Chapter 6
The Northwest Shelf

Kieran Westley

School of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, UK

Introduction

The Northwest Shelf forms an extended plateau extending off continental Europe and surrounding the British Isles. Politically it encompasses the territorial waters of Norway, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, the United Kingdom (covering the devolved administrations of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) and the Republic of Ireland. Its geographic configuration means that it can be divided into several semi-enclosed sea basins: the North Sea, the northern North Sea and Atlantic Northwest Approaches, the Irish Sea and Atlantic Margin, and the English Channel/La Manche (Fig. 6.1). Each basin will be discussed individually in the four following chapters. This chapter provides an introductory overview covering the key forces influencing taphonomic processes on a shelf-wide scale.


Image shows overview of northwest shelf with bathymetry and subdivision into marginal seas where bathymetry is derived from EMODnet hydrography portal.

Figure 6.1 Overview map of the Northwest Shelf showing bathymetry and subdivision into marginal seas. (A) northern North Sea and Atlantic Northwest Approaches; (B) North Sea; (C) English Channel; (D) Irish Sea and Atlantic Margin. Bathymetry has been derived from the EMODnet Hydrography portal (www.emodnet-hydrography.eu). Reproduced with permission.

Taphonomic Processes

Bathymetry is generally shallow, with the majority of the shelf less than 100 m in depth (Fig. 6.1). The largest expanse of shallow shelf is located in the southern North Sea where depths of <50 m are common. Smaller shallow (<–50 m) plateaux are also located in the eastern Irish Sea and on the flanks of the eastern English Channel. Islands are not common and tend to form isolated examples with the exception of archipelagos off western and northern Scotland and barrier chains in the eastern North Sea. The largest bathymetric deep is the Norwegian Trench which reaches a maximum depth of 700 m and separates the main body of the shelf from the Scandinavian Peninsula. Smaller localized deeps (down to ca. –100 m to –150 m) also run down the center of the English Channel and Irish Sea. Bathymetric highs are formed by banks and ridges, the largest of which is the Dogger Bank in the North Sea. There are also numerous smaller banks, for instance in the southwest Celtic Sea.

Seabed substrate varies across the Northwest Shelf with variations driven by a number of factors, not least modern oceanographic and coastal processes, and antecedent geology. Large zones of the North Sea consist of sand with isolated mud and gravel, the latter particularly prevalent off eastern England. By contrast, coarse and mixed sediment dominates the English Channel while the Irish Sea has a highly variable substrate including zones of sand, mixed sediment and mud. The Northwest Approaches are typified by sand, coarse sediment and exposed bedrock (broad-scale assessment based on EMODnet-Geology mapping — see ‘Data Sources’, page 141, for link).

The Northwest Shelf lies in the path of Atlantic low-pressure systems which drive winds mainly from the west and south. The strongest winds (and hence highest wave energy) tend to be experienced on the open Atlantic coasts with a large fetch, such as northwest Scotland and western Ireland. By contrast, lower wave energy is experienced within the Irish Sea and western North Sea due to the sheltering effect of the British and Irish landmasses (Fig. 6.2a). Wind and wave energy is also seasonally variable and tends to be stronger in winter than summer (Neill et al. 2009).


Images show modelled oceanographic conditions on northwest shelf along scale of annual max Hs in m and mean spring tidal range in m on longitude versus latitude.

Figure 6.2 Modeled oceanographic conditions on the Northwest Shelf showing the difference between present-day conditions and 12 ka when much of the North Sea and coastal fringes of the British Isles were subaerially exposed. (A) Maximum annual significant wave height (m) for the present day (from Neill et al. 2009: fig. 7); (B) Mean spring tidal range (m) under present-day conditions (from Neill et al. 2010: fig. 4. Reproduced with permission of Springer Science and Business Media.); (C) Maximum annual significant wave height (m) for 12 ka (from Neill et al. 2009: fig. 8); (D) Mean spring tidal range (m) for 12 ka (from Neill et al. 2010: fig. 4. Reproduced with permission of Springer Science and Business Media.). All images courtesy of Simon Neill; (A) and (C) reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons; (B) and (D) reproduced with permission of Springer.

