Note: Entries in this index, carried over verbatim from the print edition of this title, are unlikely to correspond to the pagination of any given e-book reader. However, entries in this index, and other terms, may be easily located by using the search feature of your e-book reader.
Note: references to footnotes are indicated by ‘fn’; references to endnotes are indicated by ‘n’ plus the note number
Abakumov, Viktor 197, 217
Abalkin, Leonid 557–8
Abercrombie, Lascelles 121fn
Abkhazia 553, 560, 573
abortion 68–9
Acheson, Dean 165, 208, 210
Ackermann, Anton 175
Acosta, Carlos 306
Action Programme (Czechoslovakia; 1968) 381, 387–8, 661n32
Adamec, Ladislav 541
Adams, John 18
Adams, John Quincy 18
Adenauer, Konrad 176
Afanasiev, Yury 508, 519
Afghanistan 82, 332, 350–6, 417; Soviet military intervention 353–6, 414, 418, 432, 501, 509, 601, 668n38
Africa: Communist movements in 5, 10, 105, 332, 359–67; Cuba and 308–9, 349, 365–6; see also individual countries
African National Congress (ANC) 36 1, 362–3, 366, 687n3
Aganbegyan, Abel 488, 559
Agitprop (Soviet Department of Propaganda and Agitation) 198, 218, 230, 413, 474, 491, 574–5
Agrarian Party (Bulgaria) 172, 173
agriculture: China 313, 317, 442, 443; Cuba 304; Hungary 80, 442; Mongolia 333; Poland 108; USSR 53, 59, 62–3, 64, 67, 71, 142, 188, 195, 202, 259–60, 313, 404, 415, 442, 469, 630n39; Yugoslavia 108, 207–8, 209; see also collectivization
Akademgorodok 674n29
Akhmatova, Anna 201; Requiem 492, 677n20
Akselrod, Pavel 36
Albania: alliance with China 291, 319; end of Communist rule 544–6; endurance of Communist system 522, 574; establishment of Communist state 114, 145, 149–51, 161, 189, 267, 548; under Hoxha 545; and Hungarian revolution (1956) 290, 291; Stalin and 204, 205, 210, 216
Albanian Communist Party 150–1, 267, 545
alcoholism 418, 496, 590, 677n26
Alexander II, Tsar 30–1, 43
Alexander III, Tsar 31
Alexandra, Empress of Russia 47, 49
Alexei, Tsarevich of Russia 47, 49
Alexeyeva, Ludmilla 237, 415, 464, 595
Aliev, Heidar 493
Allende, Salvador 104–5, 307
Alliance of Free Democrats (Hungary) 530
Ambartsumov, Yevgeny 508
Ambrose, St 11
Amin, Hafizullah 352, 353–4, 354–5, 356
Amter, Israel (‘John Ford’) 95
anarchism 19, 26–7, 89
ANC see African National Congress
Andreyeva, Nina 504–7, 678n3, 679n17
Andropov, Yury: and Afghanistan 355, 356; ambassador to Hungary 280, 285; background and personality 66, 410; and Brezhnev 400, 405; death 249, 481, 483; general secretary 413, 481, 482–3, 486, 487; and Helsinki Agreement 462–3; internationalism 409, 410; KGB chief 353, 355, 389, 404, 406–7, 462–3, 481, 665n18; and Polish revolution (1980–81) 430, 434–5; and ‘Prague Spring’ 389, 395, 396, 410; promotion of Gorbachev 413, 482–3
Angola 309, 364–5, 365–6
Animal Farm (Orwell) 122, 504, 649n1
anti-alcohol campaign (USSR) 496, 677n26
anti-Americanism 127, 294, 608, 609
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1972) 501
anti-Bolshevism 53, 54, 129
anti-capitalism 149, 337, 338
anti-clericalism 73, 75, 80
anti-colonialism 127, 261, 332–3, 337, 339, 586
