The ancient Middle East has often been called the cradle of civilization. Highly developed cultures flourished in the region long before the time of Abraham (c. 2000 B.C.), and many skills that eventually developed into occupations and trades originated there. The following are mentioned or implied in the Bible. This listing is based on the New King James Version (NKJV) but mentions translations of words from the King James Version (KJV), the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV), the New International Version (NIV), and the New American Standard Bible (NASB).
To read about job classifications in a certain category, see the alphabetical listings as indicated under each category name.
Agriculture
Goatherder (see Shepherd)
Herdsman (see Cattleman; Shepherd)
Sheepbreeder (see Shepherd)
Sheepshearer (see Shepherd)
Arts and Entertainment
Boxer (see Athlete)
Curator (see Steward)
Business and Finance
Administrator (see Scribe)
Manager (see Governor; Overseer)
Communications
Amanuensis (see Secretary)
Chronicler (see Historian; Scribe)
Copyist (see Scribe)
Editor (see Scribe)
Stenographer (see Secretary)
Food and Beverage
Government Service
Administrator (see Government Official)
Assistant (see Government Official)
Chief Deputy (see Governor)
Chief Financial Officer (see Governor)
Chronicler (see Historian; Scribe)
Commander (see Government Official)
Commissioner (see Government Official)
Comptroller (see Government Official)
Controller (see Government Official)
Copyist (see Scribe)
Court Reporter (see Government Official; Records Clerk)
Courtier (see Government Official)
Deliverer (see Judge)
Deputy (see Government Official)
Duke (see Prince)
Envoy (see Ambassador)
Government Administrator (see Government Official)
Manager (see Governor; Overseer)
Officer (see Government Official)
President (see Government Official)
Procurer (see Government Official)
Quartermaster (see Government Official)
Registrar (see Government Official; Historian; Records Clerk; Scribe)
Ruler (see Captain)
Secretary of State (see Scribe)
Town Clerk (see City Clerk)
Trustee (see Government Official)
Viceroy (see Government Official)
Wise Men (see Astronomer)
Health and Education
Apothecary (see also Perfumer)
Guardian (see Steward)
Pharmacist (see Apothecary)
Teacher (see Instructor; Lawyer)
Hospitality and Household Services
Chamberlain (see Eunuch; Keeper)
Curator (see Steward)
Doorkeeper (see Eunuch; Keeper; Porter)
Drawer of Water (see Water Carrier)
Gatekeeper (see Keeper; Porter)
Guardian (see Steward)
Landowner (see Householder)
Master of the House (see Householder)
Slavemaster (see Overseer)
Taskmaster (see Overseer)
Legal and Social Services
Chief Priest (see Priest)
Comforter (see Advocate)
Deliverer (see Judge)
Helper (see Advocate)
High Priest (see Priest)
Mediator (see Messenger; Priest)
Manufacturing
Apothecary (see also Perfumer)
Carpetmaker (see Tapestrymaker)
Confectioner (see Apothecary; Perfumer)
Dressmaker (see Tailor)
Leatherworker (see Tanner)
Linen Worker (see Dyer)
Manager (see Governor; Overseer)
Metalsmith (see Metalworker)
Rugmaker (see Tapestrymaker)
Seamster, Seamstress (see Tailor)
Military and Defense
Chief (see Captain)
Driver (see Charioteer)
Guard (see Jailer; Keeper; Soldier; Watchman)
Keeper of a Prison (see Jailer)
Military Courier (see Messenger)
Military Recruiter (see Census Taker)
Night Watchman (see Keeper)
Police Officer (see Keeper)
Security Guard (see Watchman)
Temple Captain (see Captain)
Mining and Metals
Artificer (see Metalworker)
Artisan (see Metalworker)
Bronze Worker (see Metalworker)
Craftsman (see Designer; Metalworker)
Engraver (see Metalworker)
Hewer of Stone (see Mason)
Ironworker (see Metalworker)
Metalsmith (see Metalworker)
Miner (see Foundry Worker)
Quarry Worker (see Mason)
Refiner (see also Metalworker)
Smelter (see Foundry Worker; Metalworker)
Stonecutter (see Mason)
Real Estate and Construction
General Contractor (see Builder)
Hewer (see Woodworker)
Retailing, Wholesale, and Marketing
Merchandiser (see Merchant)
Science, Industry, and Technology
Lumberjack (see Woodworker)
Woodcutter (see Woodworker)
Transportation and Travel
Captain (Ship) (see Sailor)
Driver (see Camel Driver; Charioteer; Overseer)
Shipmaster (see Sailor)
Miscellaneous
Astrologer (see Astronomer)
Chaldean (see Astronomer)
Harlot (see Prostitute)
Prognosticator (see Astronomer)
Sage (see Astronomer)
Sorcerer, Sorceress (see Astronomer; Diviner; Magician; Witch, Wizard)
Stargazer (see Astronomer)
Wise Men (see Astronomer)
Even though the word accountant is not used in the Bible, the job’s principles and methods appear often. Whenever a census or an inventory of financial assets or offerings is recorded (Ex. 30:11–15; 2 Sam. 24; 2 Chr. 13–28; Ezra 2; Neh. 7:6–72; Luke 2:2; see also “The Census” at Luke 2:1–3), accountants were probably involved. In the New Testament, the language of accounting (adding, reasoning, computing) is used in connection with rational conclusions and moral inventory rather than fiscal reckoning. Paul “added up” his works of the flesh and counted them as a net “loss” compared to the unsurpassable worth of knowing Christ (Phil. 3:4–8).
The acting profession was forbidden to the Jews because of its pagan associations, but when Jesus called the Pharisees “hypocrites” (Matt. 23:13–30), He used a word that had come to mean “play-actors.” The deceptive religious leaders feigned biblical virtues in order to win others’ praise. To look contrite they “disfigured” their faces with a sad expression while fasting, essentially putting on a mask (6:16). First-century actors traveled a circuit of Greek and Roman cities to perform before large audiences in many theaters, some with a seating capacity of twenty thousand or more. The riot at Ephesus began at such a forum (Acts 19:29).
One who “pleads another’s case” or is “called alongside to give advice” was known as an advocate, somewhat like a modern legal counselor. The word is used primarily in the New Testament, mostly in reference to Jesus or the Holy Spirit. Jesus acts as a righteous Advocate, pleading our case as lost sinners before a righteous God (1 John 2:1). When the term is applied to the Holy Spirit (John 14:16; 15:26; 16:7), it is variously translated Advocate (NIV; NRSV), Helper (NKJV, NASB), or Comforter (KJV). (See Counselor; Lawyer.)
Ancient rulers spoke to rulers of other nations through official representatives. These ambassadors offered congratulations (1 Kin. 5:1; Is. 39:2), sought favors (Num. 20:14), made treaties (Josh. 9:4–6), and registered protests (Judg. 11:12). The treatment that an envoy received represented the host nation’s response to the ambassador’s ruler. Insults could lead to war (2 Sam. 10:4–6). In the New Testament, Paul describes himself as “Christ’s ambassador” (Eph. 6:20), as are all Christians (2 Cor. 5:20, according to one interpretation).
Biblical announcers, called heralds, bore messages, often in preparation for the appearance of a king or other royal figure (Dan. 3:4). The Aramaic word for herald is sometimes translated “to preach” (Matt. 3:1; 4:17); consequently, New Testament preachers are heralds of the King, Jesus Christ (1 Tim. 2:7; 2 Tim. 1:11). (See Messenger.)
Some translations use this word or the word confectioner for what we would call a pharmacist: someone who prepared or sold drugs, medicines, and perfumes. (See Perfumer; Physician.)
Archers were trained from childhood to serve in ancient armies. These warriors were the first to engage the enemy from a distance. Drawing an ancient war bow required an estimated one-hundred-pound pull, and arrows could pierce almost any armor. A number of Old Testament nations boasted famous archers (1 Sam. 31:3; 1 Chr. 8:40; Is. 22:6). Abraham’s son Ishmael (Gen. 21:20) and Isaac’s son Esau (27:3) grew up to become archers, though they did not likely serve in an army (See Hunter; Soldier.)
Biblical references to the tabernacle, the temple, palaces, fortifications (such as walled cities as in the Book of Nehemiah), and other structures demonstrate a need for skilled architects. The New Testament describes God as the preeminent architect, calling Him the “builder” and “maker” of the heavenly city, the New Jerusalem (Heb. 11:10). (See Builder.)
An armorbearer carried weapons for a military commander or champion, probably similar to the way a squire would serve a knight. Armorbearers were also responsible for finishing the job of killing enemies brought down by their masters. The Old Testament leaders Abimelech (Judg. 9:54), Jonathan (1 Sam. 14:6–17), and Joab (2 Sam. 18:15) had armorbearers. David acted as Saul’s armorbearer for a time (1 Sam. 16:21). After David became king, commanders fought from chariots, and armorbearers were no longer mentioned in the Bible.
This person was a smith skilled in making armor, or a leather worker who made shields. In the days of Saul, armorers were primarily Philistines. Armorers are not mentioned directly in the Bible, but their presence is inferred from Hebrew soldiers’ use of shields, helmets, breastplates constructed of scalelike plates, and leg armor. Paul speaks of God in a figurative sense as the armorer of spiritual soldiers (Eph. 6:14–17).
(See Carver; Metalworker.)
The Bible does not directly mention artists, but the fact that they existed in Hebrew culture is evident from their artifacts, which include paintings and etchings on clay tablets, bas-reliefs, and engraved images in ivory and stone. In the Bible, much attention is given to the artistic elements of the construction of the tabernacle and the temple (see “God and Art” at Ex. 20:4–6). However, Jews construed the second Commandment (Ex. 20:4) as a prohibition against the artistic portrayal of human beings.
(See Astronomer.)
Ancient peoples believed that the position of planets in relation to each other had an impact on the course of history. This explains astronomy’s origins in astrology, the study of the heavenly bodies and their movements in an attempt to predict the future.
Isaiah taunted the Babylonians to go to their powerless “astrologers, the stargazers, and the monthly prognosticators” for their salvation (Is. 47:13). The word for astrologer appears eight times in Daniel, in association with magicians, sorcerers, Chaldeans, wise men, and soothsayers (Dan. 1:20; 2:2, 10, 27; 4:7; 5:7, 11, 15). Some Bible scholars believe the wise men, or Magi, who saw the star of Bethlehem that led them to the infant Jesus (Matt. 2:1–12) were astrologers from Mesopotamia.
Astronomical references in the Bible are often poetic (Amos 5:8). Their main purpose is to display God’s glory rather than provide scientific details about the universe. The most important truth for the Hebrews as they observed the stars was this: “the heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament shows His handiwork” (Ps. 19:1).
Paul used more sports metaphors to convey spiritual realities than any other author in Scripture. The Greeks of Paul’s day celebrated four major athletic festivals, including the original Olympic games (see “The Games” at 1 Cor. 9:24–27). The apostle likened the Christian life to that of a track-and-field runner (Acts 20:24; Rom. 9:16; Gal. 2:2; 5:7; Phil. 2:16; 2 Tim. 4:7; compare Heb. 12:1, 2), a wrestler (Eph. 6:12), and a boxer (1 Cor. 9:26; 2 Tim. 4:7). He noted that athletes were obliged to compete according to rules (2:5), and that they competed for a prize (1 Cor. 9:24–27; Phil. 3:12–14; 1 Thess. 2:19; 2 Tim. 4:8).
Among the Romans, sporting events evolved beyond physical competition into life-and-death struggles. Christians in Nero’s day were sometimes sent into an amphitheater to fight for their lives (1 Cor. 4:9; 15:32; Heb. 10:32, 33).
Jewish culture apparently did not share an appreciation for athletic contests, in part because of the nudity often involved. Yet Jews did esteem the sport of running. (See Runner.)
Some translations use this word for someone who rendered household services. (See Slave.)
The books collected in the Bible were composed by about forty writers from a wide variety of backgrounds. Even though the Bible is a written work, being an author as profession is not mentioned. In a broader sense, Jesus is called the author of eternal salvation and of our faith (Heb. 5:9; 12:2). (See Writer.)
Bread was ubiquitous in the ancient world (Gen. 3:19; Judg. 7:13; John 6:13), with most baking done by women at home (Gen. 18:6; Lev. 26:26; 1 Sam. 8:13; see also “Jewish Homemaking” at Mark 1:29–31). However, the pharaoh of Egypt employed a chief baker (Gen. 40:2, 16), and one particular street in old Jerusalem was renowned for its bakers and their shops (Jer. 37:21). Bakers prepared dough from cereal grains, mostly wheat and barley, but also beans, lentils, millet, and spelt (Ezek. 4:9). They baked it on open flames or over coals (Is. 44:19) or in bell-shaped clay ovens (Lev. 7:9; Hos. 7:4; Matt. 6:30), using iron grids or pans (1 Chr. 9:31; 23:29; Ezek. 4:3).
