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SACKVILLE. Record label established in 1968 in Toronto. Artists include Frank Rosolino, Doc Cheatham, Archie Shepp, and others.

SACRAMENTO DIXIELAND JUBILEE. A jazz festival held every year in Sacramento, California, since 1974. The name has since changed to Sacramento Jazz Jubilee to allow for the inclusion of other jazz styles, and today it is named the Sacramento Music Festival.

ST. CYR, JOHNNY (1890–1966). A guitarist and banjo player, Johnny St. Cyr led some of his own groups before playing in a group led by Freddie Keppard. From 1914 to 1917, St. Cyr played with Kid Ory in addition to local marching bands. From 1918 to 1920 he worked with Fate Marable, briefly in 1923 with King Oliver, and then from 1924 to 1929 with Doc Cook. During this time, St. Cyr recorded as a member of Louis Armstrong’s Hot Five and Hot Seven (1925–1927), and also with Jelly Roll Morton, in addition to accompanying Jimmie Noone. When the Great Depression hit, St. Cyr returned to New Orleans to work as a plasterer while still continuing to play with a number of groups. St. Cyr moved to Los Angeles in 1955 and from 1961 led his own group at Disneyland, the Young Men from New Orleans.

SAINTS AND SINNERS. A Dixieland band formed in 1960 that was active until 1970.

SAMBA. A Brazilian style of music in duple meter with a quick tempo and syncopated rhythms that is associated with popular Brazilian dance. Numerous jazz standards incorporate the Samba style.

SAMPLE, JOSEPH “JOE” (1939– ). A pianist, Joe Sample was a founding member of the Jazz Crusaders while still in high school. Sample would play with the group, which eventually became known simply as the Crusaders, until 1987. In addition, during the late 1960s, Sample worked with Bobby Hutcherson and Harold Land, and during the 1970s as a member of the group L.A. Express. During the 1990s, Sample formed a group known as the Soul Collective and also played in the group Legends.

SAMPSON, EDGAR (1907–1973). A multi-instrumentalist, composer, and arranger, Edgar Sampson played saxophone in many bands during the 1920s, including a brief stint with Duke Ellington. During the 1930s, Sampson played with Fletcher Henderson, Rex Stewart, and Chick Webb, and it was during this time that he began to compose and arrange works for big band, contributing to the bands of Benny Goodman, Artie Shaw, Teddy Wilson, and others. Sampson continued to play from the 1940s on, leading his own big band from 1949 to 1951 and leading small groups from the late 1950s through the early 1960s, in addition to writing music for such varied artists as Tito Puente.

SANBORN, DAVID (1945– ). A saxophonist, David Sanborn has worked for many popular Rock and Rhythm and Blues (R&B) groups including David Bowie, Stevie Wonder, James Taylor, and others. Sanborn has also played with Gil Evans and with the Brecker Brothers, in addition to leading his own groups and recording his own albums, many of which have won Grammy Awards.

SANDERS, PHAROAH (1940– ). A saxophonist, Pharoah Sanders moved to New York in 1962 and started playing with Billy Higgins, Don Cherry, and Sun Ra. From 1965 to 1967, Sanders also worked with John Coltrane, and after Coltrane’s death, he worked with the Jazz Composer’s Orchestra and led his own small group before moving back to California in the early 1970s. Sanders has since mainly led his own groups, and his recordings have spanned a variety of styles including Swing, Disco, Avant-Garde, Bebop, and Rhythm and Blues (R&B). During the 1990s, Sanders recorded with Steve Turre, Wallace Roney, and others.

SANDOVAL, ARTURO (1949– ). A trumpet player, Arturo Sandoval played in groups in Cuba and was a founding member of the Orquesta Cubana de Música Moderna, which became the group Irakere. It was through this group that Sandoval met Dizzy Gillespie, who would later hire Sandoval to play in his United Nations Band. While touring with that group in 1990, Sandoval defected to the United States and has continued to lead his own groups and work as a sideman. Sandoval has performed a wide range of music, from Classical music with the National Symphony Orchestra, to Latin music with Paquito D’Rivera and Tito Puente, to jazz and Bebop with varied groups including the GRP All-Star Big Band, Woody Herman, Stan Getz, Herbie Hancock and others, and Pop music with various popular artists.

SANTAMARÍA, MONGO (1922–2003). A percussionist, Mongo Santamaría was first inspired by Chano Pozo and moved to New York in the late 1940s. From 1951 to 1957, Santamaría played with Tito Puente, from 1957 to 1961 with Cal Tjader, and from 1961 on he led his own groups that included such notable sidemen as Chick Corea and Hubert Laws. Santamaría scored a Top 10 hit with his version of Herbie Hancock’s “Watermelon Man” in 1962.

SAUTER, EDDIE (1914–1981). A composer and arranger, Eddie Sauter arranged music for Red Norvo’s groups during the 1930s. From the late 1930s on, Sauter wrote music for Benny Goodman, Artie Shaw, Woody Herman, Tommy Dorsey, Ray McKinley, and others. During the 1950s, Sauter led his own big band and later arranged music for Stan Getz.

SAVOY BALLROOM. The Savoy Ballroom opened in 1926 and was located on Lenox Avenue in Harlem. The Savoy was one of the first racially integrated public places in the country. Boasting two stages, it was the scene of numerous occasions of battling bands in which each band performed, the winner being determined by the public. Major bands that performed there include the Chick Webb Orchestra and the Benny Goodman Orchestra, and later, Bebop greats Dizzy Gillespie, Charlie Parker, and others. It is memorialized by the jazz classic of Edgar Sampson, “Stompin’ at the Savoy.” See also BATTLE OF BANDS.

SAXOPHONE. A family of reed instruments (soprano, alto, tenor, and baritone) utilized prominently in jazz. Important jazz saxophone players include Coleman Hawkins, Lester Young, Charlie Parker, John Coltrane, Gerry Mulligan, and many others. See also ALTO SAXOPHONE; BARITONE SAXOPHONE; HONK; SOPRANO SAXOPHONE; TENOR SAXOPHONE.

SCAT. A style of vocal improvisation in which a vocalist uses nonsensical syllables to create a solo. Originally attributed to Louis Armstrong, the style has since been adopted by many jazz vocalists, notably Ella Fitzgerald, Betty Carter, and Sarah Vaughan, among others. See also JEFFERSON, EDDIE; MURPHY, MARK; TORMÉ, MEL; VOCALESE.