The semi-enclosed basins, variable bathymetry and complex coastal configurations (e.g. the presence of many large bays and inlets) within the study area combined with the rotation of the oceanic tidal wave around amphidromic points within the basins results in variable tidal regimes (Fig. 6.2b). This is most noticeable when comparing opposing sides of the semi-enclosed basins. For instance, the western Irish Sea has average tides of <4 m, while on its eastern boundary, tidal amplification in the inlets of Liverpool Bay and the Bristol Channel, allows ranges up to 8 m and 14 m respectively. Similarly, in the English Channel the French coast has the megatidal (up to 14 m range) Gulf of St. Malo in contrast to the mainly mesotidal (<6 m) south coast of England. Tidal range within the North Sea tends to be smaller (generally not more than 4 m but with local exceptions) and with the smallest range on its eastern side (Davis & Fitzgerald 2004; Neill et al. 2010). The constricting effect of straits, variable bathymetry and semi-enclosed basins also affects the tidal current with generally strong currents in the Irish Sea and English Channel but reduced velocities in the more open North and Celtic Seas (Neill et al. 2010).

The primary influence on antecedent geology on the Northwest Shelf has been Quaternary climate change, specifically multiple glaciations and cycles of exposure and submergence created by accompanying sea-level change. Northwest Europe has been subject to multiple (potentially up to seven) episodes of glaciation over the past million years, though only the final ones — the Elsterian (MIS 12), Saalian (MIS 6) and Weichselian (MIS 2) — have been identified with confidence on the continental shelf (Böse et al. 2012)1. Glacial stages were characterized by ice sheets over Scandinavia, Britain and Ireland which, at their maximum size, extended onto the continental shelf. The accompanying low sea level exposed large expanses of shelf, though given the climatic conditions, these formed polar deserts or tundra environments which may not have been amenable to hominin occupation. However, long periods between glacial maxima and minima with lower-than-present sea levels, cool, but not totally inhospitable conditions and frequent short warm interstadials, meant that habitable landscapes were often present. With warming came ice retreat, and the development of more habitable landscapes for flora, fauna and humans. Eventually, the sea-level rise accompanying climate warming would have drowned most of the exposed shelf environments, creating a similar geography to the present. Note that this is only a broad generalized overview. In all cases, paleolandscape developments were controlled on a local to regional level by timing of ice expansion and retreat, isostasy, relative sea-level change, oceanographic and climatic conditions and sediment supply (see for example Cohen et al. 2012; 2014).

Paleoenvironmental Change

Reconstructing the precise timing and extent of glacial, sea-level, paleoenvironmental and paleogeographic changes for the Northwest Shelf remains a work-in-progress. Sufficient data now exist to allow time-stepped reconstructions of these changes since the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM: ca. 24–21 ka)2 and numerous examples exist in the published literature which illustrate these on a shelf scale (e.g. Peltier 1994; Lambeck 1995; Shennan et al. 2002; Carr et al. 2006; Brooks et al. 2008; 2011; Clark et al. 2012). The most recent published studies depict the British, Irish and Scandinavian ice sheets as confluent across the North Sea and Irish Sea by ca. 27 ka with an additional localized advance into the Celtic Sea between ca. 23 ka and 20 ka (Fig. 6.3). Under this scenario, the only parts of the Northwest Shelf escaping glaciation were the English Channel and southern North Sea (though this may have been covered by an ice-dammed lake) (Clark et al. 2012). Ice retreat began in earnest from ca. 19 ka with exposure of the Celtic Sea followed by the southern Irish Sea and central North Sea. Retreat was asynchronous across the shelf and subject to localized re-advances such as a potential extension down the coast of eastern England around ca. 17 ka. Only from ca. 16 ka onward was the present shelf almost entirely ice-free, with glaciers limited to presently terrestrial highlands (Clark et al. 2012).


Images show scenarios of ice-sheet growth/decay across northwest shelf from LGM with isochrones 15ka, 16ka, 17ka, 18ka, 19ka, 23ka, 25ka, and 27ka.

Figure 6.3 Scenarios of ice-sheet growth/decay across the Northwest Shelf from the LGM onwards. Clark et al. (2012): fig. 17), with permission from Elsevier; image courtesy of Chris Clark.

