Weight category and aesthetic sport athletes
Weight category and aesthetic sport athletes have some additional nutrition considerations that are not strictly linked to performance. For weight category sports, which include sports like boxing and lightweight rowing, athletes are required to be under a certain weight. If an athlete is over the cut-off during the weigh-in, they cannot compete. This can lead to suboptimal practices to ‘make weight’, including severe fluid and food restriction, use of laxatives and diuretics, and extreme use of saunas. Timing of weigh-ins also varies from sport to sport and even among competitions, with some being immediately before an event and others several days beforehand, so it is vital to understand the rules and processes of the sport and competition in which the athlete is competing.
For aesthetic sports, which include sports like gymnastics, ballet and diving, there is a strong focus on appearance as part of the way performance is assessed. Problems relating to nutrition can result, as this focus on aesthetics can lead to problems with body image and suboptimal dietary practices to try to control body size or shape.
This chapter discusses the common challenges faced when working with weight category and aesthetic sport athletes and provides some practical strategies on how best to support these athlete groups.
Upon completion of this chapter you will:
• understand the additional challenges faced by athletes competing in weight category sports
• understand the additional challenges faced by athletes competing in aesthetic sports
• be able to propose two different approaches to managing weight-making behaviours of athletes.
WEIGHT CATEGORY SPORTS
Weight category sports are those sports where athletes are required to compete in weight categories or classes—for example, boxing, lightweight rowing and judo—and sports such as horseracing, where jockeys are weighed prior to every race.
Weight categories were introduced to these sports as it is widely believed that additional weight, and accompanying increases in strength if that weight is derived from muscle mass, puts athletes at a competitive advantage. To create a fair competition, a maximum weight limit is set. Some examples of weight categories used in Australia and New Zealand can be seen in Table 17.1.
For example, a lightweight rower in great health and achieving personal bests may still have a problem if they weigh in 500 grams over their cut-off, as this means that—regardless of how talented and prepared they are—they cannot compete.
For professional jockeys there is even more pressure, with failure to meet the weight cut-off for a given race potentially leading to fines and suspensions as well as loss of income. While riding weights in Australia range from the set minimum of 53 kilograms (which includes the saddle and riding equipment, but not the whip and cap) up to approximately 61 kilograms, most jockeys strive to be the minimum weight as this increases the number of races they are suitable for/able to race in (based on horse handicapping). For this reason, it is not unusual for weight-making behaviours to occur in these sports.
Weight-making
Any behaviour used to quickly lose weight regardless of what that ‘weight’ is (water, fat, muscle) before a competition weigh-in.
COMMON WEIGHT-MAKING PRACTICES
While making weight may not always lead to problems, extreme weight-making behaviours are problematic. Such weight-making practices include extensive use of saunas to dehydrate the body, use of diuretics, excessive exercise, running dressed in heavy, non-breathable clothing to promote sweating, not eating or drinking, and the use and abuse of diet pills, purging and other such practices (Crighton et al. 2015). Unfortunately, these more extreme weight-making behaviours have both short-term and long-term health effects and have contributed to the death of athletes in some cases.
Table 17.1. Weight categories for selected sports (Australia and New Zealand)
| Sport | Sex | Weight |
| Lightweight rowing | Men | ≤72.5 kg (team average weight ≤70 kg) |
| Women | ≤59 kg (team average weight ≤ 57 kg) | |
| Judo | Men | >100 kg >90 kg and up to and including 100 kg >81 kg and up to and including 90 kg >73 kg and up to and including 81 kg >66 kg and up to and including 73 kg >60 kg and up to and including 66 kg ≤60 kg Open, with no weight restriction. |
| Women | >78 kg >70 kg and up to and including 78 kg >63 kg and up to and including 70 kg >57 kg and up to and including 63 kg >52 kg and up to and including 57 kg >48 kg and up to and including 52 kg ≤48 kg Open, with no weight restriction. |
|
| Boxing (amateur, youth and elite divisions) | Men | >91 kg >81 kg and up to and including 91 kg >75 kg and up to and including 81 kg >69 kg and up to and including 75 kg >64 kg and up to and including 69 kg >60 kg and up to and including 64 kg >56 kg and up to and including 60 kg >52 kg and up to and including 56 kg >49 kg and up to and including 52 kg >46 kg and up to and including 49 kg |
Women |
>81 kg >75 kg and up to and including 81 kg >69 kg and up to and including 75 kg >64 kg and up to and including 69 kg >60 kg and up to and including 64 kg >57 kg and up to and including 60 kg >54 kg and up to and including 57 kg >51 kg and up to and including 54 kg >48 kg and up to and including 51 kg >45 kg and up to and including 48 kg |
Source: International Rowing Federation <http://www.worldrowing.com/>; International Judo Federation <https://www.ijf.org/>; The International Boxing Association <https://www.aiba.org/>.