SCHNEIDER, MARIA (1960– ). A composer and bandleader, Maria Schneider was first apprenticed to Gil Evans and Bob Brookmeyer. While studying with Brookmeyer, Schneider wrote music for the Mel Lewis Orchestra. Schneider founded a band with John Fedchock in 1988, and in 1991 she was the recipient of the Gil Evans Fellowship Award. From 1993, Schneider has led her own big band in New York City and has been the recipient of two Grammy Awards and nine Grammy Award nominations.

SCHULLER, GUNTHER (1925– ). An educator, writer, composer, and conductor, Gunther Schuller first became interested in jazz after hearing Duke Ellington. In 1949, Schuller played French horn on Miles Davis’ Birth of the Cool, and during the 1950s he wrote music for the Modern Jazz Quartet. Since then, Schuller has been active in the Third Stream genre, a term he invented to describe the intersection of jazz and Classical music. Schuller is the author of several texts on jazz history, including Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development and The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 1930–1945.

SCOFIELD, JOHN (1951– ). A guitarist, John Scofield first achieved jazz notoriety performing with Gerry Mulligan and Chet Baker in 1974. Scofield went on to perform with Billy Cobham, Charles Mingus, Jay McShann, Ron Carter, Lee Konitz, Steve Swallow, and others during the remainder of the 1970s. Scofield joined Miles Davis from 1982 to 1985, and from 1985, Scofield has led his own groups, which have included Joe Lovano, Dennis Irwin, Randy Brecker, Dave Holland, and others. See also ELECTRIC GUITAR; GUITAR.

SCOOP. A musical technique where the performer starts a note under the pitch and bends it up to the correct pitch.

SCOTT, TOM (1948– ). A saxophonist and composer, Tom Scott formed the group L.A. Express in 1973, and over the years his sidemen in the group have included Steve Gadd and Joe Sample. In addition to leading his own groups, Scott has performed or recorded with Gerry Mulligan, Tony Williams, Woody Herman, and the GRP Big Band. Scott has been extremely active as composer for television and film, with credits including Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, Beretta, and many others.

SEBESKY, DON (1937– ). A trombonist, composer, and arranger, Don Sebesky played with Kai Winding, Claude Thornhill, Maynard Ferguson, and in Tommy Dorsey’s band during the 1950s. During the late 1950s, Sebesky worked as a composer and arranger for Ferguson, Stan Kenton, and Gerry Mulligan. From the 1960s on, Sebesky has worked mostly as a composer and arranger, writing music for Wes Montgomery, Buddy Rich, Freddie Hubbard, and others, in addition to his own big band. He has since become more active in education and lecturing, and he published a popular book on jazz arranging, The Contemporary Arranger.

SESSION. In jazz vernacular, a term used to describe any time when musicians get together to play, as in a jam session or recording session.

SET. In jazz vernacular, a term used to describe the collection of tunes to be played at a performance, or also to describe a portion of a performance usually split up by breaks.

SEVERINSEN, CARL “DOC” (1927– ). A trumpet player and bandleader, Doc Severinsen played in the bands of Charlie Barnet, Sam Donahue, and Tommy Dorsey during the late 1940s. From 1949, Severinsen worked as a studio musician, and in 1962 he became assistant conductor of the NBC Tonight Show band, taking over complete leadership in 1967. Severinsen remained with the show until 1992 and since has been active as a guest artist and conductor with symphony orchestras, led his own groups, and performed in reunion shows with other members of the Tonight Show band. He was touring as recently as 2012.

SHAKE. An instrumental technique where the pitch of a note is moved rapidly back and forth to a higher one; this can be accomplished in the same manner as a trill or, on a brass instrument, with very rapid lip trills (using either a quick lip slur or actually shaking the instrument).

SHAKTI. A Fusion band formed by John McLaughlin in 1973. The band mixed jazz with the music of India and was mainly active during the 1970s, with reunion performances in 1985 and 1997.

SHANK, CLIFFORD EVERETT “BUD” (1926–2009). A saxophonist and flutist, Bud Shank played with Charlie Barnet on the West Coast from 1946 to 1948, and then with Stan Kenton from 1950 to 1952. His career was briefly interrupted when he was drafted in 1952, but upon his return to Los Angeles he played with Howard Rumsey’s Lighthouse All-Stars from 1953 to 1955, in addition to recording with Gerry Mulligan and Chet Baker. From 1956 he led his own group and freelanced in the Los Angeles area, and in 1974 he formed the group L.A. Four with Ray Brown; later sidemen would include Jeff Hamilton. During the 1980s, Shank played with Baker, Shorty Rogers, and in a reunion of the Lighthouse All-Stars, in addition to leading his own groups throughout the 1990s.

SHARON, RALPH (1923– ). A pianist and arranger, Ralph Sharon worked with Ted Heath during the late 1940s before moving to the United States in 1953. During the 1950s, Sharon played with Charles Mingus, Kenny Clarke, Milt Hinton, and others before becoming the musical director for Tony Bennett in 1956, a post which he held for more than 40 years. Sharon also worked as an accompanist for Rosemary Clooney and Mel Tormé, in addition to leading his own groups.

SHAUGHNESSY, ED(WIN THOMAS) (1929– ). A drummer, Ed Shaughnessy worked with George Shearing, Jack Teagarden, Charlie Ventura, and others during the late 1940s. During the 1950s, Shaughnessy played with Zoot Sims, Roy Eldridge, Charles Mingus, Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Tommy Dorsey, among others, in addition to working for the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS). During the 1960s, Shaughnessy played with Count Basie, Oliver Nelson, Clark Terry, Johnny Hodges, and many others, and in 1964 he joined the NBC Tonight Show band. Shaughnessy has continued to play in bands led by Doc Severinsen after the Tonight Show band was replaced in 1992, in addition to leading his own groups and working as a teacher.

SHAVERS, CHARLIE (1917–1971). A trumpet player, Charlie Shavers played while still young in a trumpet section with Dizzy Gillespie. During the late 1930s, Shavers played with Lucky Millinder before achieving notoriety with John Kirby in 1937. Shavers left Kirby’s group in 1944 and became the featured trumpet soloist in Tommy Dorsey’s band, a position that he would hold intermittently into the 1950s. During the 1950s and 1960s, Shavers also played with Benny Goodman, Louie Bellson, Frank Sinatra, and Jazz at the Philharmonic, in addition to leading his own groups.

SHAW, ARTIE (1910–2004). A clarinetist, bandleader, and composer, Artie Shaw played in bands in Connecticut and Cleveland before moving to New York in 1929. Shaw played regularly at jam sessions during the early 1930s and recorded with Teddy Wilson before quitting music from 1934 to 1935. Shaw formed a short-lived group in the mid-1930s with the instrumentation of a string quartet, rhythm section, and clarinet, but by 1937 he had disbanded the group and formed a more traditional big band. Members of his band included Buddy Rich, Billie Holiday, and Georgie Auld, and in 1938 the band had a huge hit with “Begin the Beguine”; other hits, including “Moonglow” and “Stardust,” followed.