Bankers and banking were not a part of Jewish culture until the Babylonian captivity. Lending to other Jews for profit was forbidden (Deut. 23:19, 20), although loans to foreigners were permitted. The Law recognized that some people would inevitably fall into debt to others, and its provisions prevented debtors from falling hopelessly behind on repayment (15:1–6). National wealth was safeguarded at the king’s palace or in the temple, so when Nebuchadnezzar’s troops ransacked the temple (2 Kin. 25:13–17), they were in effect robbing a bank. Common people hid their valuables at home or buried them underground.
Jesus urged His followers to go beyond the letter of the Law (lending without interest) to the spirit of the Law—giving without expecting any return at all (Luke 6:35). By Roman times, bankers were becoming common among the Jews (Matt. 25:27; see also “Banking in the New Testament” at Luke 19:23). Under Roman law, bankers could put a debtor in prison. But Jesus, echoing God’s law, challenged His followers to cancel others’ debts, just as God has canceled our debts (Matt. 6:25, 26; 18:25, 30). To learn more about money in the Bible, see “A History of Money” at 1 Chr. 29:8 and “Money in the New Testament” at Rev. 16:21.)
Men and women in Old Testament times normally wore their hair uncut, making barbering as a profession unnecessary. In fact, Israelite men were forbidden by law to cut their forelocks (Lev. 19:27), and a shaved or bald head was a sign of disgrace (2 Kin. 2:23, 24; Is. 3:24; 15:2; Jer. 48:37). Both men and women prized beautifully styled hair (Song 4:1; 5:11). Long hair contributed to Samson’s strength but also to his capture (Judg. 16:13–19). Likewise, Absalom’s locks made him handsome (2 Sam. 14:25, 26) but also brought about his death (18:9–15).
Specific circumstances called for barbering, however. Men who took the Nazirite vow shaved their heads (Num. 6:18; see also “The Nazirite Vow” at Num. 6:2), and God ordered Ezekiel’s barber to shave the prophet’s head as a sign of judgment (Ezek. 5:1).
By New Testament times, men apparently wore their hair shorter than women did, especially in the Roman cities such as Corinth (1 Cor. 11:14, 15), so barbers were more in demand. But barbers tended to work for the rich and the noble. Christian women were urged to style their hair simply (1 Tim. 2:9; 1 Pet. 3:3).
Ancient Middle Eastern societies required lightweight containers to transport goods by hand or donkey, and women wove baskets from natural fibers such as palm fronds, straw, reeds, rushes, sedges, and grasses. Baskets came in all sizes and shapes, but a form resembling earthenware pots was common. Scripture mentions baskets large enough to hold a person (Acts 9:25) or small enough to carry bread (Ex. 29:3).
The many biblical references to honey (for example, Ex. 3:8, 17; 16:31; Prov. 24:13; Matt. 3:4) imply that beekeeping may have been a common profession or activity in Palestine. But honey could also have been obtained in the wild (Judg. 14:8, 9), or the word might have referred to a syrup made from grapes and dates.
Scripture describes people reduced to begging because of divine judgment or wickedness (1 Sam. 2:7, 8; Ps. 109:10; Luke 16:3), physical disabilities (Mark 10:46; Luke 18:35; John 9:8), or laziness (Prov. 20:4). Nearly every city in biblical times was home to a large underclass, people scraping by on the margins of society. Few cultures provided for these desperate, destitute wanderers, though God did command Israel to care for the poor (Deut. 15:1–11; see also “Caring for the Underclass” at Luke 7:20–23).
Some translations use this word for the craftsman who worked with metals, especially in making swords and spears (1 Sam. 13:19). (See Armorer; Metalworker.)
(See Fuller.)
Many bodyguards mentioned in Scripture may also have been soldiers, armorbearers, prison guards, runners, slaves, or servants. Examples include bodyguards for the pharaoh of Egypt (Gen. 37:36; 39:1), Joseph (40:3), David (2 Sam. 23:22), certain Israelite kings (2 Kin. 11:19), and Paul (Acts 28:16).
The presence of botanists in Bible times is inferred from the thriving agricultural economies of the ancient Middle East. Solomon’s knowledge of plants is demonstrated by the gardens and orchards listed among his accomplishments (1 Kin. 4:33; Eccl. 2:5, 6). Paul alluded to gardening techniques when he spoke of the Gentiles as a wild olive tree being “grafted” into God’s tree of salvation (Rom. 11:17–21). (See Gardener.)
“Strong” or intoxicating drink is mentioned some 20 times in the Bible, and wine more than 240 times. Ancient brewers are known to have produced beers from various cereals beginning more than 8,000 years ago, and beer was known in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. The process involved burying barley in pots to force germination, then mixing it with water to ferment naturally. Sometime between the tenth and seventh centuries B.C., hops were added to the process. (See Winemaker.)
The biblical record of brickmaking goes back to the construction of a tower at Babel (Gen. 11:3). Excavations and wall paintings in Egypt show that Hebrews made sun-dried clay bricks under the supervision of the Egyptians (compare Ex. 1:14) that measured approximately 10 x 20 x 4 inches. Clay mud was mixed with straw that decomposed, releasing chemicals that made the material stronger (compare Ex. 5:6–19). Ironically, the Israelites who had been slaves in Egypt later set their prisoners of war to brickmaking (2 Sam. 12:31).
The first building project mentioned in Scripture is the walled dwelling that Cain constructed to protect himself (Gen. 4:17). Descendants of Noah later attempted to build a tower at Babel “whose top is in the heavens” in order to make a name for themselves (11:4). Hebrew slaves built storage cities for Egypt’s pharaoh (Ex. 1:11). Their descendants in Palestine built walled cities and unwalled towns, houses, palaces, the temple, and many other structures. After the Babylonian exile, Nehemiah served as a sort of general contractor to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem.
In the New Testament era, the Herods (see “The Herods” at Acts 12:1, 2) were very active in sponsoring construction projects, including the city of Sepphoris in Galilee, which Herod Antipas rebuilt as a provincial capital during the time of Jesus’ youth. It is by no means probable but also not unlikely that Jesus and His father Joseph, who were both carpenters, worked on projects in Sepphoris, given its proximity to Nazareth. Similarly, the Roman emperors built Corinth as a “planned” city, favoring it with numerous imperial building projects (see the introduction to 2 Corinthians). (See Architect; Carpenter.)
The many hunters and livestock ranchers in the ancient world gave rise to the occupation of butcher. In the Old Testament, the Law categorized some animals as “clean” and others as “unclean” (Lev. 11), perhaps in part for health reasons. In the New Testament, an argument surfaced in Corinth and other Gentile cities, where meat was sold after it had been ritually offered to idols. Paul argued that it was permissible for Christians to eat whatever butchers prepared and sold at the pagan meat markets (1 Cor. 10:25). (See Cook.)
The only butler mentioned in Scripture was the chief butler Joseph met in prison in Egypt (Gen. 40), but the man’s occupation was actually closely related to that of a cupbearer. Ancient rulers were highly cautious about what they ate or drank because death or sickness by poisoning was an ever-present danger, either due to assassination attempts or spoiled food. The butler, or cupbearer, tasted the ruler’s food first to test its safety.
Solomon employed cupbearers and waiters (1 Kin. 10:5; 2 Chr. 9:4), and Pharaoh’s butler probably oversaw a staff of such workers. Nehemiah was a cupbearer to King Artaxerxes (Neh. 1:11), making him a particularly powerful official with an expense account and direct access to the king’s ear, which enabled him to arrange for the rebuilding of the walls at Jerusalem.
While the word buyer occurs only three times in Scripture (Prov. 20:14; Is. 24:2; Ezek. 7:12), the concept of buying and selling occurs frequently. In Palestine, a wide range of commodities were imported, sold, and exported, including oil, wine, wheat, barley nuts, honey, fruits, fish, salt, and spices. Ezekiel 27 lists some of the many commodities imported into Palestine during Solomon’s time. (See Merchant.)
A camel driver herded and rode camels. Camels were used to cross the desert between Mesopotamia and Palestine from at least as early as 1800 B.C. The Old Testament mentions the Midianites, desert nomads and camel drivers who used thousands of animals to wage war (Judg. 6:1–6) and sue for peace (Is. 60:6). David named Obil the Ishmaelite as head of his government’s camel division (1 Chr. 27:30). The queen of Sheba was probably accompanied by many camel drivers when she visited Jerusalem (1 Kin. 10:2).
The Hebrews enjoyed making and giving royal “dainties,” sweet “delicacies,” and “rich and splendid” foodstuffs (Gen. 49:20; Ps. 141:4; Prov. 23:3; Rev. 18:14), implying that candymaking has a long history. Women were the principal candymakers, with dates, honey, nuts, and gum extract their chief ingredients.
The Bible uses the term captain to mean prince, officer, chief, ruler, leader, author, initiator, or commander—in a military, civilian, or spiritual sense. In the New Testament period, military captains commanded as many as one thousand Roman soldiers constituting a military cohort, tribune, or garrison (Mark 6:21; Acts 21:31–37; Rev. 6:15; 19:18). Civilian captains in government were called magistrates (Acts 16:20–38). The chief officer on duty in the temple precinct was called a temple captain (Luke 22:4, 52; Acts 4:1; 5:24, 26). In a spiritual sense, the captain of our salvation is the Lord (2 Chr. 13:12; Heb. 2:10; 12:2; see also “The Commander” at Josh. 5:13–15). (See Government Official.)
(See Sailor.)
Carpenters worked with wood, metal, and stone to produce furniture and farm implements, and to construct houses and public buildings. During the reigns of David and Solomon, Israel relied almost exclusively on foreign carpenters, especially those from Tyre (2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Kin. 5:18; 1 Chr. 14:1). Later, Jewish carpenters were used to repair the temple (2 Kin. 22:5, 6; 2 Chr. 24:12).
Scripture refers to hand tools such as the ax and hatchet (Deut. 19:5; Ps. 74:6; Jer. 10:3), the hammer (Judg. 4:21), the saw (Is. 10:15), the plumb line, the ruler, the plane, and the compass (44:13, 14; Zech. 2:1).
Two of the best-known carpenters in the Bible are Noah (Gen. 6) and Jesus (see “Jesus the Carpenter” at Mark 6:3). (See Builder.)
Artisans known as carvers were skilled at whittling, cutting, or chipping materials including wood, stone, ivory, clay, bronze, gold, silver, or glass. Bezalel and Aholiab received special mention in Moses’ day for their work on the tabernacle (Ex. 31:1–6). Skilled carvers were highly prized (2 Chr. 2:7), and carved panels, windows, and woodwork were signs of great wealth. Some carvers specialized in making idols (Jer. 10:4; Rev. 18:12), incurring God’s judgment. (See Metalworker.)
Scripture presents Jabal as “the father of those who dwell in tents and have livestock” (Gen. 4:20). A similar description applied to Abraham (13:2). To own many cattle was a sign of God’s blessing (Ps. 107:38). God provides for cattle (2 Kin. 3:17; Ps. 104:14); indeed, He owns “the cattle on a thousand hills” (50:10). Some translations classify livestock of all kinds—cows, sheep, goats, donkeys—as cattle, and the word can also be translated “beasts” or “animals.” (See Shepherd.)
Some carpenters were skilled at applying tar to the hulls of boats to make them watertight (Ezek. 27:9, 27). In the Old Testament, the best caulkers were those of Phoenicia, a nation famous in the ancient world for its shipbuilding. (See Shipbuilder.)
The job of census taker was associated with military conscription and tax collection, making it unpopular in Bible times. Several censuses are mentioned in the Bible: Moses’ censuses during the Exodus (Ex. 30:11–16; Num. 1), David’s numbering of the people (2 Sam. 24), a census under Solomon (2 Chr. 2:17), and the Roman census that brought Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem for the birth of Jesus (Luke 2:1–5). (See Accountant; Tax Collector.)
The centurion was the backbone of the relatively small but well-organized citizen army of Rome (see “Roman Centurions” at Mark 15:39). A centurion was a noncommissioned officer commanding a century, which was composed of one hundred men. Six centuries made up a cohort or regiment. Ten cohorts, or around six thousand men, made up a legion.