anti-Communism: Czechoslovakia 158, 272, 391; Georgia 553; Hungary 274, 279, 280; Indonesia 359; Laos 342, 609; in literature 405, 504; Poland 274, 422, 429; Romania 543; South Africa 362; Soviet dissidents and 405, 411; United States 96, 342, 345, 432, 477, 500, 609; USSR 507, 555, 564, 565, 592, 666n32; Vietnam 341, 345; Yugoslavia 143
anti-fascism 88, 90, 91, 92, 98, 131, 219, 220, 466
Anti-Fascist National Liberation Committee (Albania) 145
Anti-Party Group crisis (USSR; 1957) 245–52, 257, 260, 318–19
anti-semitism: Czechoslovakia 213, 215; Imperial Russia 30, 45–6; and nationalists 129, 408, 409, 422; Poland 130, 396, 422, 427; Romania 212; USSR 30, 100, 201, 210, 213, 219–20, 263, 396, 408, 409, 504
anti-Sovietism 177, 206, 219, 277, 278, 288–9, 311, 366, 391, 513–14, 579; in literature 405, 504
anti-Stalinism 89, 237, 253, 255, 292, 330, 401, 406, 411, 412–13, 484, 485
Antonescu, Ion 171
apartheid 360, 361
Applebaum, Anne 76
Aquinas, St Thomas 296
Aragon, Louis 223
Arbatov, Georgi 400–1, 414, 415, 470, 664n3, 668n38
Armenia 550, 551, 559–60, 566, 571
art: abstract art 262, 263; in Khrushchev era 262–4; ‘socialist realism’ 70, 263
Artemev, Pavel 234
Asia: Communist movements in 98, 127, 128, 291, 356–9, 603–4, 659n103; Communist systems in 5, 10, 332–56, 587, 604–7, 608–13; see also individual countries
Astafiev, Viktor 195
Attlee, Clement 162
August (1991) coup (USSR) 198–9, 250, 503, 506, 566, 567–71, 595, 684n43
Augustine, St 11, 120
Australia 101, 358
Austria 536
Austro-Hungarian Empire 46, 54, 80, 81, 280
Auty, Phyllis 152
Azerbaijan 493, 559–60
Babeuf, Gracchus 16
Babiuch, Edward 428
Babouvism 16, 624n29
Bagramyan, Marshal Hovhannes 251
Baikal, Lake 409
Bakatin, Vadim 566, 570, 571
Baker, James 478
Baklanov, Georgy 514
Baklanov, Oleg 506, 526, 568, 569
Baku interethnic violence 559
Bakunin, Mikhail 26–7
Balcerowicz, Leszek 534
Balkans 143, 161, 204, 644n32
Ball, John 12, 14, 623–4n12
ballet 473
Baltic states 92, 145–6, 194, 407, 408, 417, 427; independence 516, 549–50, 553, 554, 559, 561–3, 564, 571, 572, 612; see also Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania
banks, nationalization of 59, 155, 168, 189, 203, 495
Barbieri, Frani 465
Barnabitky Commission (Czechoslovakia; 1963) 383–4
Barrientos, René 305
Bartov, Omer 139
Baryshnikov, Mikhail 473
Bashkortostan 551
Batista, Fulgencio 293, 294, 295–8, 299, 304, 307, 361
Baum, Richard 447
Bauman, Nikolay 36
Bauman, Zygmunt 422
Bay of Pigs invasion (Cuba; 1961) 302, 343
BBC 290, 447, 473, 474, 637n30
Bebel, August 28
Beer, Max 11
Beevor, Antony 140
Beijing: American embassy 447; Central Academy of Fine Arts 446; Central Party School 450, 454, 455; Communists take control of 179, 186; Olympic Games (2008) 449, 457, 672n84; party organization 324, 325–6; University 327; see also Tiananmen Square
Belarus (Belorussia) 60, 140, 551, 572
Belgium 36, 469
Belgrade 144, 204, 208, 276, 611
Bell, Tom 85
Bendix, Reinhard 584
Beneš, Edvard 154, 159, 272
Benin 309
Bennett-Jones, Owen 607
Berend, Ivan 530
Beria, Lavrenti: arrest and execution 233–5, 239, 249, 250, 252, 268–9, 575, 647n13, 647n24; and atomic bomb 221, 253fn; and Council of Ministers 197, 643n11; and death of Stalin 222, 227–8, 249; and East Germany 268–9, 270, 272; and Katyn massacre 140, 637–8n30; and Khrushchev 228, 233–5, 239; and ‘Leningrad Affair’ 217–18; and Nazi invasion of USSR 136–7; and security forces 197, 217, 227–8, 233, 234, 637n30; and Yugoslavia 276