In terms of sea-level change, the LGM witnessed major shelf exposure only in the southern and central North Sea, English Channel and eastern Irish Sea (Peltier 1994; Lambeck 1995; Brooks et al. 2011). Much of the northern North Sea and Northwest Approaches were isostatically depressed, while exposure on the western Atlantic Margin and western Irish Sea was limited to a narrow fringe around Ireland (Brooks et al. 2011; Fig. 6.4). This overall picture remained broadly steady until ca. 15 ka when shelf flooding became increasingly rapid. The first major incursions occurred in the eastern Irish Sea and western English Channel, with major flooding of the North Sea and eastern English Channel between 13 ka and 10 ka. In the northern areas experiencing isostatic adjustment, relative sea level either rose or fell depending on the local history of ice loading. By ca. 8 ka to 6 ka, the modern geography of the Northwest Shelf was largely attained (Brooks et al. 2011; Sturt et al. 2013). Recent models also suggest that these changes were not only significant in geographical terms, but also exerted a strong influence on the development of the modern wave and tidal regime (e.g. Uehara et al. 2006; Neill et al. 2009; 2010; see also Fig. 6.2c,d).


Images show GIA-modelled paleogeographic change at selected intervals of 20ka, 15ka, 12ka, and 8ka along with scale altitude in meters ranging from <-500 to > 1000.

Figure 6.4 GIA-modeled paleogeographic change at selected intervals since the LGM. Images courtesy of Tony Brooks; see Bradley et al. (2011); Brooks et al. (2011), for model description.

Whilst the broad-scale patterns of change are reasonably well established, the details of ice-sheet chronology and local sea-level histories are still subject to a degree of uncertainty. Holocene patterns of relative sea-level change are generally well constrained by field data and are unlikely to undergo radical revision in the future. In contrast, relative sea level during deglaciation and the earliest Holocene is more poorly resolved due to limitations in the accuracy and availability of datable evidence (e.g. Shennan & Horton 2002), much of which is currently submerged and/or buried under significant thicknesses of more recent sediment. Consequently, there is scope for future refinement of sea-level curves and associated paleogeographies during these earlier time intervals when changes were large and rapid.

Similarly, as the collection of additional field data further refines our view of ice-sheet growth and decay, some revision of existing ice-sheet models used to drive sea-level simulations will become necessary. As a consequence of the iterative nature of this process, a single, consensus view of ice-sheet history has yet to emerge and the existing patterns will continue to be modified in the coming years (e.g. compare scenarios in Fig. 6.3 and Clark et al. 2012). Fortunately, the long-wavelength response of the Earth to loading/unloading means that the ice-sheet models employed in sea-level simulation are of coarser resolution than the more detailed ice-sheet reconstructions derived from geomorphological/stratigraphic evidence (e.g. Clark et al. 2012). In practice, this means that fine-scale alterations, such as short-lived advance/retreat of thin ice, have minimal impacts on the resulting sea-level simulations, although they may be important for the interpretation of resulting paleogeographic reconstructions. Of much greater significance will be improvements in the accurate determination of ice-sheet thickness throughout the Last Glacial since this remains poorly constrained in many areas (Chiverrell & Thomas 2010). Since ice-sheet thickness is the important loading term in sea-level models, the ice sheets presented in modeling papers tend to show terrain-corrected ice-sheet thickness (e.g. Brooks et al. 2008; 2011). In contrast, geomorphologically-based reconstructions tend to present ice sheets in terms of their lateral extent and surface elevation (e.g. Ballantyne et al. 2011; Clark et al. 2012). These differences in emphasis and spatial resolution can give the false impression that large discrepancies exist between what are, in a practical sense at least, relatively similar ice-sheet histories.