Intriguingly, all of the individual centurions mentioned in the New Testament enjoyed good reputations and even exhibited exceptional faith. Jesus commended a centurion who cared for his dying servant (Luke 7:1–10). Three Gospel writers report that the centurion who oversaw Jesus’ crucifixion confessed faith in Christ (Matt. 27:5; Mark 15:39; Luke 23:47). In Acts, the centurion Cornelius embraced the gospel, opening the door to Gentiles in the early church (Acts 10). A centurion named Julius saved the apostle Paul’s life (27:1–11). (See Soldier.)
(See Eunuch.)
Some translations use this word for a bureaucratic chief or magistrate. (See Government Official.)
A charioteer was a soldier who fought from a chariot, a type of carriage introduced in Mesopotamia around 2800 B.C. The chariot was sometimes used for transportation but was versatile enough that it was also often used in battle; these mobile firing platforms came in many different forms. They could be two-wheeled or four-wheeled, drawn by two to four horses. As the technology developed, chariots carried a driver, an archer, and a shield-bearer to protect both the warrior and the driver.
Solomon employed the most charioteers outside of Egypt. He deployed 1,400 chariots throughout the land in fortified “chariot cities” (1 Kin. 10:26) and later built four thousand stalls for his horses and chariots (2 Chr. 9:25). (See Soldier.)
Cheesemaking dates at least as far back as Job’s day (Job 10:10). David and his brothers enjoyed cheese or “curds” (1 Sam. 17:18; 2 Sam. 17:29). A cheese made from sweet milk was probably similar to a cottage cheese (Deut. 32:14) or goat cheese (Prov. 27:27). A ravine outside old Jerusalem was named The Valley of the Cheesemakers. (See Dairyman.)
More than one-third of the psalms are by or dedicated to a choirmaster or chief musician. Several choirmasters were appointed by David to lead community worship—Asaph, Heman, Ethan, Jeduthun, Chenaniah, and their descendants (1 Chr. 15:16–24; 25:1–7) These choir directors no doubt helped to organize and instruct the 288 men said to be skilled as temple musicians (25:7). (See Musician; Singer.)
City clerks were important officials in Greek city-states. They held responsibility for record-keeping, recording minutes of official assemblies, caring for city archives, handling official communications such as public readings, and annually distributing money to the poor. They also served on boards and handled countless administrative details. The city clerk of Ephesus (Acts 19:35) was also president of the assembly. The fact that his name frequently appeared on coins of the period demonstrates his prominence.
This word can imply either civilian governance or military service, similar to the word captain. (See Captain; Government Official.)
(See Government Official.)
(See Apothecary; Perfumer.)
(See Government Official.)
The Hebrew word usually translated cook literally means “slaughterer,” one who kills and dresses animals. Thus the king’s cooks apparently killed animals as well as prepared dishes for the royal table. Cooks may have been either female servants (1 Sam. 8:13) or male professionals (Luke 17:8). In most Israelite households, men did the butchering (Gen. 18:7), while cooking fell under the women’s domain (Gen. 18:6; 27:9; see also “Jewish Homemaking” at Mark 1:29–31). Gideon is called a cook and a baker (Judg. 6:19). (See Butcher.)
Scripture refers often to copper and coppersmiths (Ex. 38:8; Deut. 8:9; Ezra 8:27; Job 28:2; Ezek. 22:18), and archaeological excavations of copper tools, vases, and polished mirrors show that coppersmithing was a common occupation. Copper mines in Tyre and Cyprus supplied Palestine’s artisans, who in time learned to make bronze, an alloy of copper and tin that took a finer polish and was harder than pure copper. The first coppersmith mentioned in the Bible is Tubal-Cain, a descendant of Cain who taught others to work with “bronze and iron” (Gen. 4:22). In the New Testament, Paul mentions Alexander the coppersmith as having done him, and the gospel, much harm (2 Tim. 4:14). (See Metalworker.)
Cosmetology as a profession is not mentioned in Scripture, but archaeologists have found ancient grooming kits, ointment pots, small makeup instruments, and even a cosmetics factory from 2,500 years ago. The practice of beautifying one’s skin and eyes with cosmetics, salves, and alabaster ointments is very old (Ex. 30:25; Neh. 3:8; Ezek. 23:40). Early Christian women were admonished to distinguish themselves by focusing more on the beauty of their souls than that of their bodies (1 Tim. 2:9; 1 Pet. 3:3, 4). (See Perfumer.)
Ancient kings relied on trusted officials who served as counselors (1 Chr. 27:32; Ezra 4:5), though not all counselors were professionals (2 Chr. 22:3). In the New Testament, Joseph of Arimathea is called a counselor, reflecting his membership in the Jewish Council, or Sanhedrin (Mark 15:43; Luke 23:50 KJV). Israel anticipated that the coming Messiah would be a Counselor (Is. 9:6). (See Advocate.)
(See Government Official.)
(See Artisan; Designer; Metalworker.)
(See Banker.)
The first criminal mentioned in Scripture is Cain, who murdered his brother Abel (Gen. 4:8), and a criminal mentality and rebellion against God’s law characterized Cain’s descendants (4:23, 24). The Law punished criminals through mutilation, scourging, paying monetary damages and fines, enslavement, and death (9:6; Ex. 21–22), with stoning used as one means of capital punishment (see “Stoning” at John 10:31). Among Romans and other Gentile empires, crucifixion was the norm (see “Crucifixion” at Luke 23:33). Paul described the radical transformation that can occur when a criminal (or any sinner) turns to Christ and follows Him (Eph. 4:25–32).
(See Butler.)
This occupation was related to the job of tax collector, since taxes and customs were often collected by the same person. In the first century, both taxes and customs were owed to Rome (Rom. 13:7). The KJV shows Matthew the tax collector sitting at “the receipt of custom” when Jesus called him to become one of His disciples (Matt. 9:9). (See Census Taker; Tax Collector.)
Along with bread, dairy products were staples of the Israelite diet (1 Sam. 17:18; Prov. 30:33). Milkers of cows, goats, sheep, and camels had to use milk quickly, since there was no way to prevent fresh milk from spoiling. One way to give it a longer shelf life was to culture it into butter (Ps. 55:21), curds (Is. 7:22), or cheese (Job 10:10). Dairymen sold these products in marketplaces, probably transporting them there on donkeys. (See Cheesemaker.)
It seems that the Israelites did not have professional dancers, unlike Egypt, Babylon, and other pagan nations. But Scripture indicates that Israelite children danced in play (Job 21:11; Luke 7:32) and adults danced in joy, notably Miriam (Ex. 15:20) and David (2 Sam. 6:14; Ps. 30:11). God’s people were encouraged to dance before Him as a joyous act of congregational worship (149:3; 150:4). Other occasions that called for dancing included festivals (Judg. 21:23), celebrations of war heroes (1 Sam. 18:6, 7), and family reunions (Luke 15:25). The Hebrew words associated with dancing reveal that it involved skipping, whirling about, and leaping.
(See Merchant.)
(See Government Official.)
Designers were employed for commissioned public works of art for the tabernacle, the temple, and other building projects. They often worked in concert with engravers, weavers, metalworkers, carpenters, and other craftsmen (Ex. 35:35; 38:23). Bezalel and Aholiab were designers whom God called to oversee the construction of the tabernacle. They were filled with the Spirit and knowledgeable in several crafts (31:1–11). (See Metalworker.)
The Law condemned practitioners of magic, sorcery, and divination as false prophets. Diviners used a variety of occult practices to contact or control evil spirits or foretell the future, and their work often involved trances, dreams, mediums, enchantments, clairvoyance, the stars, and examining the entrails of animals. (see “Magic and Sorcery” at Rev. 18:23).
Divination was widespread in Egypt (Ex. 7:11), Canaan (Lev. 18:3, 21; 19:26, 31), Arabia (Is. 2:6), Babylon (Ezek. 21:21; Dan. 5:11), Samaria (Acts 8:9), Macedonia (16:16), and Asia (19:13, 19). Even the Israelites lapsed at times into the use of divination (2 Kin. 17:17; 21:6). Because of their participation in idolatry and deception, diviners and similar practitioners are repeatedly condemned by the Law (Deut. 18:9–14), God’s prophets (Is. 2:6; 8:19; 47:9, 12; Jer. 14:14; 29:8), and the apostle Paul (Acts 13:6–12).
The KJV calls the “learned” men in Scripture “doctors of the law” (Luke 2:46; 5:17; Acts 5:34), meaning teachers and experts of the Mosaic law. Some translations use the term doctor to refer to members of the medical profession. (See Lawyer; Physician.)
(See Tailor.)
(See Camel Driver; Charioteer; Overseer.)
Dyeing was an ancient art among families who worked with linen (1 Chr. 4:21). Dyers often developed specialized formulas that they passed down for generations.
The Old Testament patriarch Jacob made a “tunic of many colors” for his favored son Joseph (Gen. 37:3), a task that probably involved using various dyes. The Israelite tabernacle featured purple dye likely imported from Phoenicia. Purple was one of the most important colorants of the Mediterranean world. Made from the shell of the murex, a species of clam, the dye and purple cloth were extremely valuable, and the first known Christian in Europe, Lydia, was a “seller of purple” (see Lydia’s profile and “The Trade in Purple” at Acts 16:14).
Dyers of wool were usually also fullers who cleansed and dressed the wool before coloring. (See Fuller.)
Egyptian embalmers treated dead bodies to prevent decay, a skill they developed to near perfection. Joseph, a ruler in Egypt and an adopted son of a pharaoh, had his father Jacob embalmed (Gen. 50:2, 3) and was himself embalmed (50:26). This was likely done to preserve their bodies for transport back to Palestine (50:13, 14; Josh. 24:32), because Israelites did not usually embalm the dead. Nor did they cremate bodies as Greeks and Romans often did. They instead washed and scented the body before dressing it in the person’s clothes or else wrapping it in specially prepared sheets (see “Funeral Preparations” at John 12:1–8 and “Ancient Burial Practices” at 1 Cor. 15:42). These funeral preparations were frequently carried out by women.
Decorative needlework, or “painting with a needle,” was the work of an embroiderer. Ancient embroiderers decorated clothes with colorful, highly stylized geometric designs, particularly for the rich (Judg. 5:30; Ps. 45:14; Luke 20:46). In Israel, embroiderers decorated priestly garments and the appointments of the tabernacle (Ex. 26:1, 36; 27:16; 28:4, 15). Embroidering, weaving, and tapestrymaking were separate occupations, but some translations use the terms interchangeably (See Tailor; Tapestrymaker; Weaver.)
(See Diviner.)
(See Metalworker.)
(See Ambassador.)
Chamberlains, who were very often eunuchs, were responsible for guarding the king’s bedroom and harem (Esth. 1:10–15). These men were castrated so as to remove all possibility of unfaithfulness (Is. 56:3). They were highly trusted and influential officials. An Ethiopian eunuch under Queen Candace served as her royal treasurer (Acts 8:27). (See Porter.)
The Old Testament distinguishes between murder (illegally taking another’s life, Ex. 20:13) and execution. Under the Law, many crimes were punishable by death (Gen. 9:6; Deut. 13:10; 21:22). It was often the executioner’s task to carry out that punishment, although some crimes called for stoning by the men of the community (see “Stoning” at John 10:31). Personal vengeance was prohibited (Deut. 24:16). The New Testament records several executions that were legal under Roman law (Matt. 14:10; Acts 12:1, 2). The most infamous was the crucifixion of Jesus (see “Crucifixion” at Luke 23:33).
People of the ancient world generally believed in spirit powers and in the ability of evil powers to take over a human body. Potions, spells, and chanting were used to cast out these demons. Acts records an attempt by exorcists to use Jesus’ name as a magic spell (Acts 19:13).
New Testament teaching affirms the existence of evil spirits while emphasizing Christ’s total victory over them (see “Demons” at Luke 11:14 and “The Enemy” at Eph. 6:10–13). Jesus expelled demons quickly and easily. He did not practice the mysterious and often complicated rituals of exorcists (Matt. 12:24–28).
Some translations use this word for the one who sifts wheat from the chaff using a forked fanning instrument. (See Winnower.)
Terms in the Bible that refer to farmers include plowman (Is. 28:24), husbandman (2 Chr. 26:10 KJV), vinedresser (Is. 61:5; John 15:1–8), gardener (20:15), and tiller (Gen. 4:2). Cain was the first farmer (4:2), and farming was a major occupation among ancient Israelites. Olive and fig trees were their principal crops, and they also grew almonds, apples, dates, grapes, mulberries, and pomegranates (Joel 1:11, 12). Farmers were responsible for all aspects of the growing process, usually working with their families to plow, plant, tend, and harvest. Prosperous farmers could hire helpers (see Laborer). In the New Testament, a farmer includes anyone who owns land, whether the land is used for raising crops or for another purpose (Matt. 21:33).