Berlin: East Berlin worker uprising (1953) 269, 270–1, 275; elections 175; Gorbachev visits (1989) 536–7; partition 175, 271; reunification 538; Second World War 141
Berlin blockade and airlift (1948–49) 175–6, 523
Berlin Wall 271, 475, 513, 534, 535, 536, 537, 538, 542, 547
Berlin, Isaiah 33, 492, 677n20
Berlinguer, Enrico 465, 466, 467, 470
Bernstein, Eduard 38–9, 46, 52, 634n3
Bessarabia 171
Bessmertnykh, Alexander 566
Bevan, Aneurin 615
Bevin, Ernest 103, 162, 178
Bierut, Bolesław 166–7, 168, 212, 268, 276
Bilak, Vasil 388, 391, 394, 395, 467
birth rates 70, 314, 590, 671n60
Bismarck, Otto von 593
Black Hundreds (Union of the Russian People) 46
Blake, George 473
Blanc, Louis 28–9
Blank, Alexander 30
Blank, Moishe 30
blat 580–2, 585
‘Bloody Sunday’ (January 1905) 42–3
Blum, Léon 94
Bogolyubov, Klavdy 483
Bogomolov, Oleg 414, 415
Bogrov, Dmitry 45
Bohemia 12–13, 95, 117, 146, 155, 271, 369, 376
Boldin, Valery 569
Bolivia 304, 305–6
Bolshevik revolution (1917) 29, 32, 40, 49–52, 56, 57, 61, 68, 180, 228; reaction in China to 180; reaction in West to 78, 79, 84, 95, 118, 121; seventieth anniversary 485, 493, 497
Bolsheviks: and Comintern 82; Jews and 46, 128–9; and Kronstadt Revolt 58; party organization 40–1, 50–1, 55; in power 52–3, 109; pre-revolution activity 45, 46, 48–9, 50; renamed as Communist Party 52, 55; and RSDLP 37, 40; and Russian civil war 53, 54–5; Stalin and 61, 68, 72, 75
Bondarev, Yury 514, 515
Bordigo, Amadeo 83
Borodin, Mikhail 99–100, 219–20, 338–9
Bosnia and Hercegovina 143, 152, 548, 639n15
Bosniaks 153, 639n15
Botswana 364
Bourdeaux, Michael 259
‘bourgeois democracy’ 57, 167, 269, 286, 308, 469, 492, 497
‘bourgeois nationalism’ 215, 236, 275, 383, 384
‘bourgeois revolution’ 32, 40, 44, 49
bourgeoisie: Engels and 19, 21, 22, 26, 32; Lenin and 57; Marx and 18, 21, 26, 32; see also middle classes
Boy Scouts 216
Brandt, Willy 173, 321, 399, 664n4, 664n6
Bratislava 382, 384, 386, 390
Bratislava Declaration (1968) 390–1
Brazaukas, Algirdas-Mikolas 592, 686n7
Brazil 304, 306
Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of (1918) 53
Brezhnev, Leonid: achievements and failures of 415–18; and Afghanistan 354, 398; and Africa 364; and Anti-Party Group 247; background 66; and Cambodia 349; cronyism 580; death 481; détente policy 399, 414, 460–1, 463, 601; Dnepropetrovsk first secretary 198; and Helsinki Agreement 399, 460, 462–3; and Jimmy Carter 349, 399, 460; Kazakhstan first secretary 235; Khrushchev’s advancement of 235, 246–7; and Khrushchev’s fall 266, 400; and nationalities 549; as party leader 2, 199, 398–402, 404–5; personality cult 398, 404–5; and Polish revolution (1980–81) 430, 431–2, 433–4; and ‘Prague Spring’ 378–9, 380–1, 385–6, 387, 388, 389, 391–2, 393, 396, 397, 398–9, 572, 663n76, 664n3; and Ronald Reagan 476; second party secretary 266; and Sino-Soviet split 323; and Stalin 330, 400–1, 664n7; and Tito 388
‘Brezhnev doctrine’ 432, 523, 524, 536, 602
British Broadcasting Corporation see BBC
British Empire 337
British Union of Fascists 97–8
broadcasting, foreign (to Communist states) 273–4, 289, 290, 294, 376, 417, 473–5, 543, 588, 653n76; jamming of 289, 394, 447, 460, 473–4, 540, 574, 588, 600
