abolitionism, 6–26; antebellum era, 6–8, 13–14; civil rights movement (twentieth century) and, 14–16; Civil War era, 7, 8–12; debate about progress of, 16–21; military emancipation and, 11, 12–13, 21, 28–29, 30–31, 37, 38, 41; overview, 3; as reform movement, 6
The Abolitionists (Dillon), 16–18
African American soldiers, enlistment of, 9–10
After Appomattox (Downs), 79n18
agrarian protest, White Leagues of Louisiana and, 88, 89–91
Alford, Lorenzo J. W., 42
Allen, Eli, 85
amalgamation. See intermarriage, between Cherokees and whites/blacks
American Anti-Slavery Society (AASS), 7, 8, 10, 12
The American Military Frontiers (Wooster), 69
American Peace Society, 9
American Revolution, black soldiers in, 30
American Tract Society, 42
Antietam, Battle of, 37
Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World (Walker), 7
The Army and Civil Disorder (Cooper), 69
Army Appropriations Act, Section 15 (1878), 66, 67, 69, 71–74
Attucks Guards, 30
Baker, Jean H., 33
Ballots for Freedom (Sewell), 20
Banks, William C., 77
Barnes, Gilbert H., 13–14
Bathurst, Lord, 64
Battle of Antietam, 37
Battle of Bull Run, 9
Battle of Fort Sumter, 8, 30–31
Battle of Fort Wagner, 31
Battle of Liberty Place (New Orleans, September 14, 1874), 84, 90
Beard, Charles, 18–19
Beard, Mary, 18–19
Beecher, Henry Ward, 30
Beyond Garrison (Laurie), 20
Birkhimer, William, 69
Black Abolitionists (Quarles), 21
Blackett, R. J. M., 21
Black Freedom (Mabee), 16–18
The Black Hearts of Men (Stauffer), 20
Blair, William, 67
“Bleeding Kansas,”35
Bradley, Mark, 67
Brandwein, Pamela, 71
Brookings Institute, 70
Brown, John, 8
Browning, Orville Hickman, 33
Building an Antislavery Wall (Blackett), 22
Bull Run, Battle of, 9
Bureau of Colored Troops (U.S. War Department), 39
Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands (Freedmen’s Bureau), 42
Calhoun, John C., 2
“camp schools,” 42
Camp William Penn, 38
Carwardine, Richard, 33
Caucasian (Alexandria, Louisiana), 85–87, 88, 89–90
Cherokee Nation: annuity payments to, 54–55, 57–58; blood quantum (“by blood”) concept, 47; citizenship by birth versus citizenship by law, 53–57; common Indian identity created by, 57–58; eligibility for office of principal chief, 61n38; intermarriage between Cherokees and whites/blacks, 48–49, 50, 51–52, 53, 54, 55–58; land ownership and allotment process, 47; legislative act of April 27, 1886 (citizenship classes), 55–56; matrilineal descent recognized by, 49–50, 52; post–Civil War, overview, 4, 47–48; post–Civil War hierarchy of citizenship, 48–58; Treaty with the Cherokee (1866), 47, 48, 49–50, 52, 53, 55, 56
Chickasaw Nation, 58
Child, Lydia Maria, 11
Choctaw Nation, 58
Cincinnati Gazette, 33
Civil Rights Act of 1964, 18
civil rights movement (twentieth century): abolitionism and, 14–16; posse comitatus and, 64, 67, 69–70, 71, 72, 75, 77
Civil War: overview, 1–5. See also abolitionism; Cherokee Nation; military emancipation; Reconstruction; White Leagues of Louisiana
The Civil War and Reconstruction (Randall), 14
Clarke, James Freeman, 11
class struggle among whites: during antebellum era, 18–19; in South, 88, 89–91
Clay, Cassius M., 13
Coakley, Robert, 70
“coercion by riders,” 66
Colfax Massacre of 1873, 90
Colt, Reverend Samuel F., 42
Committee for Recruiting Colored Troops (Philadelphia), 27, 30, 38–39