Fishing was one of the most important and common occupations of Bible times. Fishermen used spears, nets, hooks, and lines (Job 41:7; Is. 19:8; Matt. 13:47, 48; Mark 1:16; Luke 5:2; see also “The World of the Fishermen” at Luke 5:1–11). Several of Jesus’ disciples were professional fishermen (Matt. 4:18–22).
Heralds who ran before a king’s chariot to announce his coming were sometimes called footmen (Jer. 12:5). Most biblical references are to “foot soldiers” or infantrymen (for example, 1 Sam. 4:10; 15:4; 22:17 KJV). (See Announcer; Messenger; Soldier.)
(See Overseer.)
The Bible makes frequent reference to forests. Palestine’s forests were depleted during a brief thirteen-year period to enable construction of Solomon’s aptly named House of the Forest of Lebanon (1 Kin. 7:2). Nevertheless, loggers were said to be conservationists who practiced reforestation (Is. 44:14). A man named Asaph was “the keeper of the king’s forest” during Nehemiah’s time (Neh. 2:8). He was a regional governor responsible for land use and for developing and restricting the lumber industry. Nehemiah secured a logging permit from Asaph to fell timber for use in reconstructing the walls of Jerusalem. (See Builder; Carpenter; Woodworker.)
Foundry Worker, Founder, Forger
The foundry worker melted, refined, and cast ore into precious or other useful metals (Jer. 6:29). Once cast, the metal could be pounded flat or engraved (10:9). It was hot, dirty work involving stoking and cleaning furnaces, making castings, and pouring molten metal into clay molds. Solomon brought Hiram of Tyre to Jerusalem to cast two bronze pillars for the temple. They were topped with capitals and embellished with a pomegranate design (1 Kin. 7:13–22). (See Metalworker; Refiner.)
The Egyptians were innovative fowlers, using a variety of devices to seek, catch, and kill wild fowl, such as decoys, traps (Amos 3:5), nets (Prov. 1:17), bait, bows and arrows, slings, lures, dogs, and birdlime smeared on branches. Mosaic law forbade taking a mother bird and her young together; only the young were to be taken (Deut. 22:6, 7). Scripture at times uses the fowler as a symbolic representation of the wicked, scheming enemies of the righteous (Ps. 91:3; 124:7; Hos. 9:8). (See Hunter.)
The fuller’s job was to clean, shrink, thicken, and sometimes dye newly cut wool or cloth. The Hebrew term means “to trample” or “to tread,” suggesting at least one means a fuller used to carry out his or her craft.
Fullers removed oily and gummy substances from material to make it fit for use. They used “fullers’ soap,” probably containing alkaline as found in white clay, putrid urine, or niter. The alkaline was washed out by repeatedly treading on the material in clean, running water. The material was then dried and bleached in the sun.
The fulling process created an unpleasant odor, and fullers therefore usually worked outside the city gates. A location outside of Jerusalem was known as the Fuller’s Field (2 Kin. 18:17; Is. 7:3).
The day of God’s judgment is compared to “fullers’ soap” (Mal. 3:2 KJV; translated “launderers’ soap” in the NKJV). Jesus’ garments at the Transfiguration are described as having been whiter than any human fuller could make them (Mark 9:3 KJV; “launderer” in the NKJV). (See Dyer.)
Scripture references to gardens, plants, and orchards are abundant (for example, 1 Kin. 4:33; Eccl. 2:5; Amos 9:14). With more than three hundred botanical terms and incidental references to gardens, we can conclude that gardening was an important activity in Bible times. Adam was the first gardener (Gen. 2:15). But the one gardener directly mentioned in Scripture—in the scene with Mary Magdalene after the Resurrection (John 20:15)—was probably not a gardener but a watchman. (See Botanist; Farmer; Watchman.)
(See Porter.)
Glass was known as early as 2600 B.C. Around 1400 B.C., the Egyptians were able to make glass similar to pottery by winding hot glass rods around a sand core and then joining the layers by reheating them. While glassworkers are not mentioned in the Bible, several New Testament references to transparent glass are evidence of the existence of the occupation by that time.
Fruit and grain farmers were instructed to leave unharvested produce in the field for the poor, who then acted as gleaners by harvesting what had been left behind (Lev. 19:9, 10; Ruth 2; see also “Gleaning and the Poor” at Lev. 19:9, 10).
(See Shepherd.)
Goldsmiths refined, purified, and worked with gold (Is. 41:7). Israelite goldsmiths fashioned gold-plated vessels and interior furnishings for the tabernacle (Ex. 25:11, 24; 26:29, 32; 30:3) along with solid gold pieces (25:18, 29, 31). They also made fine gold wire, thread, and bells for embroidering priests’ garments (Ex. 28). But some molded and hammered out idols (Ex. 32; Ps. 115:4; Is. 2:7). The New Testament describes God as a goldsmith, molding the Christian’s character like “gold refined by fire” (1 Cor. 3:12, 13; 1 Pet. 1:7; Rev. 3:18). (See Metalworker; Refiner.)
Many different officials appear in Scripture. Depending on the translation, one finds chancellors, commissioners, comptrollers, controllers, courtiers, deputies, magistrates, officers, presidents, procurers, quartermasters, recorders, secretaries, treasurers, trustees, and viceroys, to name some. These officials may have been government administrators (Gen. 41:34), religious or military overseers (1 Kin. 4:5), secretaries (Ex. 5:6–8), commanders (Num. 11:16), or royal assistants (Esth. 1:8). Little is known about most of these positions. For an extended account of one government official, read about the life of Joseph (Gen. 39–50).
The English word governor, meaning “to lead” or “to rule,” is used to translate eleven different Hebrew words and four different Greek words. As applied to Joseph, the term indicates that he was second-in-command in Egypt as a chief deputy, prince, or viceroy in Pharaoh’s court (Gen. 41:40; 42:6; 45:26; Acts 7:10). In the New Testament, the term is used of several Roman officials, including Pilate (Matt. 27:2), Quirinius (Luke 2:2), Felix (Acts 23:26), and Festus (26:30), where governor also implied a sort of chief financial officer (see “New Testament Rulers” at Luke 3:1 and “First-Century Roman Politics” at Luke 22:25). These political appointees were responsible to Rome for the military, judicial, and financial administration of their districts. In one place the KJV uses the word governor to designate a custodian or manager of property or people (Gal. 4:2). (See Steward.)
(See Jailer; Keeper; Soldier; Watchman.)
(See Prostitute.)
(See Laborer.)
(See Sailor.)
(See Announcer.)
(See Woodworker.)
(See Mason.)
The fact that the Scriptures exist points to the crucial role of the historian, chronicler, or recorder. The Bible names several historians, such as Jehoshaphat (2 Sam. 8:16; 20:24) and Joah (2 Kin. 18:18; Is. 36:22). These chroniclers recorded significant events and stories from their nation’s history. Often the events were compiled in chronological order and presented in a way intended to explain the cause of events. Biblical histories also served a spiritual purpose, as we can see clearly in Luke’s writings. (See Recorder; Scribe.)
Horses are mentioned often in the Bible but were of little importance to the average Israelite, who found it more practical to keep a donkey for transportation or an ox for pulling a plow. Horsemen were sometimes used as mail carriers (Esth. 8:10), but for the most part, horses appear in accounts of war. God warned the Israelites not to place their faith in the strength and speed of horses (Ps. 20:7) or to “multiply” horses (Deut. 17:16). David and Solomon nevertheless built up large mounted forces, even importing horses from other countries. Solomon had a sizable cavalry as well as horses that pulled war chariots. (See Charioteer; Soldier.)
Householders were heads of households, persons with authority over what went on in a home. Jesus also called them landowners or masters of the house. He frequently included these figures in His teaching (Matt. 20:1; 21:33; see also “Treasures Old and New” at Matt. 13:52).
Hunting was a common means to secure food and fur in ancient times, but there are few references to hunters in the Bible. Only two are prominently named: Nimrod, the “mighty hunter before the Lord” (Gen. 10:9; 1 Chr. 1:10), and Esau, the skillful hunter and brother of Jacob (Gen. 25:27; 27:3, 30).
Scripture mentions a variety of wild game: roe deer, gazelles, harts, antelope, mountain sheep, and wild goats, among others (Lev. 17:13; Deut. 12:15, 22; 14:5). Methods of hunting included bows and arrows (Gen. 21:20), digging pits, and nets, snares, and traps (Is. 24:17; Ezek. 19:4–8; Amos 3:5). Hunting for sport was popular among kings. Landowners also hunted to protect their crops. (See Archer; Fowler.)
Some translations use this older word for one who plows and cultivates land. (See Farmer.)
In the Old Testament era, most travelers stayed in private dwellings or slept in the open. By New Testament times, some people managed inns (Luke 10:34, 35). These facilities were often neither comfortable nor safe and provided few amenities. Innkeepers were infamous for their dishonesty, likely one reason Christians were encouraged to open their homes in hospitality to strangers. The inn where Mary and Joseph found no room could have been a large private dwelling, since it was customary for homeowners to rent out quarters during festivals (2:7).
Instructors of all kinds—priestly catechists, pastor-evangelists, and godly parents—were charged with teaching, mentoring, and discipling younger generations. Luke was an instructor in the faith for Theophilus (Luke 1:1–4). Paul chided the Corinthians that though they might have “ten thousand instructors in Christ,” he alone was their spiritual father (1 Cor. 4:15). Many of the Proverbs praise parents who assume the role of instructor (Prov. 1:8; 4:1). God frequently used angels to give instructions when a message needed explanation (Luke 1–2; Acts 10:22).
The job of an interpreter sometimes resembles the job of an instructor; the term implies someone who can “explain fully or give the understanding of something in different words.” Interpreters translated languages (Gen. 42:23), explained dreams (40:8; 41:8), or revealed the meaning of tongues or prophecies (1 Cor. 12:10, 30; 14:26–28). Ambassadors often served kings as interpreters (2 Chr. 32:31; Ezra 4:7), along with magicians, astrologers, and sorcerers (Dan. 2:2–4; 4:6). Daniel and his friends were recruited for this purpose (1:3–5; 2:14–49; 4:19–27; 5:13–29). Angels also served as interpreters of God’s messages (Luke 1–2; Acts 10:22). (See Ambassador; Instructor; Magician.)
(See Metalworker.)
Jailers and keepers of prisons were usually soldiers. Prisons were damp, dark, and unpleasant places of detention (Ps. 107:10). Many important figures in Scripture spent time in jail: Joseph, who was entrusted with responsibility for other prisoners (Gen. 39:20–23; 40:3, 4); Samson (Judg. 16:21, 25); Jeremiah, who was detained at four different sites (Jer. 37–38); John the Baptist (Mark 6:17, 27); and Peter and John (Acts 4:3; 5:18; 12:3–5). Before his conversion, Paul arrested and imprisoned Christians (8:3), and later he himself suffered frequent jailings for the gospel (16:23; 28:30). He used the opportunity to bring his captors to faith (16:23–34; Phil. 1:12–14). (See Keeper.)
The Old Testament mentions jewelry as a sign of wealth and blessing (Is. 61:10; Ezek. 23:26). It was given to brides as a present (Gen. 24:22, 30, 53) or as part of a dowry. Priestly garments, especially the breastplate, were adorned with beautiful gemstones, rings, and chains crafted by a skilled jeweler (Ex. 28:15–28). In the New Testament, Jesus told a story about a woman who lost a coin that may have been one of a set of ten silver coins worn as jewelry (Luke 15:8–10). (See Metalworker.)
Judges in the Bible dispensed justice, governed, and provided legal protection. The first and last judge mentioned in Scripture is God (Gen. 18:25; Rev. 19:11; 20:1–13). Following this divine model, at least to an extent, the Old Testament patriarchs acted as judges over their households (Gen. 21, 22, 27). Moses judged all Israel and appointed elders to be judges under him (Ex. 18:13–27; Deut. 1:12–17). After Israel entered the Promised Land, the nation was ruled by a cycle of judges, deliverers such as Othniel, Ehud, Deborah, Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson. Under the monarchy, justice ultimately resided with the king (1 Kin. 3:16–28). All along, however, God was viewed as Israel’s ultimate judge, deliverer, and king (Judg. 8:23; 11:27; Is. 33:22).