Brokaw, Tom 497, 537
Broomfield, Nigel 591
Browder, Earl 95–6, 125
Brus, Włodzimierz 274, 422, 441, 652n18
Brzezinski, Zbigniew 350, 425, 432
BSP see Bulgarian Socialist Party
Buddhism 607, 610–611
Budenny, Semyon 137
Bukharin, Nikolay 48, 64, 75, 83, 95, 123, 129, 244, 279, 415, 493, 629n33
Bulganin, Nikolay 234, 235–6, 240, 245, 247, 252, 268–9, 276, 283, 643n11
Bulgaria: constitution 172–3, 542; end of Communist rule 541–2; establishment of Communist state 150, 161, 172–3; fascism 87; human rights 542; and Hungarian revolution (1956) 290, 291; intelligentsia 542; Ministry of Interior 172; and ‘Prague Spring’ 385, 387–91, 392–3; pro-Soviet sentiment 585; Second World War 146, 161, 172; Stalin and 204–6, 210–11; Turkish minority 541
Bulgarian Communist Party (BCP) 172–3, 203, 210, 467–8, 542
Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP) 542
Bund (Jewish socialist organization) 36, 99
Bundy, McGeorge 343
Bunke, Tamara ‘Tania’ 305–6
‘bureaucratic centralism’ 107, 274, 378
Burgess, Guy 473
Burlatsky, Fedor 508, 664n17
Burns, Lizzie 19
Burns, Mary 19
Burns, Robert 28
Bush, George H.W. 472, 476, 478, 570, 602
Cabet, Étienne 17
Callaghan, James 463
Cambodia 4, 332, 333, 343, 345–50, 529, 614
Cambodian/Kampuchean Communist party (Khmer Rouge) 345–50, 529
Campanella, Tommasso 15
Campbell, J.R. 85, 96–7
Canada 54, 118, 260, 413, 461, 469–70
Cancer Ward (Solzhenitsyn) 405, 503, 511
Cantillo, Eulogio 298
capitalism: and Great Depression 119, 131, 148; in Imperial Russia 41, 49; Lenin on 35, 39, 57; Marx on 5, 9–10, 21, 23–4; ‘partial stabilization of capitalism’ 84–5; and socialism 102, 120, 148; in USSR 59; see also anti-capitalism
Cardona, Miró 299
Carrillo, Santiago 465, 466–7
Carter, Jimmy 349, 350, 399, 425, 432, 460, 529
Casey, William 476
Castro, Fidel: background and early career 294–5, 654n10; and Cuban missile crisis 262, 301–3; and Czechoslovakia 305; establishment of Communist system 293, 298–9, 303–5, 306–7, 308, 311–12, 655n46; imprisonment 295–6, 654n12; influences on 296, 298–9, 304, 306; interventions in Africa 309, 363, 366; and PSP 293, 299, 300–1; seizure of power 293, 296–301, 308, 654n18; succeeded by Raúl Castro 607
Castro, Raúl 296, 297, 298, 300, 304, 306, 308, 311, 607
Catholic Church: Czechoslovakia 540; Great Britain 124, 125; Hungary 170, 289–90; Lithuania 427, 478, 549; Poland 167–8, 212, 216, 292, 422, 423, 425, 426, 427, 429, 431, 436, 478, 532, 533, 578; Spain 89; see also Vatican
Caucasus 63, 580 see also Armenia; Azerbaijan
CCP see Chinese Communist Party
Ceau
escu, Elena 543, 544
Ceauescu, Nicolae 170, 431, 529, 533, 542–4, 609–10
Ceauescu, Nicu 543, 610
censorship 473, 574–7, 577–8, 608; China 448, 453–4, 592, 611; Czechoslovakia 375, 379, 661n27; Imperial Russia 32; Poland 168, 426, 428; self-censorship 375, 472, 506, 575, 600; USSR 149, 195–6, 237, 258, 377, 398, 410, 418, 460, 473, 491, 503–4, 508–9, 549, 574–5, 577–8, 584, 600, 602, 657n58, 661n27, 662n58
Central Asian republics 417–18, 550, 551, 612, 616, 683n8; see also Kazakhstan; Turkmenistan; Uzbekistan
centralization 21, 27, 36, 37, 40, 60, 107, 186, 209, 265, 550–1, 578fn, 602; see also decentralization
erník, Old