Shaw disbanded the group in 1939, and in 1940 he recorded his hit “Frenesi” with a studio orchestra. He formed his group Gramercy Five and re-formed his big band with an additional string section shortly thereafter, only to disband the groups again after a few months. During World War II, Shaw led a group for the U.S. Navy, and in 1944 he formed a new band that featured Roy Eldridge. Shaw continued to found and then disband groups throughout the rest of the 1940s and 1950s, finally retiring permanently from playing music in 1954. Shaw worked as a writer and educator through the rest of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, and in 1983 he again organized a big band which was nominally led by clarinetist Dick Johnson, although Shaw occasionally appeared as conductor.

SHAW, ARVELL (1923–2002). A bassist, Arvell Shaw played with Fate Marable in 1942 before his career was interrupted by military service. After leaving the service in 1945, Shaw began a long association with Louis Armstrong that would last intermittently until 1971. In addition to his time with Armstrong, Shaw played with Benny Goodman, Sidney Bechet, Coleman Hawkins, and others during the 1950s, and Teddy Wilson, Wild Bill Davison, and others during the 1960s. During the 1970s, Shaw worked with Earl Hines and others, and from the 1980s he worked in pit orchestras on Broadway, in addition to appearing with Lionel Hampton’s Golden Men of Jazz and in Keith Smith’s “The Wonderful World of Louis Armstrong” tour.

SHAW, WOODY (1944–1989). A trumpet player, Woody Shaw worked with Eric Dolphy in 1963 before moving to Europe for a few years, where he worked with Bud Powell, Kenny Clarke, and others. Shaw returned to the United States in 1965, joining Horace Silver and later McCoy Tyner and Max Roach. During the 1970s, Shaw played with Art Blakey’s Jazz Messengers in addition to leading his own bands which included Joe Henderson, Bobby Hutcherson, and others, and featured Dexter Gordon during his homecoming tour in 1976. Shaw continued to lead his own groups in the 1980s, but problems related to drug addiction haunted him until his untimely death in 1989.

SHEARING, GEORGE (1919–2011). A Canadian pianist, George Shearing was born blind and was inspired to play jazz by recordings of Fats Waller, Teddy Wilson, and Art Tatum. Shearing moved to the United States in 1947 and led his own quintet using guitar, vibraphones, bass, and drums; sidemen in the groups included Cal Tjader, Joe Pass, and Israel Crosby. Shearing continued to lead the quintet until 1967, thereafter appearing with trios and duos, as soloist, and also with singers including Carmen McRae and Mel Tormé. Shearing is known for his distinctive “locked hands” style and also for his popular composition “Lullaby of Birdland.”

SHELDON, JACK (1931– ). A trumpet player and vocalist, Jack Sheldon played with many of the best jazz musicians on the West Coast during the 1950s, including Howard Rumsey’s Lighthouse All-Stars, Art Pepper, Wardell Gray, Dexter Gordon, Jimmy Giuffre, Stan Kenton, and others. From 1959 to 1960, Sheldon worked with Benny Goodman, but during the 1960s his career turned to stand-up comedy and acting. During the 1970s and 1980s, Sheldon led his own small groups in addition to playing in bands led by Bill Berry, Goodman, and Woody Herman, and from the 1990s, he has led his own big band. He continues to perform today.

SHEPP, ARCHIE (1937– ). A saxophonist, Archie Shepp moved to New York in 1959 and joined Cecil Taylor from 1960 to 1961. During the early to mid-1960s, Shepp played with Bill Dixon, Don Cherry (in the group New York Contemporary Five), and John Coltrane before leading his own groups from 1965 on. Originally an advocate of Free Jazz, Shepp has since broadened his stylistic horizons to include more conventional ideas.

SHEROCK, CLARENCE “SHORTY” (1915–1980). A trumpet and cornet player, Shorty Sherock played with Ben Pollack before joining Jimmy Dorsey during the late 1930s. From the late 1930s through the mid-1940s, Sherock played with Gene Krupa, Tommy Dorsey, and Horace Heidt, and during the mid-1940s, Sherock led his own band in addition to performing with Jazz at the Philharmonic. From the 1950s on, Sherock worked freelance and as a studio musician, and he was active until 1979.

SHEW, BOBBY (1941– ). A trumpet player, Bobby Shew played with the bands of Tommy Dorsey, Woody Herman, Benny Goodman, and Buddy Rich during the middle to late 1960s. After several years playing trumpet in Las Vegas, Shew moved to Los Angeles and began work as a studio musician, also working as a member of the Toshiko Akiyoshi–Lew Tabackin Big Band and other bands led by Louie Bellson, Don Menza, Ed Shaughnessy, and others. From the 1980s, Shew has appeared primarily in small-group settings, and he has remained active as a clinician and educator.

SHIELDS, LARRY (1893–1953). A clarinet player, Larry Shields joined Nick LaRocca’s band at the young age of 15. From 1916 to 1921, he played in the Original Dixieland Jazz Band and participated in the first jazz recording in 1917. Shields later played with Paul Whiteman, and during the 1930s he re-formed the Original Dixieland Jazz Band with different members for various tours and performances.

SHIHAB, SAHIB (1925–1989). A saxophonist, Sahib Shihab played with Fletcher Henderson and Roy Eldridge during the mid-1940s. From 1947 into the 1950s, Shihab played with Art Blakey, Thelonious Monk, Tadd Dameron, Dizzy Gillespie, John Coltrane, and others. Shihab settled in Europe after touring there with Quincy Jones from 1959 to 1960, writing a jazz ballet in 1965 based on “The Red Shoes.” Shihab continued to perform until his death in 1989.

SHORTER, WAYNE (1933– ). A saxophonist and composer, Wayne Shorter played with Horace Silver before his burgeoning career was interrupted by military service in 1956. After returning from service, Shorter played with Maynard Ferguson before joining Art Blakey’s Jazz Messengers from 1959 to 1964. Shorter joined Miles Davis from 1964 to 1970, and in 1970, Shorter and Joe Zawinul founded the group Weather Report, with which he performed into the 1980s. During the 1970s, Shorter also performed with Herbie Hancock and Freddie Hubbard in Hancock’s V.S.O.P. Since the mid-1980s, Shorter has led various small groups. Among Shorter’s well-known compositions are the tunes “E.S.P.,” “Footprints,” and “Nefertiti.” He continues to perform in concert and at jazz festivals.