Prior to the last glacial cycle, the level of uncertainty in interpretation increases due to a reduction in the quantity and resolution of data. This results from various factors including the erosive effect of the last glacial cycle, the deep burial or submergence of the relevant sediments and limitations in existing dating methods. Moreover, over these longer timescales, additional influences on sea-level and paleogeographic change came into play, notably the slow subsidence of the North Sea basin during the Middle Pleistcoene (Funnell 1995) and the breaching of the Weald-Artois Ridge spanning the Dover Strait by glacial melt water — currently dated to sometime between MIS 12 and MIS 6 (Gibbard 1995; Bridgland 2002; Toucanne et al. 2009) — both of which were instrumental in the transformation of the British Isles from a European peninsula to a group of islands. Thus, reconstructions for these earlier periods tend to be limited to snapshots, rather than time-stepped sequences, for example showing highstand/lowstand-only paleogeographies (e.g. Stringer 2006; Hijma et al. 2012) or maximum ice extents (e.g. Huuse & Lykke-Anderson 2000; Toucanne et al. 2009).

Evidence Base

Key factors in the archaeological importance of the Northwest Shelf are its size and shallowness. The existence of broad shallow areas means that vast tracts of land were exposed during sea-level lowstands, creating enormous potential for development of landscapes suitable for human occupation. Moreover, some of the earliest European hominin sites are found in eastern England (Pakefield: ca. 700 ka; Happisburgh: ca. 800–900 ka (Parfitt et al. 2005; 2010)) and therefore indicate that this landscape must have been colonized from a very early date. It is unlikely that it was occupied continuously for more than a few thousand years at a time because the aforementioned climate changes probably resulted in multiple episodes of abandonment and re-colonization, as attested to by the cyclical nature of British Paleolithic occupation (White & Schreve 2000; Stringer 2006; Pettit & White 2012). This in turn means that archaeological evidence from the continental shelf could potentially make a major contribution in addressing issues of human mobility, migration and dispersal, and responses or adaptations to climate change (Peeters et al. 2009; Bell et al. 2013; Westley et al. 2013). Importantly, from an archaeological and paleoenvironmental perspective, there is clear evidence of paleolandscape preservation in the form of submerged river channels, associated terrace deposits, peats, terrestrial/freshwater sediments and faunal remains from across the Northwest Shelf (e.g. Mol et al. 2006; Gaffney et al. 2007; Dix & Sturt 2011). Verifiable human occupation is also apparent in the form of lithic or organic artifacts recovered from the shelf, including fragments of a Neanderthal skull (e.g. Hublin et al. 2009; Momber et al. 2011; Peeters 2011; Moree & Sier 2014; Peeters & Momber 2014; Tizzard et al. 2011; 2014). The paleolandscape, paleoenvironmental and archaeological evidence covers periods from the Early–Mid Pleistocene to the Holocene, thus demonstrating that even pre-Last Glacial material can survive both glaciation and more than one episode of submergence.

The number and time span of the glacial and sea-level changes which have taken place mean that the shelf sedimentary and stratigraphic sequence is complex and fragmentary. Effective scientific research therefore requires a firm knowledge of seabed and sub-seabed conditions which must be obtained from large-scale marine geophysical and geotechnical surveys. Fortunately, the Northwest Shelf is one of the best studied in Europe owing to its intensive industrial use in the modern era; for instance, offshore oil and gas, industrial-level trawling, aggregates extraction, massive harbor expansion and most recently offshore renewable energy developments, are all activities which have taken place here. With these sources, and over a century of academic interest (e.g. Reid 1913), there is now a considerable body of data relevant to taphonomic, geological, paleoenvironmental and archaeological studies which the following chapters will synthesize.

Conclusion

The above description represents a broad overview of the Northwest Shelf and taphonomic processes, and masks a great deal of regional variability. Its size and geographical configuration mean that the impact of modern oceanographic processes (e.g. wind, waves, tides) varies spatially. Past taphonomic processes also varied across space and time, most noticeably in terms of glaciation and relative sea-level change. The upshot is that submerged landscape preservation will vary considerably across the Northwest Shelf on a regional to local level, a fact that will become clear through the following chapters dealing with the individual sea basins. Indeed, at present, extant paleolandscape evidence is concentrated in a few hotspots, such as the southern North Sea (see for example the recent overview in Peeters & Cohen 2014). Although this is at least partly reflective of the history of scientific investigation, it is highly likely that there is a strong taphonomic influence as well.