By the time of the New Testament, Israel’s high court had become the Sanhedrin, although there were also judges in every town (Luke 18:2; see also “The Sanhedrin” at Acts 4:15 and “Stephen’s Trial and Murder” at Acts 6:12). In the early church, members were forbidden to use pagan courts. Christians instead appointed their own elders to judge civil disputes between believers (see “Christians Suing Christians” at 1 Cor. 6:1–11). Christ is the ultimate judge over His people (see “The Judgment Seat” at 2 Cor. 5:10).
This generic job description applied to many occupations in the Bible: trustees or treasurers of the city treasury (Rom. 16:23); keepers of prisons, also known as guards or jailers (Gen. 39:20–23; 40:3, 4); night watchmen (2 Kin. 11:5); foresters (Neh. 2:8); keepers of the vineyard, or vinedressers (Is. 5:1–30; Matt. 21:33–44); and keepers of wardrobes (2 Kin. 22:14), doors (23:4), or gates, also known as gatekeepers, doorkeepers, or porters (1 Chr. 9:19). Keepers of a harem (Esth. 2:3, 14) were called eunuchs or chamberlains. Keepers of animals included shepherds (Gen. 4:2; 1 Sam. 17:20) and herdsmen or cattlemen (Gen. 4:20). Many of the terms listed in this entry can be found elsewhere in this index, with entries of their own that provide further explanation.
Most large ancient civilizations were controlled by kings and queens who usually inherited their position and power and ruled for life. Dynasties of pharaohs reigned in Egypt, and Israel had its own lines of monarchs of varying quality and spiritual commitment. Unlike the rulers of the Gentiles, the Israelite kings were not viewed as gods although their right to rule was bequeathed by God.
The New Testament mentions several kings, including Herod (Matt. 2:1) and his grandson Agrippa (Acts 25:24). However, they were not really kings but governors over Roman territories (see “The Herods” at Acts 12:1, 2). Even though Herod was called the “king of the Jews,” it was Jesus who was born into that position and later crucified by Pilate under that title (Matt. 27:37). Elsewhere, Scripture affirms that Jesus is the King of kings and Lord of lords (1 Tim. 6:15; Rev. 17:14; 19:16).
The term laborer indicates either a field hand (Matt. 9:37, 38; 20:1, 2, 8; James 5:4; see Farmer; Gleaner) or a worker in a general sense (Matt. 10:10, some translations; 1 Tim. 5:18). A laborer’s job might or might not entail more manual work, less pay, and less training than a skilled occupation: Luke calls the fellow craftsmen of the silversmiths at Ephesus “workers of similar occupation” (Acts 19:25, emphasis added). While laborers were and are often poor and oppressed, their inheritance in life is meant to be good, joyful, and worthwhile, a “gift of God” (Eccl. 5:18–20). Jesus called for more “laborers” to harvest fields of souls (Matt. 9:37, 38).
(See Fuller.)
The term lawyer in the New Testament carries a completely different meaning from its usage today. By the first century, the Law (the first five books of the Old Testament) had been expounded upon by generations of Jewish teachers. Their intent was to interpret and apply the Law to every situation in life. This ongoing work created a vast commentary claimed by its custodians to be just as binding as the actual commands given to Moses. These experts in the Law, known as lawyers, scribes, or doctors of the law (Luke 2:46; 5:17; Acts 5:34 KJV), were employed in studying, interpreting, and expounding the Mosaic law. They also acted as court judges. In the New Testament some such men opposed John the Baptist (Luke 7:30) and Jesus (Matt. 22:34–40; Luke 14:3). (See Advocate; Doctor; Judge; Scribe.)
(See Tanner.)
The practice of moneylending was strictly regulated in the Old Testament (Deut. 15:1–11; 23:19, 20; 24:10, 11; 28:12, 44). The Law prohibited interest-bearing loans to the poor, especially to fellow Israelites. People were urged instead to give generously and without taking anything as collateral. But Israel repeatedly broke these regulations and had to take corrective measures. Even Nehemiah was guilty of lending at interest and had to make amends (Neh. 5). Jesus brought the concept of canceling debts into sharper focus by applying it to the concept of forgiveness (Matt. 18:23–35).
Scrolls and parchments were readily available to visiting speakers in a synagogue (Luke 4:17). The Book of the Law (possibly Deuteronomy) was found “in the house of the Lord” by Hilkiah (2 Kin. 22:8; see also Ezra 6:1). This finding implies that there were temple archives or perhaps a temple library, and thus a librarian.
(See Dyer.)
Moses and Aaron were a prototype of lobbyists who attempt to persuade those in power to adopt a certain course of action. With God’s help, the two leaders were able to convince Pharaoh to allow the Israelites to leave Egypt (Ex. 7–12). Another effective lobbyist was Nehemiah, who persuaded King Artaxerxes to allow Jerusalem to be rebuilt; the king even funded the project. Nehemiah used a variety of methods to lobby his cause: prayer, tears, bold words, carefully crafted letters, onsite inspections, and progress reports. Similarly, the Old Testament prophets often fought to convince others to accept God’s ways. Ezekiel staged a hunger strike and shaved off all of his hair (Ezek. 4–5). Jeremiah used props to illustrate his message, including a ruined, useless belt (Jer. 13:1–11), a broken clay pot (19:1–12), and yoked straps and crossbars (ch. 27). In the New Testament, Paul lobbied authorities in Rome and Jerusalem to accept the gospel or at least permit its advance (Acts 28:17–31). (See Orator; Prophet.)
(See Forester.)
Occult practices such as fortune-telling and witchcraft were common among the pagan nations of the ancient world. But attempts to contact or control evil spirits were expressly forbidden to the Israelites, a prohibition that extends to Christians today (see “Magic and Sorcery” at Rev. 18:23).
This term has many meanings, depending on its context. A magistrate sometimes resembled a judge (Ezra 7:25; Luke 12:58; Acts 16:20), with ruling, even priestly, authority (Judg. 18:7; Acts 23:5). Among the Jews in Jesus’ day, some magistrates were “rulers of synagogues” (Matt. 9:18, 23; Luke 8:41; 12:11), subject to a larger ruling body known as the Sanhedrin (see “The Synagogue” at Mark 1:21 and “Stephen’s Trial and Murder” at Acts 6:12).
Two Hebrew words are variously translated bond-, hand-, or maidservant, maiden, bondwoman, female servant, or slave. In general, these girls or women served the wives and daughters of rich or important men (Gen. 16:1–3). They were treated more like property than their male counterparts; some were even sold into slavery by their fathers (Ex. 21:7). They performed menial tasks such as grinding flour (11:5; see also “Slaves” at Rom. 6:16 and “Women and Work in the Ancient World” at 1 Cor. 7:32–35). Some were surrogate mothers (for example, Gen. 16:1–4) or concubines (for example, Judg. 19:9). (See Slave.)
(See Overseer.)
(See Sailor.)
Masons were employed in cutting stone for the construction of hedges, walls, buildings, memorials, and other functional or ornamental objects. Stoneworkers also hewed wine vats, cisterns, tombs, and water tunnels. Judging from the many examples of stoneworks in Scripture (2 Sam. 5:11; 2 Kin. 22:6; 1 Chr. 22:2; 2 Chr. 24:12), this was a significant occupation. The Israelites may have learned the craft during their sojourn in Egypt (Ex. 1:11, 14) or from the master builders at Phoenicia (2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Chr. 14:1).
To quarry rock, masons drove wood wedges into stone and soaked them until they expanded, causing the rock to crack. After separating a block of rough stone, they trimmed it with a saw, ax, or pick. Some masons could “square” or quarry stone so it joined neatly with other stones to create a smooth face (1 Kin. 5:17, 18; 6:7). The Old Testament compared the Word of God to the quarry worker’s hammer (Jer. 23:29).
Other names for stonemasons include stonecutters and hewers of stone. (See Builder.)
Merchants are referred to in various Bible translations as traders, dealers, and merchandisers. Merchants sold their wares in open bazaars or marketplaces (Neh. 3:32; 13:16; Ezek. 27:24; Matt. 11:16; Mark 7:4). Scripture warned them against unscrupulous practices such as false weights and measures (Deut. 25:13–16; Hos. 12:7; Amos 8:5), and the Book of Revelation depicts how some took their trade to scandalous excess (Rev. 18:3–23). In contrast, the virtuous woman of Proverbs 31 is praised for her honest mercantile skills.
The job of a messenger in Scripture is related to several other occupations: ambassador (Prov. 13:17), mediator (Job 33:23), and military courier (1 Sam. 4:17; 23:27; 2 Sam. 2:5; 11:22–25). The messenger is also associated with the footman or runner (2 Kin. 6:32, 33; Jer. 51:31) and with the horseman and watchman (2 Kin. 9:18). The word is also used of the prophets (Hag. 1:13), the Lord’s servant (Is. 42:19), and John the Baptist (Mal. 3:1; Mark 1:2). (See Announcer.)
This category includes those who dug ore from the ground, refined ore into metal, or worked metal into useful objects. Refining metal was well-developed by the time of Abraham, when smiths were using bellows to increase the heat of their furnaces in order to melt iron ore for extraction. Even before then, copper was mixed with tin to form bronze or with zinc to form brass. Metalworkers produced high-quality vessels, jewelry, and coins.
The first metalworker mentioned in the Bible is Tubal-Cain, a descendant of Cain who taught others to work with “bronze and iron” (Gen. 4:22). Two metalworkers named in the New Testament are Demetrius, a silversmith at Ephesus (Acts 19:24–28), and Alexander the coppersmith (2 Tim. 4:14).
Various translations use different terms to describe metalworkers: artificer, artisan, blacksmith, bronze worker, craftsman, engraver, forger, founder, metalsmith, refiner, and smelter. (See Foundry Worker.)
Midwives helped other women give birth (Gen. 35:17; see also “A Woman in Labor” at John 16:21, 22). They coached the mother through the delivery, cut the umbilical cord, bathed the baby, and rubbed it with salt in the belief that it promoted good health (Ezek. 16:4). Newborns were then swaddled, or wrapped snugly in cloth. If twins were born, the midwife marked the firstborn (Gen. 38:28). Midwives were sometimes relatives or friends of the mother, but often they were professionals such as the Hebrew midwives who refused to obey Pharaoh’s orders to kill male babies at birth (Ex. 1:15–22). (See Nurse.)
(See Census Taker.)
Grinding grain was the work of a miller, often a maidservant (Ex. 11:5). Men were usually the ones who gathered the grain, while women usually ground it (Matt. 24:40, 41) using a household handmill. The millstone was an invaluable asset, never to be used as a pledge and put at risk (Deut. 24:6). The saying “to have a millstone hung around one’s neck” (compare Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2) indicated humiliating and unbearable punishment similar to Samson’s being forced to push a heavy grinder normally turned by donkeys or oxen (Judg. 16:21).
(See Foundry Worker.)
Money changers set up open-air stalls outside the temple to change ritually unclean foreign currency into local money to be given as offerings. These cashiers often cheated their customers, a practice especially troublesome since their service was indispensable. Jesus fumed over the tables of corrupt money changers, declaring that they had made His Father’s house into a den of thieves and a house of merchandise (Mark 11:15–17; John 2:13–20). (See Banker.)
Many ancient Middle Eastern cultures employed professional mourners—usually women—for public expressions of grief (Eccl. 12:5; Jer. 9:17, 18; Amos 5:16; see “Mourning Women” at Is. 3:24–26 and “Flutes and Wailing” at Matt. 9:23). Even the poor often hired pipers, flutists, and at least one wailer for their funereal lamentations. Men sometimes joined women as singers and wailers (2 Chr. 35:24, 25). A train of women mourned Jesus’ death (Luke 23:27, 28).
Scripture provides ample evidence that music was a major part of Israel’s worship and that musicians were vital to the culture. While temple music was mostly a voluntary service, paid musicians were called on for special occasions (Matt. 9:23; Mark 5:38). The study and practice of musical instruments goes back to Cain’s family: Jubal, the first player of the harp and flute (Gen. 4:21). David’s early talent as a harpist was noted by Saul, who employed David as a sort of musical therapist for his sin-sick soul (1 Sam. 16:14–23). Other stringed instruments mentioned in Scripture include the lyre, the psaltery, and the sackbut. Wind instruments include the flute, the ram’s horn, and the trumpet. The silver or brass cymbal was a main feature of the temple orchestra. English translations vary in their rendering of instruments’ names. (See Mourner; Singer.)
(See Prince.)
One Hebrew term for nurse could be used for males as well as females and meant “to foster.” The more common term meant “to give milk.” One well-known biblical nurse of the latter type was the Hebrew woman fetched by Pharaoh’s daughter to raise Moses (Ex. 2:7–9), an extraordinary case in which the biological mother became a paid professional nurse to her own child. Moses later came to see himself as a “nursing father” to the Israelites (Num. 11:12 KJV). The word meaning “to foster” is also applied to Mordecai, the man who raised Esther (Esth. 2:7). Both terms are used of kings and queens who will serve God’s chosen people (Is. 49:23).