compensation: Cherokee Nation and annuity payments, 54–55, 57–58; U.S. Army (1870s), 76; of U.S. Colored Troops (USCT), 4, 27, 39
Compromise of 1877, 67, 68, 70, 73, 75, 76
Conceiving a New Republic (Calhoun), 68
consensus view, of abolitionism, 14
Cooper, Jerry, 69
Cornish, Dudley Taylor, 35, 43
cotton gin, invention of, 7
Coushatta Massacre (August 27, 1874), 84, 85
Craven, Avery O., 14
Curry, Richard O., 23n16
Cushing, Caleb, 64–65
Daily Picayune (New Orleans), 88
Davis, Jefferson, 37
Davis, William C., 29
Dawson, Joseph, 75
Declaration of Sentiments (American Anti-Slavery Society), 7
Delaware tribe of Indians, identity of, 57
democracy: “Democracy and the American Civil War” (Symposium on Democracy, Kent State University), 1; origin of, 5. See also abolitionism; Cherokee Nation; military emancipation; posse comitatus; White Leagues of Louisiana
Democrat (Minden, Louisiana), 90
Democratic Party: posse comitatus policy, 64, 71–76; White Leagues of Louisiana and, 86–87, 89–90, 92n5
Department of the Gulf, 36
Dobak, William A., 39–40
Douglas, Stephen A., 28
Douglass, Frederick, 2, 7, 8, 9–11, 12–13, 20
Dowell, Cassius, 70
Downs, Greg, 79n18
draft riots, in New York City (1863), 38
Dresser, Amos, 12
Duberman, Martin, 19
Dumond, Dwight L., 13–14
Dunning, William A., 86
Dunning School, 71
Earle, Jonathan H., 20
Eisenhower, Dwight, 77
Emancipation Proclamation: abolitionism and, 10, 11–12; events leading to, 29–37; final document released, 29, 37–38; Lincoln’s remarks about, 42; preliminary version of, 29, 37; “self-proclamation process” by escaped slaves, 32. See also military emancipation
England: common law and posse comitatus, 64; U.S. military emancipation and, 32, 37
Enterprise (Franklin, Louisiana), 85
“The Failure of the American Abolitionists” (Dillon), 15
farmers’ protests, White Leagues of Louisiana and, 88, 89–91
Farmer’s Union, 89
The Fiery Trail (Foner), 21
Fifteenth Amendment, 10, 17, 18, 21, 72, 83, 86–87
1st Kansas Colored Volunteers, 36, 40
1st Louisiana Native Guard, 36
1st South Carolina Volunteers, 35, 37
First Confiscation Act, 34
First Indian Home Guard, 35
Fisher, Sidney George, 38
Fitzgerald, Michael, 67
Fleming, Walter L., 86
Fort Leavenworth, 70
Fort Sumter, Battle of, 8, 30–31
Fort Wagner, Battle of, 31
Foster, Abigail Kelley, 11–12
Foster, Stephen S., 9–10, 11–12
Fourteenth Amendment, 10, 17, 18, 21, 72, 83, 86–87
Franklin, John Hope, 29
Freedmen’s Bureau: abolitionism and, 10, 17; inception of, 42
Freedom National (Oakes), 20
Frémont, John C., 35
Friedman, Lawrence J., 19–20
“friendly Indians,” identity of, 57
The Frontier Army in the Settlement of the West (Tate), 69
Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, 30, 64
Gara, Larry, 19
Garrison, William Lloyd, 7–12, 17, 20–21
Glatthaar, Joseph A., 28–29
Goodman, Paul, 20
Gordon, Lesley J., 2
Grange, 89
Green, Alfred M., 30–31
Grew, Mary, 10
Grimké, Sarah, 8
Grimsley, Mark, 2
Guelzo, Allen C., 31
Halleck, Henry, 75–76
Harlan, James, 34
Harpers Ferry, raid on, 8
Hayes, Rutherford B., 65–66, 68, 85
Hickman, Thomas, 90
Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, 37
History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 (Rhodes), 13
Holt, Joseph, 37
Holy Warriors (Stewart), 16–18
Hoogenboom, Ari, 68