SHOUT. In jazz parlance, the section of music for big band that features the entire band playing together, typically in the same rhythms and led by trumpets in the upper register.

SHUFFLE. A specific rhythmic style associated with jazz and Blues where eighth notes are played in more of a dotted eighth–sixteenth note feel as opposed to the eighth-note triplet feel of Swing.

SIDEMAN. A term used to describe the musician(s) who are not leading or fronting a group. Frequently, musicians will assume sideman roles before they begin leading their own groups. Significant sidemen in the history of jazz include performers who apprenticed with a given musician for several years before then developing into an important artist. Musicians such as John Coltrane and Cannonball Adderley each spent several years as a sideman working under Miles Davis before fronting their own bands. Many rhythm section players, including Paul Chambers, Hank Jones, Freddie Green, Sonny Payne, and Walter Davis worked primarily as sidemen throughout most of their careers.

SILVER, HORACE (1928– ). A pianist and composer, Horace Silver’s first gig was with Stan Getz from 1950 to 1951. Silver then moved to New York and during the 1950s played with Art Blakey, Coleman Hawkins, Lou Donaldson, Lester Young, and others, co-leading the Jazz Messengers with Blakey before forming his own quintet in 1956. Silver has continued to lead his own groups with sidemen over the years that have included Blue Mitchell, Art Farmer, Joe Henderson, Tom Harrell, Woody Shaw, Hank Mobley, and Randy and Michael Brecker, and he was active through the 1990s. Also a noted composer, Silver’s most famous jazz compositions include “The Preacher,” “Song for My Father,” and “Peace.” See also HARD BOP; SOUL JAZZ.

SIMMONS, JOHN (1918–1979). A bassist, John Simmons originally played trumpet but switched later to the bass. Simmons’s first gigs were with Nat “King” Cole during the 1930s, and he recorded with Teddy Wilson in 1937. During the 1940s, Simmons worked with a number of musicians, among them Roy Eldridge, Benny Goodman, Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Hot Lips Page, Billie Holiday, Coleman Hawkins, Ben Webster, Benny Carter, Thelonious Monk, and many others. During the 1950s, Simmons played with Sonny Stitt, Eddie “Lockjaw” Davis, Louie Bellson, Buddy Rich, Art Tatum, Maynard Ferguson, and Harry Edison before illness interrupted his career in the 1960s.

SIMS, ZOOT (1925–1985). A saxophonist and bandleader, John “Zoot” Sims worked early in a few bands, including Benny Goodman’s, before his career was interrupted by military service from 1944 to 1946. After leaving the army, Sims played again with Goodman before achieving fame as a member of the Four Brothers saxophone section in Woody Herman’s band, with whom he would perform from 1947 to 1949. Sims spent the rest of 1949–1950 with Artie Shaw, and during the 1950s, Sims played with Goodman, Roy Eldridge, Stan Kenton, and Gerry Mulligan, and co-led a group with Al Cohn. During the 1960s and 1970s, Sims continued to perform on and off with Goodman and Herman, in addition to leading his own groups. Sims was active into the 1980s.

SINATRA, FRANK (1915–1998). A singer and actor, Frank Sinatra was inspired to sing after hearing Bing Crosby in 1933, and in 1935 he was awarded first prize in the Major Bowes Amateur Hour as a member of the group Hoboken Four. Sinatra toured with the group briefly and appeared on radio for the next few years until he joined Harry James from 1939 to 1940. Sinatra then joined Tommy Dorsey from 1940 to 1942, during which time he became extremely popular, with hits including “Imagination,” “Violets for Your Furs,” and “Polka Dots and Moonbeams.”

By 1943, Sinatra decided to capitalize on his popularity by quitting Dorsey’s band to pursue a solo career, which was wildly successful for the next several years as he made several records and appeared in many films. A lull in his popularity in the early 1950s was averted after his Academy Award–winning appearance in the film From Here to Eternity. His recording career was resurrected soon after, signing with Capitol Records in 1953 and making several extremely successful albums during the 1950s including In the Wee Small Hours (1955), Songs for Swingin’ Lovers (1956), and Come Fly with Me (1958). During the 1960s he continued to make hit records, in addition to forming his own record label, Reprise, on which he recorded with Count Basie and Duke Ellington. Sinatra briefly retired in 1971 but resumed touring in 1973 and was active until 1995. An extremely popular singer, Sinatra transcended music and moved to the realm of cultural icon.

SINGING. The act of creating a melody using one’s voice as the instrument. In jazz, popular or important singers and vocalists are numerous, including Louis Armstrong, Betty Carter, Ella Fitzgerald, Billie Holiday, and Diana Krall. See also BENSON, GEORGE; BEY, ANDY; CALLOWAY, CAB; CLOONEY, ROSEMARY; ECKSTINE, WILLIAM “BILLY”; GILBERTO, ASTRUD; HARTMAN, JOHNNY; HENDRICKS, JON; JARREAU, AL; McFERRIN, BOBBY; McRAE, CARMEN; MILLS BROTHERS; MERRILL, HELEN; MURPHY, MARK; PRIMA, LOUIS; RAINEY, MA; ROSS, ANNEBELLE “ANNIE”; RUSHING, JIMMY; SCAT; SINATRA, FRANK; SMITH, BESSIE; TORMÉ, MEL; VAUGHAN, SARAH; VOCALESE; WASHINGTON, DINAH; WATERS, ETHEL; WILLIAMS, JOE.

SITAR. An instrument in the lute family that is fretted and associated with India and South Asia. It has been incorporated into jazz at times by Miles Davis, John Scofield, and others.

SIT IN. In jazz parlance, a term that refers to a musician performing with a group of which he/she is not a regular member, including impromptu performances.

SLAP BASS. This term can refer to either pulling the strings of a double bass extremely hard (causing the strings to “slap” back to the instrument), or to the practice of actually “slapping” the bass with the thumb or hand while plucking the strings with other fingers. Milt Hinton is considered to have been one of the masters of this technique.

SMEAR. An instrumental technique involving bending the pitch of a note downward and then back to the original pitch.

SMITH, BESSIE (1894–1937). A singer, Bessie Smith began singing in the same minstrel show as Ma Rainey during the early 1910s. In 1923, she had a hit with “Downhearted Blues” and almost immediately became one of the most popular Blues singers of the time. From 1923 on, she recorded with a number of artists including Louis Armstrong, James P. Johnson, Fletcher Henderson, and many others, but her career was eventually curtailed by the advent of the Great Depression. Often referred to as “Empress of the Blues,” Smith attempted a comeback during the 1930s that featured a recording session with Jack Teagarden and Benny Goodman before dying as the result of a car accident in 1937.