rich 386, 388, 389, 393, 395–6
Chagin, P. 196, 643n6
Chamberlain, Neville 91
Charter 77 (Czechoslovakia) 539, 540, 544
chauvinism, national 30, 60–1, 378, 413, 565
Chebrikov, Viktor 493, 505, 560
Chechens 66, 140, 549, 562
Cheka 54–5, 67, 121
Chen Boda 325
Chen Duxiu 99
Chernenko, Konstantin: and Afghanistan 356; Andropov and 482–3; background 66; Brezhnev and 400; and Czechoslovakia 391; death 472, 481, 486, 524; general secretary 481, 483–5, 486, 487; and Poland 430
Chernobyl nuclear disaster (1986) 491–2, 564
Chernov, Viktor 41
Chernyaev, Anatoly 412–13, 414, 488, 500, 505, 525, 526, 567–8, 597, 599, 615, 620
Chernyshevsky, Nikolay 33–4, 35
chess 584
Chetniks 143, 144, 150, 153
Chiang Kai-shek: and civil war 181–2, 186; early life 99; Nationalist government 100, 146–7, 179, 183, 185; and Sino-Japanese War 179, 180, 181, 183, 186; and Stalin 185
Chicherin, Georgy 82, 84
Chile 104–5, 307
China: and Africa 366; agriculture 313, 317, 442, 443; and Albania 291, 319; anti-colonialism 127, 586; birth-control policy 443, 671n60; and Cambodia 349–50; civil war (1945–49) 179, 181–3, 185–6, 189, 586; and Comintern 98, 99, 180, 184–5, 339; constitution 108; and Cuban missile crisis 302; Cultural Revolution 313, 322, 324–31, 344, 348, 401, 456, 457, 529, 590, 612, 614, 615, 688n27; under Deng Xiaoping 438–52, 615–16; economic growth 443, 451–2, 456–7, 460, 611, 613; economic reform 5, 372, 440, 441–3, 447–8, 450–2, 494, 585, 598, 601, 605, 608, 610, 611, 615; education 193, 314, 327, 443–4, 611–12; endurance of Communist system 598, 604–7, 608, 610–13; ethnicity 317, 458; executions 192, 326; famines 317, 318, 346, 656n17; First World War 98; five-year plans 188, 313; foundation of People’s Republic 180, 438; ‘Gang of Four’ 328, 329, 438, 440; Great Leap Forward 316–18, 322, 324, 326, 328, 346, 347, 348, 439–40, 456; guanxi 585; health care 314, 443; human rights 331, 453, 670n46, 679n48; ‘Hundred Flowers’ movement 313, 314–16, 318; and Hungarian revolution (1956) 282; and India 321; industrialization 186, 313; intelligentsia 180, 192, 193, 315–16, 441, 443, 444, 445, 454; Korean War 190–2, 236, 318, 321, 335, 642n39, 642n43; Kuomintang (Nationalists) xi, 99–100, 146–7, 179–80, 181–3, 185, 187, 189, 192, 333, 339, 586; land ownership 147, 180, 181–2, 186, 440, 442, 456; martial law (1989) 446–7; and Mongolia 182; nationalism 98, 99, 146, 179, 457, 608, 611; and North Korea 3; origins of Chinese Communism 98–100, 114, 144; peasantry 9, 100, 147, 180, 181–2, 442, 443; People’s Liberation Army (PLA) 181, 325, 326, 330; population 6, 179, 180, 188, 314, 443, 451, 457, 605, 671n60; rapprochement with United States 330–1, 344, 350, 611; Red Army 179, 180, 182, 183, 184, 189, 325; religion in 610–11; Second World War 146–7, 179–80, 181, 183, 184, 641n3; Sino-Japanese War 146–7, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 185, 438; Sino-Soviet split 5, 261, 267, 306, 313, 318–24, 330–1, 333, 344; State Council 324, 325, 327, 328, 439; Tiananmen Square massacre (1989) 444–5, 446–8, 449, 450, 537, 615; and Tibet 317, 321, 458; in twenty-first century 452–8, 592, 604–7, 610–13; and Vietnam 340–1, 344, 349–50; and Yugoslavia 319
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 441, 669n25, 670n48