Hurricane Katrina, posse comitatus and, 66, 77
“Indian,” as identity label, 57–58
institutionalized racism, military emancipation and, 38
“insurrection,” posse comitatus response to, 70–71
intermarriage, between Cherokees and whites/blacks, 48–49, 50, 51–52, 53, 54, 55–58
Jackson, Andrew, 30
Jacksonian Antislavery and the Politics of Free Soil (Earle), 20
Jacobson, Matthew Frye, 51
Jim Crow laws, 31
Johnston, James H., 51
Jordan, Thomas, 37
Journal of Commerce (New York), 83
Kaczorowski, Robert, 75
Kansas: “Bleeding Kansas,” 35; 1st Kansas Colored Volunteers, 36, 40
Katz, William Loren, 51
Kellogg, William P., 84–85, 87
Kennedy, John F., 75, 77, 82n57
Kentucky, military emancipation and, 32, 36
Kerner, Otto, 17–18
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 15
Knights of the White Camelia, 86
Krause, Allison, 1
Ku Klux Klan, White Leagues compared to, 85–87
Ku Klux Klan Act, 70
Laurie, Bruce, 20
Leavitt, Joshua, 30
“legitimacy” of citizens/children, 60, 61
Letters and Discussion on the Formation of Colored Regiments (Green), 30–31
Lewis, E. T., 84
Lincoln, Abraham: abolitionism and, 8–10, 11, 13, 17, 20–21; early beliefs about slavery, 27–29; election of 1860, 2; Emancipation Proclamation by, 29–37, 42 (see also Emancipation Proclamation; military emancipation); USCT and, 4, 27, 37–43
Louisiana: Hurricane Katrina, 66, 77; Louisiana Farmer’s Union (LFU), 90; Louisiana Heavy Artillery, 36; Louisiana Native Guard (1st, 2nd, 3rd), 36; Reconstruction in, 75–76; White Leagues of Louisiana, 5, 83–94
Mabee, Carleton, 16–18
Marx, Karl, 8
Massachusetts: Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society, 8; Massasoit Guard of, 30; 2nd Massachusetts Volunteer Regiment, 31
matrilineal descent, of Cherokee Nation, 49–50, 52
May, Samuel Joseph, 12
McCarthy, Timothy Patrick, 20
McClernand, John A., 38
McDaniel, W. Caleb, 20–21
McKim, J. Miller, 10
McPherson, James M., 15–16
medal of honor, awarded to U.S. Colored Troops (USCT), 39–40
Military Aid to the Civil Power (Fort Leaven-worth), 70
military emancipation, 27–46; abolitionism and, 11, 12–13, 21, 28–29, 30–31, 37, 38, 41; controversy of armed black soldiers, 29, 30, 32, 33–34, 35, 37–43; events leading to Emancipation Proclamation, 29–37; overview, 3–4, 27–29; USCT and, 4, 27, 37–43
Military Government and Martial Law (Birkhimer), 69
Minnesota Staats-Zeitung, 38
Missouri, Frémont’s “freelance emancipation” in, 35
morality, abolitionism and, 6, 9, 11, 12–13, 15, 17, 19
Morgan, Edmund S., 83
Mussey, Reuben D., 42
National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorder (Kerner Commission), 17–18
National Council (Cherokee Nation), 50, 52, 53, 55, 57
Native Americans: First Indian Home Guard, 35; “Indian” as identity label, 57–58. See also Cherokee Nation
The Negro as a Soldier (Williams), 42–43
“The Negro—His Past and Future” (Caucasian), 85–86
Neither Ballots nor Bullets (Venet), 20
neoabolitionists, 14–15, 18–19, 21
New Departure, of Southern Democratic strategy, 86–87
Newman, Richard M., 20
New Orleans Bulletin, 87
News (Brashear, Louisiana), 89
New York, Attucks Guards of, 30
New York City, draft riots in (1863), 38
Nixon, Richard, 18
“nonviolent abolitionists,” 16–18
North Carolina, posse comitatus, 67
Northern Copperheads, 41