The tasks of a female nurse included suckling children and carrying infants (49:22; see also “The Value of Children” at Matt. 19:14). Some family nurses were honored and shared over multiple generations (Gen. 24:59; 35:8; Ruth 4:16). Some heroic nurses took endangered children to raise as their own (2 Sam. 4:4; 2 Kin. 11:2; 2 Chr. 22:11). Later, Paul was like a nurse to his spiritual children (1 Thess. 2:7). (See Midwife; Physician.)
(See Sailor.)
(See Government Official.)
Communications in ancient societies tended to be oral rather than visual, so rhetoricians and their teachers, coaches, and speech writers were in high demand. For example, the Jews who opposed Paul in Jerusalem employed Tertullus, a professional orator, to make their case before the Gentile governor Felix (Acts 24:1–9). Roman courts operated according to rules of etiquette and oratory, and crude speech could lose a case. Paul was a highly trained speaker able to defend himself in these settings (24:10–21; 25:9–12; 26:1–28). A study of Paul’s speech at the Areopagus (17:22–31) demonstrates the range of his abilities, even though the power of his preaching did not depend on such skill (1 Cor. 2:4; see also “Answering the Intellectuals” at Acts 17:15–34 and “Take Christ to Work” at Acts 17:17)
Scripture refers to birds more than three hundred times and mentions about fifty species. (Modern ornithologists have catalogued almost four hundred kinds of birds in the Palestine area.) Adam and Noah included birds in their work as zoologist and zookeeper (Gen. 2:19–21; 6:19—7:3). The food list in Lev. 11:2–23 includes many birds, but forty-four other books of the Bible mention at least one. Among those specifically named are the bittern, chicken, cormorant, crane, cuckoo, dove, eagle, falcon, hawk, heron, osprey, ostrich, owl, partridge, peacock, pelican, pigeon, quail, raven, sparrow, stork, swallow, turtledove, and vulture (translations vary). The Bible also notes birds’ migratory patterns, food, songs, nesting, and habitats.
An overseer controlled or managed people or projects. A captain in Pharaoh’s guard bought Joseph from slave traders and made him the “overseer” of his house (Gen. 39:4, 5), a position of significant authority (39:8, 9). Overseers were responsible for making sure tasks were completed (2 Chr. 2:8) and sometimes helped rule others (Neh. 11:9). Overseers responsible for slaves were sometimes called taskmasters (see “Slaves” at Rom. 6:16 and Philemon’s profile at Philem. 1). Those who oversaw the Israelite slaves in Egypt were remembered as cruel (Ex. 1:11–14). Overseers were also known as drivers, foremen, and slavemasters. In the New Testament, some church leaders are called overseers, sometimes translated bishops (Acts 20:28; Phil. 1:1; 1 Tim. 3:2; Titus 1:7).
The manufacture of perfume is an ancient art. Perfumes were often used to mask unpleasant body odors in cultures where bathing was infrequent and antiperspirant had not yet come into use. Perfumers and cooks are frequently associated with each other in ancient literature because their skills were related. Egyptian tomb paintings of the fifteenth century B.C. depict the process of making perfume from flowers. In the Old Testament, tabernacle and temple worship required professional perfumers to make scents for the priest and incense for burning (Ex. 30:25, 35; 1 Chr. 9:30). These perfumers formed professional guilds (Neh. 3:8). The KJV sometimes calls perfumers apothecaries or confectioners. (See Cosmetologist.)
(See Apothecary.)
A philosopher is a literally a “lover of wisdom.” The only philosophers directly mentioned in Scripture are the Epicureans and Stoics that Paul encountered at Athens (Acts 17:18). Their presence in the biblical account reflects the fact that philosophers heavily influenced Greek and Roman thinking.
Scripture elsewhere shows philosophical reflection and discussion. The Book of Job records the thoughts of Job and his three friends as they struggled to make sense of the evils that struck Job. Ecclesiastes presents the conclusions of a person looking back on life to determine what has value and significance. Many of Paul’s letters, while not theoretical treatises, offer a starting point for philosophical inquiry.
Some say that philosophy by its very nature is opposed to faith. While philosophers often start from assumptions, and some come to conclusions that go against Scripture, God nowhere discourages intellectual inquiry. However, Scripture consistently reminds us that ultimately only Christ is the “wisdom of God,” a concept that may seem foolish to some (1 Cor. 1:24).
The Bible alludes frequently to sickness and health issues, reflecting a practice of medicine that began in ancient times and gradually expanded in knowledge and technique. Simple but relatively effective medicines were made from mineral, animal, and plant substances. Specialists eventually began to experiment with surgery and other invasive medical procedures. For example, archaeologists have found skulls dating from the sixth century B.C. that show evidence of trepanning, an attempt to surgically relieve pressure on the brain.
The only type of surgery directly mentioned in the Bible is circumcision, the ceremonial removal of the Hebrew male’s foreskin eight days after birth (see “Circumcision” at Gen. 17:9–14). The only physician mentioned by name is Luke (Col. 4:14; see his profile at Luke 1:1 and an article on his life here). Jesus and His followers performed miraculous healings of numerous people as a sign that He is indeed the Messiah.
(See Sailor.)
Plastering walls to form a smooth surface (Lev. 14:42, 43) is an ancient and widespread craft often performed by homeowners. Higher quality plaster was made with heated, broken limestone and gypsum; a lower quality plaster used only in very dry climates was made with clay and straw. Plaster, sometimes called “whitewash” (Deut. 27:2–4), was applied to the tabernacle altar and engraved while wet. In Babylon, a hand suddenly appeared in King Belshazzar’s palace and inscribed a message from God on a plastered wall (Dan. 5:5). (See Bricklayer.)
(See Farmer.)
Poetry was important throughout the ancient world, and nearly every culture included skilled lyricists who captured the experiences and emotions of their society. Israelite poets were prolific; an entire section of the Old Testament is made up of poetry composed under the Holy Spirit’s inspiration (Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon), and verse also appears in other books. In addition, poetry is seen in the structure of several New Testament passages (for example, Luke 1:46–55, 68–79).
(See Keeper.)
Porters and gatekeepers were essentially security guards who stood at the entrance to public buildings and the temple (1 Chr. 9:23; 26:12; 2 Chr. 23:19) as well as the homes of public officials (John 18:17) and the wealthy (Mark 13:34). Jesus also referred to a doorkeeper at the entrance to a sheepfold (John 10:3). The job required watchfulness and the ability to identify and manage dangers. It nevertheless must have been a relatively lowly position as implied by the psalmist’s statement that he would “rather be a doorkeeper in the house of my God than dwell in the tents of wickedness” (Ps. 84:10). (See “The Gates of Hell” at Matt. 16:18.)
The pottery wheel has been in use for thousands of years. Israel employed professional potters who sat at the edge of a small pit, turning the pottery wheel with their feet. Before working with the clay, however, the potter kneaded it by foot into the right consistency. Without this preparation, weak spots could develop when the clay was thrown on the wheel, leading to cracks when a piece was baked or put to use. Jeremiah enacted the role of a potter in order to make the point that people are like unformed, pliable clay in the hands of God (Jer. 18–19). In the New Testament, Paul compared the Christian’s resilience under pressure, as a result of being a vessel of Christ, to the resilience of “earthen vessels” (2 Cor. 4:7–12).
Words associated with preachers and preaching appear primarily in the New Testament. Preaching was not an occupation but more of a task or function involving the duties of a herald. For example, Peter described Noah as a “preacher of righteousness” (2 Pet. 2:5). Paul referred to himself as a “preacher of the gospel” (1 Tim. 2:7; 2 Kin. 1:11). To the Romans Paul pointed out the importance of a “preacher” in spreading the gospel, meaning someone sent to communicate the message of Christ to unbelievers (Rom. 10:14, 15). (See Announcer.)
Priests in Israel were official ministers and worship leaders who represented the people before God and conducted rituals to atone for sin. Originally this function was carried out by the father of a family (Job 1:5), but with God’s appointment of Aaron as the first high priest over Israel, a formal priesthood was established (Num. 8:9–18).
By the New Testament era, the position of priests had changed considerably. Temple functions were taken over by the chief priests. Rank-and-file priests were overshadowed by scribes and Pharisees, groups that arose to interpret the Law (see “Political Parties of Jesus’ Day” at Matt. 16:1 and “Scribes” at Luke 20:39).
The priestly office was ultimately fulfilled in Jesus, the Son of God who became man to offer Himself as a sacrifice “once to bear the sins of many” (Heb. 2:9–14; 9:28). As a result, there is no longer a need to offer sacrifices to atone for sin. Christ became a permanent sacrifice through His death on the cross (see “Better Than Before” at Heb. 7:19–22).
This term applied not only to royalty but to people in positions of authority and responsibility (Gen. 12:15; 17:20; Ex. 2:14). (See King, Queen.)
(See Buyer.)
(See Astronomer.)
Prophets spoke for God, often at great personal risk. Old Testament prophets received a call directly from God, sometimes even before birth (Jer. 1:5; Luke 1:13–16). They had no special qualifications and came from all walks of life. Some were called for a lifetime, while others exercised only a brief ministry. But one trait characterized them all: a faithful proclamation not of their own words but of the words of God (Jer. 23:16; Ezek. 13:2).
Prophets sometimes used dramatic means to make their points. Isaiah went barefoot and naked for three years (Is. 20:2, 3). Ezekiel lay on his left side for 390 days and on his right side for forty more (Ezek. 4:1–8). Zechariah broke two staffs (Zech. 11:7–14). A prophet’s activities aroused curiosity and caused people to think, but they sometimes also invited scorn (Jer. 11:21).
In the early church, some Christians were given the gift of prophecy, such as Agabus and the four daughters of Philip (Acts 21:8–11). Paul’s first letter to the Corinthians includes prophecy among a list of spiritual gifts of the Holy Spirit (1 Cor. 12:1–11).
Prostitution as part of pagan religious rites dates back to at least 3000 B.C. Intercourse with a temple prostitute was believed to induce fertility. Ritual prostitution was forbidden in Israel (Deut. 23:17), but commercial prostitutes practiced their trade and made themselves easily recognizable (Prov. 5:3–20; 6:24–29; 7:6–27). They accepted payment in money, grain, wine, or livestock (see “Harlots Enter the Kingdom” at Matt. 21:31, 32). Unlike the religious elite of His day, Jesus became known as a friend of sinners who befriended people in need of forgiveness, including prostitutes (Matt. 11:19; Luke 7:36–50). The New Testament praises the harlot Rahab as an example of a Gentile whose faith was accepted by God (see “Rahab’s Faith” at Heb. 11:31; see also Josh. 2:1–24; 6:22–25; James 2:25).
The derivation of the word publican from the Latin publicanus denotes a provincial general. The publican should not be confused with the customs officer or tax collector. Publicans were wealthy men—usually Gentiles—who contracted with the Roman government to take charge of a district’s taxes. Each province was levied a specific tax by Rome, and the publican employed tax collectors to bring in that amount. Anything he gathered above the required amount was his to keep as a commission or collection fee.
A shrewd publican backed by military force could collect import-export surcharges, road and bridge usage fees, and many other levies (see “Taxes” at Mark 12:14). This led to unscrupulous practices and animosity toward these Gentile “sinners” in league with Rome (Matt. 9:9–11). (See Tax Collector.)
There is no evidence of publishing as an industry in Scripture, and the printing press was nonexistent in Bible times. Literacy was also limited. Ancient cultures tended to concentrate information in the hands of a few powerful leaders rather than disperse it throughout society. Nevertheless, a form of publishing appears in Esther, where laws established by the king were distributed to the people, apparently in written form (Esth. 3:14; 8:13).
The king of Nineveh “published” a decree mandating acts of repentance after Jonah’s warning of impending judgment (Jon. 3:6–9). (See Author; Scribe; Writer.)
(See Mason.)
Meaning “my teacher,” this title bestowed honor and respect on a teacher of Jewish law. In Jesus’ day, the term did not signify an ordained person, as it does today. It was a term of dignity applied to a distinguished teacher. (See Instructor; Scribe.)
(See Laborer.)
This government worker ranked with scribes and priests (2 Sam. 20:24; 1 Kin. 4:3) and created and maintained records of the history of a sovereign’s reign, making a records clerk similar to a registrar or court reporter. The records clerk also registered property deeds and family lines. Genealogical data was important to certify eligibility for the priesthood (Neh. 7:63). When foreign dignitaries visited, a recorder played a prominent ceremonial role (2 Kin. 18:18; Is. 36:3, 22). (See Government Official; Historian; Scribe.)
