of Dangers: Captain Cook and His Rivals (Sydney: Penguin, 2008).
27. Gilbert, “Banks, Sir Joseph (1743–1820).”
28. Rice, Voyages of Discovery.
29. C. Darwin, Journal of the Researches Into the Natural History and Geology of the Countries Visited During the Voyage of the HMS Beagle Round the World Under the Command of Capt. Fitz Roy, R.N. (London: W. Clowes and Sons, 1860).
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136. Duff (The Moa-Hunter Period of Maori Culture) reports Moa remains on top of tussock grass that dates 23060 BP using the 14C-isotope dating technique. There are other possible post-European records discussed in Anderson, “The Extinction of Moa in Southern New Zealand,” and Trotter and McCulloch, “Moas, Men, and Middens.” There is scientific debate regarding these records. It seems that the moa came tantalizingly close to surviving until European contact. It is highly unlikely that any moas exist today.
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