Northwest Ordinance of 1787, 7
Of One Blood (Goodman), 20
Ohio, Attucks Guards of, 30
Ohio National Guardsmen, 1
Oklahoma. See Cherokee Nation Oklahoma University, 2
100th USCT, 42
Origins of the New South (Woodward), 89
pacifism, as tactic of abolitionism, 7–8, 9, 11, 13, 16–18. See also violence
The Peculiar Institution (Stampp), 14–15
Pennsylvania, 12th Volunteer Infantry of, 30
People’s Party, 90
People’s Vindicator (White League newspaper), 87
Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society, 10
Phillips, Wendell, 12
Pillsbury, Parker, 11
Pomeroy, Samuel C., 34
population statistics: Cherokee Nation (1800s), 50, 52–54; slaves, 10; U.S. Colored Troops (USCT), 39–40
populist movement, White Leagues of Louisiana as, 88, 89–91
posse comitatus, 63–82; defined, 64–66; optimistic view of military intervention, 76–77; overview, 4–5, 63–64; “Posse Comitatus Act of 1878,” 65, 66; Reconstruction and, 66–78; study of military history and interpretation of, 68–71; 3rd Enforcement Act, Section 3 (Revised Statute 5299), 67–78
Presbyterian Church of the United States, 42
The Problem of Emancipation (Rugemer), 20
Problem of Slavery in the Age of Democracy (McDaniel), 20–21
Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction (December 1863), 41–42
Prophets of Protest (Stauffer, McCarthy), 20
Quakers, abolition society of, 7
The Radical and the Republican (Oakes), 20
Randall, James G., 14
Reconstruction: abolitionism during, 12–13; Compromise of 1877, 67, 68, 70, 73, 75, 76; Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction (December 1863), 41–42; “Reconstruction amendments,” 10, 17, 18, 21, 72, 83, 86–87; 3rd Enforcement Act, Section 3 (Revised Statute 5299), 67–78; U.S. Army and law enforcement during, 66–78 (see also posse comitatus); White Leagues of Louisiana and, 5, 83–94
Reconstruction (Foner), 67
Reid, John Phillip, 64
Reid, Whitelaw, 33
religious revivalism, abolitionism and, 6–7, 9, 18, 19–20
Republican Party: abolitionism and, 13, 19, 20; posse comitatus policy, 72–76; White Leagues of Louisiana and, 84–87, 89–90
Republican-Populist Party coalition (1892), 90
Revised Statute 5299 (Enforcement Act, Section 3), 67–78
Revised Statutes of the United States, 72
revisionist view, of abolitionism, 14
Rhodes, James Ford, 13
Rice University, 2
Rich, Bennett, 70–71
riots: draft riots in New York City (1863), 38; urban black riots of 1960s, 17–18
Rivers, Prince, 37
Rugemer, Edward B., 20
rural population, White Leagues of Louisiana and, 88, 89–91
Samito, Christian G., 35
Samuel, Henry, 27
Sanborn, John B., 49
Saxton, Rufus, 36
Scott, Donald M., 19–20
2nd Louisiana Native Guard, 36
2nd Massachusetts Volunteer Regiment, 31
2nd USCT, 30
Second Confiscation Act, 29, 34–37
segregation: abolitionism and, 14, 18; school segregation of 1950s, 71; by U.S. War Department, 39. See also civil rights movement (twentieth century)
“self-proclamation process,” by escaped slaves, 32
Seminole Nation, 58
Sewell, Richard H., 20
Shaara, Jeff, 2
Shaw, Robert G., 31
Shawnee tribe of Indians, identity of, 57
Sherman, William Tecumseh, 72
62nd USCT, 40
Skowronek, Stephen, 79n21