Before proceeding to the shelf-wide weblinks/data sources and individual sea basin chapters, the reader should be reminded that this is a field in which rapid developments are being made, for instance in ice-sheet reconstruction, sea-level modeling and paleoenvironmental and paleogeographic reconstruction (e.g. Bradley et al. 2011; Clark et al. 2012, Cohen et al. 2012; Hijma et al. 2012; Sturt et al. 2013). In some instances, these developments have proceeded at different speeds either geographically or by discipline. Given the wide areas that will be covered in the next chapters and the fact that a multidisciplinary subject like submerged landscape archaeology relies on different disciplines building on the work of one another, it is inevitable that inconsistencies will exist between interpretations since different researchers will be influenced by, or have access to, different levels or types of data. An attempt at consensus would be proven wrong before it was completed, and the reader should therefore bear this in mind through the rest of the chapters, if confronted with apparent contradictions in interpretation or reconstruction.

Data Sources

The following sources and links represent data which cross the boundaries of the individual sea basins. Basin-specific sources can be found within the relevant chapters.

Bathymetry

Two main publically available data sets cover the entire Northwest Shelf. The General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) global data set is relatively low resolution (30 arcseconds) but combines both regional-scale bathymetry and terrestrial topography. More recently, the European Marine and Data Observation Network (EMODnet) has made available bathymetric data for the European shelf at a resolution of 0.25 arcminutes (i.e. 15 arcseconds). EMODnet also provides metadata on the underlying higher-resolution local data sets used to create the downsampled continental-scale coverage. Commercially available higher-resolution products also cover the Northwest Shelf, notably the SeaZone Solutions Ltd (based on UK Hydrographic Office data) and Olex (based on accumulated soundings from Olex users) data sets.

Substrate/geology/geomorphology

At a European level, the EMODnet program has begun to amalgamate national data sets on the physical properties of the seabed. This has been heavily driven by biological habitat mapping and includes seabed geology and substrate data which are accessible via the EMODnet-Geology or OneGeology (Europe) data portals. Relevant datasets include a harmonized 1:1,000,000 surficial and bedrock geological map (for terrestrial areas), a 1:1,000,000 seabed substrate map, and a 1:5,000,000 seabed lithology map. An alternative project, again on a Europe-wide level, is the Geo-Seas project. This publishes and maintains data catalogues submitted by national providers (e.g. national geological surveys) and is therefore a good starting point for data on seabed geology. Locations of actual seabed sample sites (e.g. grabs, cores) are available via the EU-SEASED Portal. Finally, low-resolution shapefiles of coastal geology, geomorphology and patterns of coastal change are available from the EUROSION project, a Europe-level exercise of coastal erosion mapping.

Oceanographic processes

Information on oceanographic processes comes from two main sources. Firstly, there are actual observations of waves and tide at specific stations. An amalgamated network of European stations is identifiable via the EMODnet Physics portal. Secondly, there are computer-modeled wave and tidal regimes. These have the advantage that they can create shelf-scale outputs which extend beyond and between the accurate but spatially restricted station observations. The models themselves are sophisticated and generally restricted to specialist oceanographic, meteorological or commercial organizations which use them for a variety of projects including ocean forecasting or hindcasting (e.g. Saulter & Leonard-Williams 2011), marine habitat mapping (e.g. Cameron & Askew 2011) and offshore renewable energy research (ABPMer 2008). Examples of such organizations include the National Oceanography Centre - Liverpool (UK) and the UK Met Office.

Quaternary paleoenvironments

The majority of information dedicated to Quaternary environmental change can be found within the published literature. Several portals provide access to the underlying data and tend to be organized by specialist theme. Paleoecological examples include the European Pollen Database (containing pollen records from across Europe), NEOTOMA (a global database which includes pollen, plant macros, mammals and mollusks) and the Bugs Coleopteran Ecology Package (BUGCEP), a downloadable software package and database for analysis of fossil beetle remains. Paleoceanographic data, principally from deep-sea cores, is accessible via the PANGAEA portal, while the NOAA Paleoclimatology portal has records from across the world, including northwest Europe, which cover a range of environmental proxies.

Acknowledgments

Dr. Robin Edwards (Trinity College, Dublin) is thanked for his useful observations of ice-sheet reconstruction and GIA modeling. Editor Nicholas C. Flemming is thanked for his guidance, support and patience throughout the manuscript production.

Notes

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