SMITH, CHARLIE (1927–1966). A drummer, Charlie Smith worked with Ella Fitzgerald in 1948. During the late 1940s and the 1950s, Smith played with George Shearing, Benny Goodman, Oscar Peterson, Artie Shaw, Charlie Parker, and Dizzy Gillespie, among others. During the 1960s, Smith worked mostly as a composer and educator.

SMITH, CLADYS “JABBO” (1908–1991). A trumpeter and a singer, Jabbo Smith played in bands in Philadelphia and New York during the 1920s, and in 1927 he recorded with Duke Ellington on his piece “Black and Tan Fantasy.” For the rest of the 1920s, Smith played with James P. Johnson and Fats Waller, moving to Chicago in 1928. In Chicago, Smith played with Earl Hines and led his own bands, making several noteworthy records with his group the Rhythm Aces. Smith continued to perform until briefly retiring in Milwaukee, and then came out of retirement during the 1960s and continued to perform into the 1980s.

SMITH, HENRY “BUSTER” (1904–1991). A clarinetist, saxophonist, and arranger, Buster Smith played in groups in Texas before joining Walter Page’s territory band in Oklahoma in 1925. During the middle to late 1920s, the band included many musicians who would later go on to play with Bennie Moten, including Count Basie and Hot Lips Page. In 1931, Smith assumed leadership of the band, now known as the 13 Original Blue Devils, featuring saxophonist Lester Young. In 1933, Smith disbanded the group and moved to Kansas City where he joined Moten’s band and later, after Moten’s death, joined Basie’s band. Smith remained in Kansas City after Basie took his band to New York in the late 1930s, eventually forming his own group that would feature Charlie Parker. In 1938, Smith moved to New York and worked as an arranger for Basie, Benny Carter, and others. He moved to Dallas in 1942 and continued to play, later on bass and piano, well into the 1980s. Smith is recognized as an early influence on Parker.

SMITH, JIMMY (1925–2005). An organist, Jimmy Smith started playing the Hammond B3 organ in 1953, and by 1955 he had formed his own trio and was recording albums for Blue Note Records. Over the years, Smith recorded with a wide variety of sidemen, including Donald Bailey, Kenny Burrell, Stanley Turrentine, Lee Morgan, Lou Donaldson, Wes Montgomery, and others. Smith continued playing into the 2000s and is generally viewed as perhaps the most influential jazz organist to ever play the instrument. See also HAMMOND ORGAN; ORGAN.

SMITH, JOHNNY (1922– ). A guitarist, Johnny Smith was a studio musician during the late 1940s and early 1950s before he formed a group and recorded the critically acclaimed album Moonlight in Vermont with Stan Getz in 1952. Smith continued to lead groups and record throughout the 1950s, including playing under the name Sir Jonathon Gasser on the album Jazz Studio in 1953 with Bennie Green and Kenny Clarke. Smith moved to Colorado Springs, Colorado, during the 1960s and became the owner of a music store.

SMITH, LONNIE LISTON (1940– ). A pianist, Lonnie Liston Smith moved to New York in 1962 and started working with Betty Carter. During the rest of the 1960s and into the 1970s, Smith worked with Max Roach, Roland Kirk, Art Blakey, Joe Williams, Pharoah Sanders, and others before landing with Miles Davis in 1973. He recorded two CDs with Davis, On the Corner and Big Fun. After leaving Davis’ group, Smith formed the group Cosmic Echoes with his brother in 1974, a group that performed into the 1990s. He remains active as a performer at jazz festivals and jazz clubs worldwide.

SMITH, MARVIN “SMITTY” (1961– ). A drummer, Marvin “Smitty” Smith played in the bands of Jon Hendricks, Frank Foster, Kevin Eubanks, and others during the 1980s, in addition to freelance appearances with Slide Hampton, Bobby Watson, Archie Shepp, Terrence Blanchard, Branford Marsalis, Ray Brown, Ron Carter, Sonny Rollins, the Jazztet, and many others. Smith joined the NBC Tonight Show band led by Eubanks in 1995 and has remained active as a studio musician since then.

SMITH, PINE TOP (1904–1929). A pianist, Clarence “Pine Top” Smith was discovered during the 1920s and recorded albums in the late 1920s in Chicago. Of those recordings, “Pine Top’s Boogie-Woogie” is his best known, simultaneously naming and popularizing the genre of Boogie-Woogie. Smith died from a gunshot wound from a stray bullet.

SMITH, RUSSELL (1890–1966). A trumpet player, Russell Smith moved to New York in 1910, and from 1925 to 1941 he was the lead trumpet player for the band of Fletcher Henderson. During this time, Smith also played with Benny Carter and Horace Henderson. After leaving Fletcher Henderson’s group, Smith played with Cab Calloway from 1941 to 1946 and Noble Sissle from 1946 to 1950. Smith resided in California from the 1950s until his death, working primarily as a teacher.

SMITH, STUFF (1909–1967). A singer and violin player, Hezekiah “Stuff” Smith worked with many bands, including a brief stint with Jelly Roll Morton, before forming his own band in the mid-1930s that included Cozy Cole and performed regularly at the Onyx Club in New York. Forced to disband the group due to bankruptcy, Smith re-formed other groups and even took over Fats Waller’s band for a short time in the early 1940s after Waller died. During the 1940s and early 1950s, Smith’s career was seemingly in decline before being revived by a group of records released in 1957. Smith continued to play and tour throughout most of the 1960s, eventually residing in Europe.

SMITH, WILLIE “THE LION” (1887–1973). A pianist, Willie “the Lion” Smith earned his nickname as a soldier during World War I. Although well known to fellow musicians including Fats Waller and Duke Ellington, Smith toiled in relative obscurity in New York until the mid-1930s, when Decca released a series of albums that displayed his mastery of the Stride technique. Smith continued to lead groups, record, perform, and tour into the early 1970s.

SMOOTH JAZZ. A term used to describe a style of jazz that combines jazz-influenced phrasing and improvising with adult/contemporary Pop music styles. Smooth jazz rarely spotlights improvisation, instead focusing on melodic material that was inspired or taken directly from Pop music in these genres. This style became prominent in the late 1970s. Smooth jazz artists include saxophonists Kenny G and David Sanborn, and guitarist George Benson, who had commercial success with releases including “This Masquerade” and “Breezin’.”

SNOWDEN, ELMER (1900–1973). A banjoist, saxophonist, and bandleader, Elmer Snowden moved to New York in 1923 and formed the Washingtonians, a band that also featured Duke Ellington and Bubber Miley. Ellington soon became the leader of the group, and it formed the nucleus of his own very successful orchestra. Snowden continued to lead his own bands during the 1920s and 1930s and employed many great jazz musicians including Jimmie Lunceford, Count Basie, Rex Stewart, Benny Carter, Chick Webb, Roy Eldridge, Sid Catlett, and many others. Snowden continued to lead bands throughout the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, although he retired from music for a bit during the 1950s and worked as a parking lot attendant. See also BANJO.