slavery: in Cherokee Nation, 49, 50; Civil War issue of, 7, 8–12; Lincoln’s early views about, 27–29; Missouri and Frémont’s “freelance emancipation,” 35; population statistics, 10; racial slavery, overview, 2; “self-proclamation process” by escaped slaves, 32; slaves as “contraband of war,” 34; USCT soldiers considered escaped slaves by Confederacy, 39. See also abolitionism; military emancipation
Slotkin, Richard, 29
Smallwood, Thomas, 7
South Carolina: 1st South Carolina Volunteers, 35, 37; posse comitatus issues, 74, 76
Speed, Joshua, 28
Stampp, Kenneth M., 14–15
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 8–9
Stanton, Henry B., 8–9
Stauffer, John, 20
Stewart, James Brewer, 16–18
The Struggle for Equality (McPherson), 15–16
Symposia on Democracy (Kent State University), 1
Tappan, Lewis, 8
3rd Enforcement Act, Section 3 (Revised Statute 5299), 67–78
3rd Louisiana Native Guard, 36
Thirteenth Amendment, 10, 17, 18, 21, 72, 83, 86–87
Thirteenth Annual Symposium on Democracy (Kent State University), 1
Tilmon, Reverend Levin, 30
Tilton, Theodore, 30
Title 10, U.S. Code, Section 333, 71, 77
Torrey, Charles T., 7
The Transformation of American Abolitionism (Newman), 20
Tucker, A. L., 88
12th Volunteer Infantry, 30
20th USCT, 30
Twitchell, Homer, 85
Twitchell, Marshall H., 85
Uncivil War (Hogue), 67
Underwood, Will, 1
Union League, 39
The United States Army and Reconstruction, 1865–1877 (Sefton), 69
University of Akron, 2
University of Florida, 2
University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 1–2
U.S. Army: Army Appropriations Act, Section 15 (1878), 66, 67, 69, 71–74; as auxiliary law enforcement, 64, 65; Hurricane Katrina and law enforcement by, 66, 77; National Guard deployment to Kent State University (May 4, 1970), 63; pay of, 1870s, 76; Reconstruction and law enforcement by, 66–78. See also posse comitatus
U.S. Code, Section 333, 71, 77
U.S. Colored Troops (USCT): creation of, 37–43; discriminatory treatment and pay of, 4, 27, 39; population statistics of, 39–40. See also military emancipation
U.S. Congress: Army Appropriations Act, Section 15 (1878), 66, 67, 69, 71–74; Compromise of 1877 and Reconstruction, 67, 68, 70, 73, 75, 76 (see also Reconstruction); Lincoln’s addresses to, 41, 42. See also military emancipation; posse comitatus
“The Use of Military Force to Protect the Gains of Reconstruction” (Blair), 67
U.S. Navy, Civil War era, 30, 38
U.S. Supreme Court: posse comitatus influenced by decisions of, 71, 72, 75; Reconstruction amendments interpreted by, 21
U.S. War Department, military emancipation and, 27, 39
Venet, Wendy Hamond, 20
Vindicator (Natchitoches, Louisiana), 86
violence: abolitionist tactics and debate about, 6–10, 11–12, 15, 16–21; posse comitatus and, 68, 70–71, 72–74, 76; White Leagues and, 85–87
Voting Rights Act of 1965, 18
Walker, David, 7
Wallace, George, 18
Walters, Ronald G., 6
War of 1812, black soldiers in, 30
Washington, George, 30
Weekly Mississippi Pilot, 86
Weld, Angelina Grimké, 8
Welles, Gideon, 38
West Wing (television show), 66
White, Leonard, 66
White Leagues of Louisiana, 83–94; ideology of, 85–86; inception of, 84–87; overview, 5, 83–84; as populist movement, 88–91; in rural areas of Louisiana, 88, 89–91
Whitney, Eli, 7
Williams, Henry Llewellyn, 42–43
Women’s National Loyal League, 20
women’s rights, abolitionism and, 10, 17–18, 20
Woodward, C. Vann, 89
Wooster, Robert, 69
Wright, Elizure, 9
Zouave Cadets, 30