It is not unusual to see athletes trying to lose two–five kilograms in the days leading up to competition. It is not surprising to see athletes resort to extreme measures, such as cutting/shaving their hair, trimming fingernails and even inducing vomiting or nosebleeds in situations where they are a few grams over the cut-off at weigh-ins.
The potential negative health effects of extreme weight-making include:
• dehydration leading to significant plasma volume loss and increasing risk of heat illness
• drop in metabolic rate with repeated weight-making practices utilising fasting as a result of muscle loss
• impaired cognitive functioning, including increased fatigue, confusion and mood changes
• lean tissue loss
• impaired bone synthesis during periods of severe energy restriction, which may make athletes more susceptible to injury and have a long-term impact on bone health.
MANAGING WEIGHT-MAKING
When working with athletes in weight category sports, there are two main avenues that can be taken to address weight-making: (1) support the athlete to achieve a ‘regular’ weight that fits their weight category, thereby removing the need to make weight; or, if this is not possible, (2) support the athlete to ‘make weight’ in a safe way.
While the first option is obviously desirable from a health perspective, it is not realistic for most athletes, as many prefer to compete at a weight that is far from ideal for their actual body type and shape. Considering that athletes in most weight category sports require significant lean body mass, which increases their overall weight, there arises a conflict between building muscle and being able to compete. It is unfortunately common for coaches to encourage athletes to compete in a lighter weight division than that to which they are naturally best suited, as they are seen as having an advantage over naturally smaller/lighter athletes. While this may be true from a physical strength perspective, an athlete who is severely dehydrated and has not properly eaten is not in a position to perform at their best.
Weigh-in times in different sports, and even between different levels of competition, vary. Some sports/competitions have athletes weigh in the day before competition, allowing refuelling and rehydration if required, but others have weigh-ins immediately before competition or even, in some cases, before every bout/match, making rehydration challenging for those who have utilised dehydration techniques to make weight. As discussed in Chapter 11 (Hydration) this has a significant impact on performance.
Let’s take a closer look at each of the approaches athletes may choose to take.
Regular weight = competition weight approach
This is considered the more sensible and healthy approach, as it eliminates the need to ‘make weight’ and undertake risky diet and/or dehydration behaviours. The approach involves selection of the most appropriate weight category (within five per cent of natural weight if possible) for an athlete based on the weight they are able to attain and maintain while eating appropriately, training well and performing at a high level. This will involve losing weight for some athletes and gaining weight for others. While this may sound easy and obvious, it is an approach athletes and coaches are often not comfortable with, mostly because once athletes find a place in their ‘category’ the notion of moving into another category is almost as daunting as changing sports, with changes in the competition and the competitors. It may also be challenging for athletes who do not actually know what their ‘normal’ non-dieting weight is; this is particularly true for younger athletes who started in a weight category in their late teens and remained in the same category into their twenties despite significant growth in height. These cases can require time to identify the best option—and time is not something that is always easy to find for competitive athletes. Where possible, nutrition professionals can encourage athletes to use the off-season to find a more ‘natural’ weight. Anthropometric assessment (see Chapter 13 for more details) by a trained professional should be used to help athletes assess the most appropriate weight category in which they should compete.
Where an athlete naturally sits just above a weight class it may not be clear which weight category is best. One option is to encourage the athlete to work on gaining additional muscle mass to gain further strength and get their weight up, closer to the top of the weight category, or alternatively support them to make weight for the lower category in a safe and healthy way in the lead-up to competition.
Safer weight-making practices
From a health perspective it would be best if athletes did not have to make weight at all; however, this is unfortunately unlikely to be the case where sports remain categorised by weight class. Therefore, it is important to help athletes to make weight in the safest way possible, without compromising short- or long-term health.
This means that athletes need to be encouraged to allow enough time before competition to lose the extra weight. They should avoid dehydration practices or, if they must use them, have adequate time to rehydrate before competition. It should be made clear to athletes that any weight-making strategies are short-term measures—for example, if significant energy or fluid restriction is taking place, that it is only for a clearly defined period of time, after which a healthy way of eating and drinking returns. It is easy for athletes to fall into a very restrictive way of eating or disordered eating involving bingeing, purging or utilising laxatives and/or diuretics as part of their usual routine, compromising their wellbeing and performance. Appropriate strategies for managing weight in weight category athletes are outlined in Box 17.1.
It is important that athletes have an opportunity to consider their options and discuss them with their support team when making a decision about the best approach for them. Advice needs to be aligned with the rules of the sport, timing of weigh-ins and the physiological needs of the athlete. It is strongly recommended that any athlete participating in a weight category sport should seek the advice of a qualified sports dietitian to individualise their weight management plan.
Box 17.1: Examples of advice for weight category athletes
Well ahead of competition:
• Develop a long-term plan for weight on- and off-season.