SOCIETY BAND. A term applied to dance bands that were typically employed by wealthy patrons. Society bands generally performed a lighter, less aggressive Swing style.

SOLO. See IMPROVISATION.

SOLOFF, LEW(IS) MICHAEL (1944– ). A trumpet player, Lew Soloff graduated from the Eastman School of Music in 1965 and spent the next few years working with many musicians in New York including Gil Evans, Maynard Ferguson, Joe Henderson (in his rehearsal big band), Slide Hampton, Chuck Mangione, Machito, Tito Puente, and others. In 1968, Soloff replaced Randy Brecker in the group Blood, Sweat and Tears, with whom he would play until 1973. During the 1970s, Soloff played with the Thad Jones–Mel Lewis Orchestra and the Gil Evans Orchestra, freelanced and recorded with Stanley Turrentine and Sonny Stitt, and co-led a group with Jon Faddis. During the 1980s and 1990s, Soloff played with the Manhattan Jazz Quintet, the Manhattan Jazz Orchestra, the Carnegie Hall Jazz Band, the Lincoln Center Jazz Band, and the Mingus Big Band. He remains active as an educator and performer.

SONET. Record label founded in 1956. Artists include Zoot Sims, Warne Marsh, Archie Shepp, Benny Carter, and others.

SOPH, ED(WARD B.) (1945– ). A drummer, Ed Soph toured with Stan Kenton during his summers while a student at North Texas State University during the 1960s, and after graduation he played drum set with Woody Herman from 1968 to 1971. Soph moved to New York in 1971 and spent the 1970s working freelance and also with Bill Watrous, Clark Terry, and Dave Liebman. Soph has taught at the University of North Texas since the 1980s.

SOPRANO SAXOPHONE. An instrument in the saxophone family, pitched in the key of B and above the alto saxophone. Notable performers include John Coltrane, Sidney Bechet, Branford Marsalis, and David Liebman.

SOPRANO SUMMIT. Group formed by Bob Wilbur and Kenny Davern in 1972 that was active until 1979.

SOUL JAZZ. A style of jazz that became prominent in the early 1960s and is sometimes considered synonymous with Hard Bop. Soul Jazz is considered to be a style that emphasizes the groove, or rhythmic pulse, that is occurring behind the melody. Often this pulse is more of a straight eighth-note feel that is reminiscent of similar pulses found in Gospel, Rhythm and Blues (R&B), and Blues music. Groups like the Jazz Crusaders are credited with performing in the Soul Jazz style. See also TURRENTINE, STANLEY.

SOUL NOTE. A record label founded in 1979. Artists include Art Farmer, Paul Motian, and others.

SPANIER, FRANCIS JOSEPH JULIAN “MUGGSY” (1906–1967). A cornet player, Muggsy Spanier’s first gig was with Elmer Schoebel in 1920. During the 1920s, Spanier played in various bands, and by 1929 he was working with Ted Lewis, with whom he played until 1936, when he left to join Ben Pollack. Spanier formed his own bands from the late 1930s on, including the Ragtime Band. During the 1940s, he played with Sidney Bechet, Bob Crosby, Miff Mole, and others. During the 1950s, he appeared with Earl Hines, retiring from music in 1964.

SPHERE. A Thelonious Monk tribute band formed in 1982 by Charlie Rouse that was active until 1988. See also BARRON, KENNY; RILEY, BEN.

SPIKES’ SEVEN PODS OF PEPPER. A name used by Kid Ory’s Original Creole Jazz Band during recordings in the early 1920s.

SPIRITS OF RHYTHM. A band formed in 1929 by Wilbur Daniels, Douglas Daniels, and Leo Watson. All three played the tiple, a guitar-like instrument, and the band, which expanded to include guitar and percussion during the 1930s, performed frequently at the Onyx nightclub.

SPIVAK, CHARLIE (1907–1982). A trumpet player and bandleader, Charlie Spivak worked with Paul Specht during the 1920s. During the 1930s, Spivak played with Ben Pollack, the Dorsey brothers, Ray Noble, and Bob Crosby, in addition to working as a studio musician. During the 1940s, Spivak led his own band, which was bankrolled by Glenn Miller, and after that group disbanded he led another band into the 1950s.

SPONTANEOUS MUSIC ENSEMBLE. A group formed in Great Britain in 1965. Members included Kenny Wheeler and Dave Holland, and the group was primarily associated with Free Jazz.

SPOTLITE. A record label and company established in 1968. Artists include Charlie Parker (reissues of the sessions on Dial) and Art Pepper, among many others.

SPROLES, VICTOR (1927– ). A bassist, Victor Sproles played with Coleman Hawkins, Ira Sullivan, Charlie Parker, Wardell Gray, Lester Young, Dexter Gordon, Stan Getz, Sun Ra, Eddie “Lockjaw” Davis, and others during the 1950s. During the 1960s, Sproles played with Carmen McRae, Art Blakey’s Jazz Messengers, and Lee Morgan. Sproles continued to perform and record into the 1980s. See also BASS.

SPYRO GYRA. A Jazz-Rock Fusion group founded in 1974 by Jay Beckenstein and Jeremy Wall. Among their many successful albums is Morning Dance (1979). The group remains active into the 2010s.

SQUADRONAIRES. The name given to the Royal Air Force’s dance band formed in 1940. After World War II, the group continued to play, eventually becoming a civilian group that remained active until 1964.

STAMM, MARVIN (1939– ). A trumpet player, Marvin Stamm had his first notable gigs with Stan Kenton during the early 1960s. Stamm then played with Woody Herman, the Thad Jones–Mel Lewis Orchestra, Duke Pearson, Chick Corea, and others in addition to working as a studio musician. During the 1970s, Stamm led his own groups and worked with Benny Goodman and Frank Sinatra, and during the 1980s he was a founding member of the Bob Mintzer Big Band and appeared with the American Jazz Orchestra and with George Gruntz. During the 1990s, Stamm played with Maria Schneider and Louie Bellson, and since then he has regularly toured and played with a variety of groups, often accompanied by Bill Mays on piano.