Allusions to this profession appear wherever God examines or purifies His people, as if refining ore in a furnace (Ps. 66:10; Is. 48:10; Ezek. 22:17–22; Zech. 13:9; Mal. 3:2, 3). In the New Testament, the refiner’s fire symbolizes the fire of God’s testing (Matt. 3:10–12; 1 Cor. 3:13–15; 1 Pet. 1:6, 7). (See Foundry Worker.)
(See Government Official; Historian; Records Clerk; Scribe.)
While the Bible does not mention road builders, it refers to “paths” (Prov. 8:2) and to “highways and hedges” (Luke 14:23). Palestine was crossed by the Via Maris, also translated “the way of the sea” (Is. 9:1) or called “the way of the land of the Philistines” (Ex. 13:17). The Via Maris was the most important international highway of the biblical era. The King’s Highway (Num. 20:17; 21:22; Judg. 21:19) was a secondary road to Egypt that gave access to the spice routes of Arabia. An internal system of roads also linked the area’s many cities (see “Travel in the Ancient World” at Acts 13:3, 4).
The call to prepare for the Messiah by “making straight in the desert a highway for our God” (Is. 40:1–5; Matt. 3:3–5) evokes the imagery of road building. That call was literally carried out: the relative peace established by Rome in the years before Christ enabled an extensive system of ancient roads to be refurbished just in time to aid the gospel’s spread across the Mediterranean world.
(See Criminal.)
Scripture refers frequently to rope, and by inference, ropemakers. These artisans had a hand in helping the Philistines capture Samson (Judg. 15:13; 16:7) and helping Israelite spies escape from Jericho (Josh. 2:15). Ropemakers must also have created the cords that held the tabernacle together (Ex. 35:18) as well as the rope Judas used to hang himself (Matt. 27:5). In the shipbuilding trade, ropemakers produced the tackle and sheets that helped trim sails and steer rudders on ships (Is. 33:23; Acts 27:40). They also made heavy-duty bowstrings, animal traps, pulley systems, and plumb lines.
Runners were employed as royal messengers. They sometimes competed with chariots and horsemen (1 Sam. 8:11; 2 Sam. 15:1; 1 Kin. 1:5), where “the race is not to the swift” (Eccl. 9:11). They were athletes but were more professionally akin to mail carriers. (See Announcer; Messenger.)
(See Astronomer.)
Despite their proximity to the Mediterranean, the Israelites had little love for the sea and apparently possessed no navy. The Bible nevertheless frequently refers to sailing and shipping (Ps. 104:26; 107:23; Acts 27). Solomon built a merchant fleet, but many of his crews were Phoenician (1 Kin. 9:27). When Jonah ran away from God’s call to Nineveh, he traveled on a Phoenician ship (Jon. 1:3). During the New Testament era, the headquarters of shipping shifted to Alexandria, which was renowned for its cargo ships (see Alexandria’s profile at Acts 18:24 and “Travel in the Ancient World” at Acts 13:3, 4; see also Acts 27:6; 28:11).
The ship’s captain (Jon. 1:6) is sometimes called the pilot (Ezek. 27:27–29), the helmsman (Acts 27:11), or the shipmaster (Rev. 18:17). The captain was responsible for the safety of a vessel, crew, and cargo. (See Shipbuilder.)
The title of scribe is sometimes used interchangeably with lawyer, that is, a teacher of the law. During some periods of Jewish history, particularly during the reigns of David and Solomon, the scribe was a powerful administrator similar to a secretary of state or chancellor (2 Sam. 8:17; 20:25; 1 Kin. 4:3). In other times, scribes were more like recorders, chroniclers, or historians, recording history as it happened and keeping official archives. The two books of Chronicles, for example, are believed to have been compiled from historical archives by an authoritative scribe, perhaps Ezra. He was particularly noted for his commitment to studying and promoting the Law (Ezra 7:6; Neh. 8:1–9).
In Jesus’ day, scribes had become a learned class in Israel who studied Scripture and worked as copyists, editors, and teachers (see “Scribes” at Luke 20:39). Becoming a scribe required a lifetime of study, often beginning at age fourteen and continuing to the age of forty. Once qualified, scribes could act as judges, be called rabbis, and occupy various positions in law, government, and education. They joined the chief priests and aristocratic families who made up the Jewish Council. They were held in great esteem.
One category of scribes was that of copyists who duplicated Hebrew and Greek Scriptures onto rolls of parchment or sheets of papyrus. This time-consuming work was done by a team of scribes gathered at a scriptorium, a precursor to the modem publishing house. At first the documents were reproduced on scrolls. Eventually the bound book was invented, enabling copyists to write on both sides of a page. These codices, as the documents were later called, were a major advance in publishing technology. (See Author; Lawyer; Writer.)
(See Mason.)
(See Tailor.)
The job of writing and corresponding for others was done by a scribe or recorder (Jer. 36:26, 32). But scribes typically had other administrative and teaching duties (see “Scribes” at Luke 20:39). Secretaries in the ancient world took dictation, usually in shorthand, and could compose letters for another. Paul may have dictated some of his letters to such a person, called an amanuensis or stenographer (Rom. 16:22; Gal. 6:11; 2 Thess. 3:17). (See Scribe.)
(See Watchman.)
(See Watchman.)
(See Slave.)
(See Shepherd.)
(See Shepherd.)
The first shepherd mentioned in Scripture is Abel (Gen. 4:2). Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob later owned vast herds of livestock, including sheep (13:7; 26:20; 30:36). When Jacob relocated his family to Egypt, his son Joseph advised him to tell Pharaoh that his family’s occupation was raising livestock, leaving them secluded in Goshen, “for every shepherd is an abomination to the Egyptians” (46:31–34). Among other prominent biblical shepherds were Rachel, Moses, David, and Amos.
Sheep and goat herding were major occupations throughout Palestine’s history. Sheep and goats could be herded together or separately. Other occupations grew up around sheepherding, including breeders and shearers.
The expectation that shepherds be faithful and diligent caused them to be used as a metaphor for those who offer spiritual guidance and leadership (Jer. 23:1–4; John 10:1–5). Sheep recognized their shepherd’s voice so well that they would follow only him or her. Shepherds provided water and food for their flocks (Ps. 23:2; Jer. 31:10), and they were expected to hunt down lost animals (Ezek. 34:12; Luke 15:4, 5). Small lambs unable to keep up with a flock were often carried by a shepherd (Is. 40:11). Shepherds also protected their flocks from predators and other dangers, risking their own lives if necessary (1 Sam. 17:34–37; Amos 3:12; John 10:11).
The Old Testament often refers to God as a shepherd (Ps. 23; Is. 40:11). He protects and seeks out His flock, Israel (Jer. 31:10; Ezek. 34:12). In the New Testament, Jesus refers to Himself as the Good Shepherd who cares for, protects, and redeems His people (John 10:2–16). He suffers for the sheep (Matt. 26:31) and separates them from the goats on the Day of Judgment (25:32). As the “great Shepherd of the sheep” (Heb. 13:20), Jesus calls spiritual leaders to be His undershepherds (Acts 20:28–30; 1 Pet 5:2.)
Shipbuilding stems from the days of Noah (Gen. 6:13–22). But the Israelites were not much of a seafaring people, and they mainly relied on others to construct and sail their ships. Hebrew poetry extols the Phoenician shipbuilders for their perfect ships, tall masts, inlaid decks, strong oars, and embroidered sails (Ezek. 27:3–7). In the New Testament, the cargo ships of Alexandria (see Alexandria’s profile at Acts 18:24) were prized by sailors and merchants of the Mediterranean (see “Travel in the Ancient World” at Acts 13:3, 4). Paul sailed on such a vessel on the last leg of his trip to Rome (Acts 28:11). (See Caulker; Ropemaker; Sailor.)
(See Sailor.)
Silversmiths refined and molded silver into bowls, cups, trumpets, basins, jewelry, candlesticks, coins (Gen. 23:16; Matt. 22:19, 20), and more. Scripture contains more than two hundred references to silver and those who worked it. During Solomon’s era, gold was so plentiful that silver was “accounted as nothing” (1 Kin. 10:21). In the New Testament, the Ephesian silversmith Demetrius led craftsmen in a protest against the gospel, which was destroying their profitable trade in statues of the goddess Diana (Acts 19:24–28). (See Metalworker.)
More than fifty singers are named and their songs recorded in Scripture, beyond the 150 compositions collected in Psalms. David’s royal court included both male and female vocalists (2 Sam. 19:35), and David also organized four thousand Levites and “skilled men” as temple musicians (1 Chr. 25). Many were choir members “instructed in the songs of the Lord” (25:7). Temple singers were originally exclusively men aged thirty to fifty, and may have belonged to a performing artists’ guild. They were employed in their work “day and night” (9:33). They lodged together, took separate purification vows, and were supported by others (Neh. 12:29, 45–47). After the Babylonian exile, women also participated in choirs (Ezra 2:65), and women sang as professional mourners (see “Flutes and Wailing” at Matt. 9:23 and “Ancient Burial Practices” at 1 Cor. 15:42). (See Mourner; Musician.)
Virtually every major ancient civilization depended heavily on the service of slaves, conquered peoples compelled to work at a variety of tasks. Scripture states that the Hebrews became slaves of the Egyptians and carried out forced labor “in mortar, in brick, and in all manner of service in the field” (Ex. 1:8–14). In some regions of the Roman empire of Paul’s day, up to half the population may have been slaves.
Slave labor varied widely depending on the demands of masters and the abilities of individual slaves. Joseph was sold as a slave to the Egyptian Potiphar, who made him an overseer of his household with a high level of responsibility (Gen. 39:1–9). Daniel and other young Hebrew males were brought as captives to Babylon, where they trained for high levels of government service (Dan. 1:1–7, 18–21). The Romans used Greek slaves as tutors or instructors to their young.
But the majority of slaves were little more than property to be bought and sold. Male slaves were often assigned to construction projects or to mines where they were worked to exhaustion (see “Slaves” at Rom. 6:16). Female slaves were sold to men for service to their wives and daughters, and in many cultures for the sexual pleasure of the men as well.
Not all slavery occurred between nations. The Old Testament reports that the Israelites had both Israelite and Gentile slaves. Israelites who were too poor to pay their debts or who were convicted of theft sometimes sold themselves into slavery. In contrast to many other contemporary cultures, ancient Israelite law granted slaves some protections and rights (Ex. 21:2–11; Lev. 25:39–55; Deut. 21:10–14).
Scripture also often refers to servants, some of whom would have been slaves. Other servants were simply day laborers or hired hands who were paid for their work and free to leave when the job was finished (Ex. 21:1–11; Matt. 20:1–15). Jacob was such a servant to Laban for a time (Gen. 29). Jesus spoke of a household servant plowing, tending sheep, and preparing a meal (Luke 17:7–10).
The Bible does not directly condemn slavery as an institution, though it contains oblique warnings about the practice of slavery (Amos 1:6–9; Rev. 18:13). The New Testament teaches that in Christ, the hierarchy of master over slave is ended (Gal. 3:28; Col. 3:11). Paul appealed to Philemon to put that ideal into practice by receiving back Onesimus, a runaway slave who became a Christian, as a brother (see the introduction to Philemon and “Challenging Slavery” at Philem. 16). (See Maid, Maidservant; Steward.)
(See Overseer.)
(See Foundry Worker.)
Some translations use this generic word for someone who worked with metals. (See Metalworker.)
Even though Israel had to wage war to conquer the Promised Land, it did not have a standing army until Solomon’s lifetime (1 Kin. 10:26). Nevertheless, all twenty-year-old males were obligated to serve in emergency military duty (Num. 1:3), with a few exceptions (Deut. 20:5–8). Saul maintained a body of chosen capable fighters (1 Sam. 13:15), and David recruited a force of “mighty men” (22:2; 1 Chr. 11:10–47). Under David, each tribe had a defined chain of command and trained its adult males to use military weapons (1 Chr. 12).
The Bible mentions several kinds of soldiers, including the guard, bodyguard, or escort assigned to protect a particular person or place, such as prison guards (Gen. 40:3, 4) and palace guards (2 Kin. 11:4–11). Scripture also mentions the charioteer, often a skilled horseman commanded by a captain of the chariots (1 Kin. 22:33, 34). (See Archer; Armorbearer; Armorer; Captain; Centurion; Horseman.)