• If necessary, consume an appropriate energy restricted diet aiming for a maximum of 500 grams of weight loss per week (see Chapter 13 for more details on changing body composition).
Shortly before competition/weigh-in:
• Avoid high-salt foods that may lead to water retention (for example, processed foods such as deli meat, canned soups/ foods, frozen meals, potato chips, soy sauce, pickles, fast food).
• Aim for a low-residue, low-fibre diet (for example, consume white bread instead of wholegrain, peel fruit and vegetables before cooking/eating, avoid food made with seeds and nuts).
• Consume appropriate amounts of fluid, making sure that fluid loss does not exceed two per cent loss of body weight and is replaced before competition.
Refuelling strategies (if fluid and/or energy restriction was used to make weight):
• Where possible, allow enough time to rehydrate (2–4 days).
• Consume 150 per cent of the fluid loss (for instance, drink 1.5 litres of fluid for each kilogram of weight lost).
• Utilise drinks containing electrolytes and carbohydrate to maximise hydration (see Chapter 11 for more details on optimising rehydration).
• Consume carbohydrates to maximise glycogen stores.
Aesthetic sports are those sports where there is a strong focus on appearance as part of the way performance is assessed. These include dance, gymnastics, aerobics, figure skating, cheerleading, ballet and diving. In many of these aesthetic sports, how an athlete looks while performing will be a component of how their performance is evaluated. Execution of particular technical movements is important, but so is the grace and beauty of that movement. This is where problems relating to nutrition can arise, as this focus on aesthetics can lead to problems with body image and suboptimal dietary practices to try to control body size or shape. Most commonly this manifests as disordered eating and energy restriction (de Bruin et al. 2007). Another factor that is not particularly helpful is that athletes often get involved in these sports at a young age, and their bodies continue to grow, develop and change shape as they age. However, for many athletes these changes can be seen as undesirable; for example, the development of larger breasts and wider hips is not considered desirable for a ballerina. These pressures make teenage girls in aesthetic sports particularly vulnerable to restrictive or disordered eating. More details of disordered eating and the challenges of working with young athletes can be found in Chapter 18.
Disordered eating
A variety of abnormal eating behaviours that, by themselves, do not warrant diagnosis of an eating disorder but are usually not optimal for health and performance.
Nutrition recommendations for athletes in aesthetic sports need to be particularly mindful of how dietary changes could impact on the physical appearance of the individual athlete. While muscle gain is desirable in many sports, for aesthetic athletes a muscle distribution that is considered to be less physically attractive can lead to lower competition scores.
It is important to acknowledge the stereotypical body shapes and physiques found in many aesthetic sports, but also to remind athletes that they are individuals and not everyone is exactly the same. Where possible, it is wise to have some examples of high-performing athletes in their sport with different body shapes from the standard. In gymnastics, a very good example is the difference in physique between two top 2008 Beijing Olympic gymnasts, Nastia Liukin and Shawn Johnson (both from the USA team). These two gymnasts have vastly different body shapes; they won both gold and silver medals in the same events, demonstrating that different body shapes can still lead to great outcomes. Simple visual examples can have a significant effect on young, impressionable athletes, and help to encourage even aesthetic sport athletes to focus on optimising their performance more than worrying about the exact size and shape of their bodies. In situations where body-image concerns are present, it is wise to consider the involvement of a sports psychologist to support the athlete.
After reading this chapter, you should understand that athletes who compete in weight category sports are under extreme pressures to achieve a specific weight to avoid exclusion from competition. Weight-making is a common practice among athletes in weight category sports and can lead to both short- and long-term negative health outcomes; therefore, athletes need professional guidance and support to either attain and compete at a weight that is easily sustainable for the athlete or to support them to make weight in a safer manner.
Aesthetic sport athletes are under an additional spotlight in relation to their physical appearance, as how they look when performing is a component of how their performance is evaluated. These athletes are more likely to develop concerns regarding their body image and should be supported to adopt healthy eating practices in line with personalised goals.
Key messages
• Athletes in weight category sports are prone to undertake risky weight-making behaviours.
• Weight category sport athletes should be supported to minimise the need to make weight, or do so in a safer manner.
• Aesthetic sport athletes are at higher risk of disordered body image and, hence, disordered eating.
• Aesthetic sport athletes should be supported to focus on their personal goals and performance, rather than on body size or shape.
REFERENCES
Crighton, B., Close, G.L. & Morton, J.P., 2016, ‘Alarming weight cutting behaviours in mixed martial arts: A cause for concern and a call for action’, British Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 50, no. 8, pp. 446–7, doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2015-094732.
de Bruin, A.K., Oudejans, R.R. & Bakker, F.C., 2007, ‘Dieting and body image in aesthetic sports: A comparison of Dutch female gymnasts and non-aesthetic sport participants’, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 507–20.