STARR, KAY (1922– ). A vocalist, Kay Starr sang with Glenn Miller and Bob Crosby during the late 1930s, but she achieved fame when she sang with Charlie Barnet from 1943 to 1945. During this time she also sang with the Capitol Jazzmen, which included Coleman Hawkins, Benny Carter, Nat “King” Cole, and Max Roach. From 1948, Starr worked on her own or as leader of a group, singing mostly Pop music, but she has occasionally worked with jazz musicians, including Ben Webster and Count Basie.

STATE STREET RAMBLERS. A name given to many different bands that recorded during the late 1920s; the groups at times included Johnny Dodds, Baby Dodds, and others.

STEEPLECHASE. A record label established in 1972 in Copenhagen by Nils Winther. Many American expatriates who lost contracts with other labels chose to record on SteepleChase. Artists include Dexter Gordon, Paul Bley, Andy LaVerne, and others. The label is still active today.

STEPS AHEAD. A Fusion group formed in 1979 by Mike Mainieri that included Michael Brecker, Eddie Gomez, and Peter Erskine. The group underwent many personnel changes but continued to perform into the 1990s. See also ELIAS, ELIANE; STERN, MIKE.

STERN, MIKE (1953– ). A guitarist, Mike Stern was a student of Pat Metheny during the early 1970s, who helped get Stern his first gig with Blood, Sweat and Tears in 1974. During the 1980s, Stern played with Billy Cobham, Miles Davis, Jaco Pastorius, David Sanborn, and Steps Ahead. During the 1990s, Stern led his own groups and played with the Brecker Brothers and Joe Henderson, and from the 2000s on, he has led his own groups and continues to tour and record. See also ELECTRIC GUITAR; GUITAR.

STEWARD, HERBIE (1926– ). A tenor saxophone player, Herbie Steward got his first notable big band gig with Artie Shaw from 1944 to 1946. In 1947, Steward was an original member of Woody Herman’s Four Brothers, and during the late 1940s to early 1950s, Steward played with Shaw, Tommy Dorsey, Claude Thornhill, and Harry James. In the mid-1950s, Steward moved to Las Vegas and in the 1970s to San Francisco, freelancing and playing at jazz festivals.

STEWART, REX (1907–1967). A cornetist, Rex Stewart moved to New York in 1921 and worked with Elmer Snowden from 1924 to 1925. Stewart played briefly with Fletcher Henderson in 1926, with Horace Henderson from 1926 to 1928, and then returned to Fletcher’s band from 1928 to 1933. Stewart then joined Duke Ellington’s band in 1934, playing in the group until 1945 and co-composing several Ellington pieces including “Boy Meets Horn.” After leaving Ellington’s group, Stewart worked in Europe for a time (at one point as a chef), and during the 1950s he organized some Fletcher Henderson reunion groups in addition to writing books and articles about jazz.

STEWART, SLAM (1914–1987). A bassist and bandleader, Leroy Eliot “Slam” Stewart effected his trademark solo style of using a bow to play a solo and also humming the same melody one octave above. During the late 1930s and early 1940s, Stewart worked in a duo with Slim Gaillard, becoming famous for their hit “Flat Foot Floogee.” Stewart then joined Art Tatum and played with him on and off from 1943 to 1950, in addition to working with Benny Goodman, Erroll Garner, Dizzy Gillespie, and others. During the 1950s, Stewart continued to work, appearing with Roy Eldridge and others, and during the 1960s and 1970s, he toured in addition to working as a teacher.

STICHTING JAZZ EN GEÏMPROVISEERDE MUZIEK IN NEDERLAND. A group active from 1965 to 1997 that promoted and developed jazz in the Netherlands.

STITT, EDWARD “SONNY” (1924–1982). A saxophonist, Sonny Stitt emerged during the heyday of the Bebop movement, playing with Billy Eckstine’s band in 1944 where he met other like-minded musicians including Fats Navarro, Dexter Gordon, and Art Blakey. During 1946, Stitt played with Dizzy Gillespie, and in 1947 he also played with Miles Davis and Charlie Parker. In the early 1950s, Stitt co-led a group with Gene Ammons, and during the rest of the 1950s he led his own groups and played in Jazz at the Philharmonic. During the 1960s, he played with Davis and later Clark Terry, and during the 1970s he appeared with the Giants of Jazz. Stitt continued to play until a few days before his death.

STOCK ARRANGEMENT. A simple, basic, and easily readable published composition made widely available.

STOMP. In Early Jazz, a stomp was a song that involved a dance or dance steps. It can also be used to refer to counting off a band’s performance, as in to “stomp off.”

STOP-TIME. A musical technique where the band plays only on specific downbeats or lays out (stops playing) entirely in order to accentuate a particular soloist or solo section in a song.

STORYVILLE (I). A section of the city of New Orleans famous during the early part of the 20th century as a breeding ground for Early Jazz.

STORYVILLE (II). A record label formed in 1951 in Boston. Artists include Sidney Bechet, Zoot Sims, Lee Konitz, and others.

STRAIGHT-AHEAD. In jazz parlance, “Straight-Ahead” refers to Bebop and post-Bebop styles, but excludes Fusion, Free Jazz, and their offshoots. Musicians who play in a Straight-Ahead style usually are very familiar with the jazz tradition and choose to play in a simple, noncomplex manner. Musicians associated with the Straight-Ahead style include Kenny Dorham, Hank Mobley, Clifford Brown, Sonny Rollins, and scores of others. See also MAINSTREAM JAZZ.

STRAYHORN, WILLIAM THOMAS “BILLY” (1915–1967). A pianist, composer, and arranger, Billy Strayhorn was primarily interested in Classical music before he heard Duke Ellington’s band. Strayhorn contrived to meet Ellington, and after Ellington heard Strayhorn’s music the two began a long musical partnership that would last until Strayhorn’s death. Among Strayhorn’s many famous compositions are “Take the ‘A’ Train,” “Lush Life,” “Satin Doll,” “Chelsea Bridge,” and countless others, many of which also credit Ellington as co-composer.

STRETCH OUT. A jazz term meaning that a soloist plays a solo of indeterminate and exceptional length.

STRIDE. A style of piano playing made popular during the 1920s and 1930s where the intervals in the accompaniment in the left hand span more than an octave, causing the performer to “stride” across the keyboard. Among the best-known Stride Piano players are James P. Johnson, Willie “the Lion” Smith, and Fats Waller. See also BASIE, WILLIAM “COUNT”; BLAKE, EUBIE; EUROPE, JAMES REESE; HINES, EARL KENNETH “FATHA”; MORTON, FERDINAND “JELLY ROLL”; PETERSON, OSCAR; POWELL, EARL RUDOLPH “BUD”; QRS; WEATHERFORD, TEDDY; WILLIAMS, CLARENCE.

STUDIO MUSICIAN. Also known as a session musician, a studio musician is any musician whose primary source of income comes from recording, usually as part of a film or television orchestra.