The Bible rarely mentions soothsaying, but when it does, it seems to describe a form of divination (Deut. 18:10). Because the Hebrew word for soothsaying sounds like the word for cloud, some scholars conclude that it refers to cloud reading, similar to tea leaf reading or astrology, the reading of the stars. Whatever it was, God forbids this occult practice (18:10, 14; Lev. 19:26). Wicked King Manasseh was guilty of soothsaying (2 Kin. 21:6; 2 Chr. 33:6), and Old Testament prophets strongly condemned it (Is. 2:6; 57:3; Jer. 27:9; Mic. 5:12). (See Astronomer; Diviner; Magician.)
(See Diviner; Magician; Witch, Wizard.)
Moses sent twelve spies to scout the Promised Land. Ten returned with discouraging reports, while two, Joshua and Caleb, encouraged the people to move forward (Num. 13). Later, Joshua sent spies into Jericho. They escaped capture only with Rahab’s help (Josh. 2). Five spies from the tribe of Dan compromised their mission by engaging in the idolatry of Micah of Ephraim (Judg. 18).
In the New Testament, the chief priests and scribes had Jesus followed and sent spies in an attempt to catch Him saying something treasonous (Luke 20:20). Later, Paul accused the Judaizers of sending spies among leaders of the church (Gal. 2:4). On one occasion, Paul benefited from intelligence brought by a spy, his sister’s son, who reported a plot to kill the apostle (Acts 23:16–21). (See Watchman.)
(See Astronomer.)
(See Secretary.)
Like overseers, stewards were entrusted with responsibility for their superiors’ goods (Gen. 43:19). In the New Testament, a steward is sometimes referred to as a guardian or curator (Matt. 20:8; Gal. 4:2), or as a manager or household superintendent (Luke 8:2, 3; 1 Cor. 4:1, 2). Paul called himself a “steward” of Christ’s household, responsible to Christ for carrying out his task of preaching to the Gentiles (4:1). God has given all Christians resources and responsibilities, and we are accountable to Him for our stewardship of those gifts (1 Pet. 4:10). (See Overseer.)
(See Mason.)
The work of tailoring is implied rather than explicitly described in Scripture. In Israel, most of a family’s clothing was made by the women of the household (see “Jewish Homemaking” at Mark 1:29–31). For instance, Hannah made a “little robe” for her son Samuel (1 Sam. 2:19), and the virtuous woman of Proverbs 31 is praised for her skill in making clothing for her family (Prov. 31:13–24).
This work began by spinning thread or yarn and weaving cloth. Everyday clothing tended to be loose fitting and did not require much shaping. But the rich and royalty demanded more ornate design in their garments. Intricate weaving and embroidery were also required for the beautiful, stone-studded priestly garments prescribed by Moses (Ex. 28). In the New Testament, Lydia became a successful businesswoman by trading in purple, the name for both an expensive dye and clothing dyed that color (see Lydia’s profile and “The Trade in Purple” at Acts 16:14). (See Weaver.)
Tanners converted animal skins into leather to be fashioned into useful or ornamental items. Tanning was widespread in the ancient world. Israelite families originally did their own tanning, but the growth of cities birthed leather craftsmen. Peter stayed with one such tanner named Simon (Acts 10:6).
Tanning skins was a demanding process. The hides were soaked until the fat, blood, and hair were removed. After the leather was tanned, it was used to create many items, including tents (Ex. 26:14), sandals (Ezek. 16:10), hats, skirts, and aprons.
Sometimes called carpetmakers or rugmakers, the more inclusive term is tapestrymaker. Rugs in Bible times were braided with strips of cotton, wool, or other fibers. Because these braided strands varied in color and length, they were coiled and sewn together to obtain a desired pattern and size. The virtuous woman of Proverbs 31 is praised for making tapestries (Prov. 31:22), while the seductive prostitute of Proverbs 7 has her bedroom chamber adorned with rugs and blankets or wall hangings procured from a tapestrymaker (7:16). (See Weaver.)
(See Overseer.)
Tax collectors were contract workers who collected taxes for the government. Some translations call them publicans, but publicans were employers who hired and directed tax collectors. Between the demands of Rome, the temple, and other taxing authorities, Jews in the New Testament era probably paid between 30 and 40 percent of their income in taxes and religious dues. Not surprisingly, tax collectors were despised by their fellow citizens, who viewed them as mercenaries of the Romans (see “Tax Collectors” at Matt. 9:10 and “Taxes” at Mark 12:14). (See Publican.)
(See Instructor; Lawyer.)
These ancient craftsmen manufactured affordable mobile shelters for living, working, and traveling. Construction involved cutting and sewing cloth, often made of goat’s hair, and attaching ropes and loops. Paul’s native province of Cilicia exported cilicium cloth made from goat’s hair, and his hometown of Tarsus was known for its tentmaking industry (see Tarsus’s profile at Acts 11:25). Paul may have picked up the trade as a boy (see “Paul’s Tentmaking” at Acts 18:1–3). Later he partnered with Priscilla and Aquila (see their profile at Rom. 16:3–5) and earned his living as a tentmaker while preaching the gospel.
Sometimes translated king, the term tetrarch is a title meaning “ruler of a fourth part.” Four members of the Herod family named in the New Testament were Roman tetrarchs (see “The Herods” at Acts 12:1, 2): Herod the Great (Matt. 2), who was tetrarch before becoming king (according to the historian Josephus); his son Herod Antipas, called “Herod the tetrarch” (14:1; Acts 13:1); Herod Philip, the brother of Antipas (Mark 6:17); and Lysanias, tetrarch of Abilene (Luke 3:1). A tetrarch’s privileges and power were royal but inferior to those of a traditional monarch or emperor. (See Government Official.)
(See Criminal.)
(See Farmer.)
(See City Clerk.)
(See Merchant.)
(See Hunter.)
The Bible mentions several treasurers, powerful government officials who were sometimes heir to a throne (2 Chr. 26:21). They advised and reported to ancient monarchs on financial matters. Ezra was given authority by King Artaxerxes over the treasurers in the districts near Jerusalem (Ezra 7:21). Nehemiah appointed several treasurers to work together to distribute resources (Neh. 13:13). The New Testament highlights an Ethiopian treasurer who became a Christian (Acts 8:26–40). (See Government Official.)
(See Government Official.)
Tutors are hardly mentioned in Scripture but were relatively common in the ancient world, especially among Greeks and Romans. Usually the trusted slave of a wealthy family, a tutor supervised the activities of a family’s children, especially its sons, acting as a guide and guardian. When boys reached the age of sixteen, they were considered adults and no longer needed a tutor. Paul wrote that the Law was a “tutor” to bring us to Christ (Gal. 3:24, 25). In the Old Testament, a man named Jehiel worked as a tutor for King David’s sons (1 Chr. 27:32). (See Instructor.)
(See Embalmer.)
(See Government Official.)
Scripture points to vinedressers in several significant passages. Isaiah warns Israel of judgment in the woeful song of the vineyard (Is. 5:1–30). Jesus warns the Pharisees of similar judgment in His parable of the wicked vinedressers (Matt. 21:33–44). Jesus also called Himself the true vine and His Father the vinedresser (John 15:1–8).
Grapevines required constant digging, weeding, and pruning to promote growth of the fruit and not of the shoots, ensuring that vines not be overgrown by thorns and weeds (Prov. 24:30, 31; Luke 13:7). During the captivity of Judah in Babylon, God raised up the poor, even foreigners, to dress vines (2 Kin. 25:12; Is. 61:5; Jer. 52:16), similar to modern migrant workers. (See Farmer; Laborer.)
(See Butler.)
(See Soldier.)
A watchman stood guard over things of value, perhaps a financial treasure, a person, or a city. From the height and protection of a watchtower, a watchman scanned cities and fields for thieves or ravaging animals (Ps. 80:13; Song 2:15). Nehemiah appointed watchmen to guard the walls of Jerusalem during their rebuilding (Neh. 4:9; 7:3). Some watchmen also worked as guardians or police officers patrolling a city (Ps. 127:1; Song 5:7).
The Israelites originally divided the night into three military watches that the watchman called out (2 Sam. 18:24–27; Is. 21:11, 12). Under the Romans they divided the night into four watches (Mark 13:35; see also “Telling Time in the Ancient World” at Matt. 14:25). A round-the-clock watch was posted at Jesus’ tomb (Matt. 27:64–66; 28:11).
Prophets and teachers were watchmen appointed by God to keep His people morally alert (Ezek. 33:2–7; 2 Tim. 4:5).
Hauling a household’s daily water supply was lowly work. Wells and springs were generally located outside a city’s gates (John 4:5–8). The task was sometimes assigned to young men (Ruth 2:9) but more often to women (Gen. 24:13; 1 Sam. 9:11) or servants (John 2:5–9). Water was carried home in water pots and goatskin bags, sometimes borne by a donkey. Some translations refer to a person of this occupation as a drawer of water.
Weaving was known in all the great civilizations of the ancient world. Almost every household in Israel had a loom, and women spent considerable time at the task of weaving (Prov. 31:13–24). Women also made their own yarn or thread from animal hair or plant fibers. Among the Egyptians and Assyrians, weaving was a man’s job. Professional weavers in urban areas joined together in guilds. (See Embroiderer.)
Well diggers were relatively skilled workers in ancient Palestine, where little rain fell for most of the year. Wells and cisterns were essential to the region’s economy, and wars were sometimes fought over wells and water rights (Gen. 21:25–30; 26:20–22). In David’s time, Jerusalem had elaborate underground shafts and tunnels that led to a water source (2 Sam. 5:8). Some wells bore specific names and survive to this day; for example, Jacob’s well (John 4:6).
Wine was a valuable commodity for ancient peoples, including the Israelites (2 Chr. 2:10, 15, 16; Ezra 6:9; 7:22). Wine was an important part of the everyday diet and a popular beverage for special occasions (Ps. 104:15). Apparently shouts of joy marked the occasion of treading grapes in the winepresses (Is. 16:10; Jer. 48:33; see also “Winemaking” at John 2:3). Even ordinary people owned winepresses and gave their firstfruits in worship (Num. 18:27, 30; Deut. 18:4). Seasons of renewal called for bringing “new wine” into the storehouses (2 Chr. 31:5; Neh. 13:5). Jesus drew upon this idea when He said that the new “wine” of the Good News called for fresh wineskins (Luke 5:36–38).
Of the more than 240 references to wine in the Bible, only about 10 percent have to do with “strong” drink or drunkenness. Most refer to wine as part of a statement about abundance, sustenance, and God’s blessing (for example, Gen. 27:28; Neh. 5:18; Esth. 1:7; Hos. 2:8). Jesus blessed a wedding party at Cana with a miracle involving wine (see “Water into Wine” at John 2:1–12) and initiated His new covenant with wine (Luke 22:17–20). Scripture also uses winepressing as a symbol of God’s wrath (Lam. 1:15; Joel 3:13; Rev. 14:18–20; 19:15). (See Brewer; Vinedresser.)
Those who separated grain from the chaff were winnowers, sometimes called fanners (Jer. 51:2 KJV). Grain was beaten to loosen the kernels, which were trampled to loosen the chaff covering the grain. After each stage, the fanner pitched the grain into the air with a winnowing fork or fan, an implement still used by Syrian farmers. The wind blew away useless chaff, which was later burned (Ruth 3:2; Job 21:18; Ps. 1:4; Matt. 3:12), while valuable grain fell to the ground. Most biblical references to winnowing are metaphorical. Just as a winnower separates wheat and chaff, God will separate true believers from unbelievers and hypocrites on the Day of Judgment (Jer. 23:28, 29; Luke 3:17).
Witchcraft involved divination or sorcery that attempted to avoid or alter God’s revealed will. In the Old Testament, God condemned pagan nations for practicing witchcraft (Deut. 18:9–14; Jer. 27:8–11; 29:8, 9; Nah. 3:1–4). Saul was punished for visiting the witch of En Dor (1 Sam. 28; 1 Chr. 10:13). (See Diviner; Magician.)
This general term covers a variety of trades that made wood into useful or decorative items. Archaeology has confirmed Scripture’s testimony that ancient Palestine had forests, but wood was nevertheless scarce and rather expensive. Good woodworkers also practiced conservation and reforestation (Is. 44:14). Their projects often involved many people working together. Lumberjacks and woodcutters felled trees (1 Kin. 5:6). Hewers trimmed and readied the lumber for transportation. Laborers transported it (5:13, 14). Carpenters fashioned it into houses, furniture, tools, and other useful items (2 Kin. 22:6). Carvers shaped wood into bas-relief and statues (Is. 40:20; Jer. 10:3, 4). (See Builder; Carpenter; Forester.)