SUBSTITUTE CHORD. A chord used in the place of another chord. The substitution can be planned and orchestrated in a song or spontaneous on the part of the soloist or accompaniment, and it usually follows specific harmonic conventions.

SUBTONE. An instrumental technique on reed instruments; the performer attempts to eliminate the overtones of a particular pitch. This produces a softer, warmer tone and is used most often in the lower register.

SULLIVAN, IRA (1931– ). A trumpet player and saxophonist, Ira Sullivan played in a house band in Chicago in the early 1950s that backed Charlie Parker, Lester Young, Wardell Gray, Roy Eldridge, Sonny Stitt, and many others. Sullivan played briefly with Art Blakey in New York in 1956, but his performing career slowed down after he moved to Florida in the 1960s. From the 1970s, he has been active primarily as an educator.

SULLIVAN, JOSEPH “JOE” (1906–1971). A pianist and composer, Joe Sullivan made his record debut in 1927 with Red McKenzie and Eddie Condon’s Chicagoans. Sullivan moved to New York in 1928 and from the late 1920s and throughout the 1930s worked with Red Nichols and Bing Crosby. During the 1940s, Sullivan worked as a soloist in addition to working with Condon. From the 1960s on, he both led his own groups and worked as a soloist.

SULLIVAN, MAXINE (1911–1987). A singer, Maxine Sullivan recorded her first hit, “Loch Lomond,” with Claude Thornhill in 1937. During the late 1930s and early 1940s, she worked with her first husband, John Kirby, and during the 1940s she also worked as an actress. Known for her jazz interpretations of folk songs, her career experienced a revival during the 1970s when she toured with the World’s Greatest Jazz Band.

SUN RA (1914–1993). Born Herman Bourke Blount but calling himself Sun Ra, he was a pianist, composer, arranger, and bandleader. Sun Ra worked first with Fletcher Henderson during the mid-1940s. During the 1950s, he formed his own band, the Myth-Science or Solar Arkestra, which started out in a somewhat traditional Bebop style but by the 1960s was the most experimental group in jazz. Although Sun Ra’s vision of reality was quite unique, as in his belief that he came to Earth from outer space, his groups developed a large following over the years, and the stylistic variety and technical abilities of his groups have been critically acclaimed.

SUPERBONE. An instrument that is a combination of trumpet and trombone, invented by trumpeter Maynard Ferguson.

SUPERSAX. A group founded in 1972 that usually consists of five saxophones, a trumpet, and a rhythm section. Originally, the group performed complete harmonized transcriptions of Charlie Parker solos, and in later years the repertoire expanded to include the solos of Bud Powell and John Coltrane as well. Notable members of the group include Warne Marsh, Conte Candoli, Blue Mitchell, Carl Fontana, and others. See also MORGAN, LANNY.

SURMAN, JOHN (1944– ). A British saxophonist, John Surman played in groups throughout Europe that included Dave Holland, John McLaughlin, and Albert Mangelsdorff during the 1960s and 1970s. From the 1980s on, Surman has played with Jack DeJohnette, Paul Bley, Bill Frisell, and in the Gil Evans orchestra, in addition to leading his own groups.

SUTTON, RALPH EARL (1922–2001). A pianist, Ralph Sutton played with Jack Teagarden both before and after World War II. From 1948 to 1956, Sutton was the pianist in varying capacities at Eddie Condon’s club in New York. During the 1960s, Sutton worked mostly as a soloist, with the exception of an appearance with Bob Crosby in 1966. Sutton continued to tour in addition to making local appearances in Colorado.

SWALLOW, STEVE (1940– ). A bassist and composer, Steve Swallow moved to New York in 1960 and played with Paul Bley. During the 1960s, Swallow played with Bley, Benny Goodman, Art Farmer, and Stan Getz, and in 1968 he began a long association with Gary Burton. During the 1970s, Swallow performed with Art Lande, led his own groups and worked as a professor at the Berklee School of Music. During the 1980s, Swallow played with Carla Bley and also John Scofield, and during the 1990s he played with Paul Motian and many others. See also ELECTRIC BASS.

SWARTZ, HARVIE (1948– ). A bassist and pianist, Harvie Swartz graduated from the Berklee School of Music and then spent the 1970s playing with the Thad Jones–Mel Lewis Orchestra, Gil Evans, Stan Getz, Lee Konitz, and Eddie Daniels, and from 1973 he had a long-standing association with Sheila Jordan. From the 1980s, Swartz led his own groups and worked as an educator, and in recent years he has played with Chick Corea, Michael Brecker, Ingrid Jensen, and many others. Since the early 2000s, he is known as, and works under the name of, Harvie S.

SWEATMAN, WILBUR (1882–1961). A clarinetist, bandleader, and composer, Wilbur Sweatman worked in minstrel shows during the early 1900s and formed a band in 1902. Sweatman continued to lead bands during the 1910s and 1920s, recording some early jazz albums and employing musicians including Freddie Keppard, Duke Ellington, and others. Known for his ability to play three clarinets at the same time, Sweatman retired as a performer to focus on a career as a booking agent, music publisher, and publicist.

SWING (I). An elusive term, swing can refer to the specific rhythms played during a jazz performance, it can refer to the “feel” of a jazz performance, and it can even refer to the quality of the jazz performance.

SWING (II). A genre within jazz that rose to prominence during the 1930s. Although it is also associated with the dance band craze of the same time period, it is not exclusive to that definition, as the Swing period also brought a greater focus on improvisation. Important Swing musicians include Coleman Hawkins and Roy Eldridge, and bandleaders Benny Goodman, Glenn Miller, and Fletcher Henderson, among others. See also ALLEN, HENRY “RED”; BASIE, WILLIAM “COUNT”; HODGES, JOHNNY; WEBSTER, BEN.

SYMPHONIC JAZZ. A term applied to attempts during the 1920s to move jazz from dance halls, bars, and other places of ill repute to concert-style settings, championed by, among others, the bandleader Paul Whiteman. A direct forerunner to both Third Stream and Cool Jazz, early examples of symphonic jazz include George Gershwin’s “Rhapsody in Blue” and Duke Ellington’s “The Blue Bells of Harlem.”

SYNCOPATION. An important stylistic element in jazz music, syncopation occurs when rhythmic accents are placed on weak beats or weak parts of the beat.

SYNTHESIZER. An electronic keyboard that synthesizes the sounds of other instruments or entirely new sounds. Popular especially in Jazz Fusion, synthesizers have been employed by many important jazz keyboardists including Chick Corea, Herbie Hancock, and others. See also ELECTRIC PIANO.