Chinese Communist Party (CCP): apparatus 314, 318, 324–5, 441; Central Party School 450, 454, 455, 671n71; chairmanship 318, 439; and civil war 181–3, 185–6, 189; and Comintern 180, 184–5; and CPSU 189, 322–3; factionalism 313, 328; foundation of 99; general secretaryship 318, 439; leading role/monopoly of power 185, 189, 440, 494, 604–5, 606; Long March (1934–35) 100, 146, 184, 339, 438; and nationalism 586; party intelligentsia 441, 454; regional party organizations 189, 324, 329; seizure of power 147, 179–93; and Sino-Japanese War 146–7, 179, 180, 181, 182, 186; and Soviet model 186–9, 193, 314; in twenty-first century 452–8, 605–7, 611
Chinese Communist Party, Central Committee 188, 324; and Cultural Revolution 327, 329; Deng Xiaoping and 439, 448–9; Organization Department 439; Politburo 184, 188fn, 324, 443, 444, 446; Propaganda Department 449, 606; Secretariat 184, 318, 324, 326–7; Standing Committee of Politburo 443, 444, 445–6, 448, 452
Chinese Communist Party, Congresses: Seventh (1945) 184, 188, 314; Eighth (1956) 188, 314; Sixteenth (2002) 453; Seventeenth (2007) 456
Chkhikvadze, Viktor 673n11
Chongquing 181
Choybalsan, Horloogiyn 333
Christian Democrats (Germany) 175, 538
Christianity: early Christians 11; Lutherans 18, 30; in medieval Europe 12–13; and socialism 17, 28, 36; see also Catholic Church; Orthodox Church; Protestant Church
Chronicle of the Lithuanian Catholic Church 549
Churchill, Randolph 145
Churchill, Winston: and Albania 151; on Communism 136; electoral defeat (1945) 162, 165; ‘iron curtain’ speech 176–8, 525; and partition of Poland and Germany 163–4, 165–6, 173; and Russian civil war 54, 136; and Stalin 140, 142, 143, 161–2, 163, 164, 178, 200, 204, 504; and Tito 144–5, 152, 204; at Yalta and Potsdam conferences (1945) 162, 173, 179, 204
CIA (US Central Intelligence Agency) 242, 244, 300, 309, 342, 346, 476, 501, 675n56
Cierna nad Tisou 390
cinema see film
circular flow of influence 563–5
circular flow of power 249
Císa, estmír 663n82
Civic Forum (Czechoslovakia) 540–1, 544
civil society 93, 382, 385, 424–5, 427, 449–50, 469, 530, 542, 667n12, 670n47
class: class analysis of politics 20, 29, 32; class struggle 13, 16, 20, 126–7, 180, 192, 253, 315, 326, 360, 500, 504; and race 311, 360
Clementis, Vladimír 214, 373, 660n9
Clinton, Bill 449, 670n31
Club 231 (Czechoslovakia) 382
co-operatives 16, 17, 21, 38, 102, 313, 317, 490, 520
Cohn, Norman 12, 623–4n12
Cold War 10, 105, 601–2; Africa and 362, 364, 367; beginning of 178, 194; ending of 477–8, 498–502, 503, 525, 572, 573, 590, 601, 602; Japan and 358; Korea and 215, 335; militarization 215–16, 303, 477; Vietnam and 349; Western Communists and 119, 465; see also Cuban missile crisis
collectivization of agriculture 148–9, 216, 357; China 313, 442; Hungary 80; Mongolia 333; USSR 62–3, 64, 67, 71, 142, 188, 195, 202, 313, 442, 630n39; Yugoslavia 206, 207–8, 209
colonialism 98, 294, 337–8, 339–40, 364, 449; see also anti-colonialism
Comecon 301
Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) 112, 204, 213; Czechoslovakia and 157–8, 213; Yugoslavia and 194, 204, 206–10, 212, 319
Comintern (Third Communist International): and Albania 145, 150; and China 98, 99, 180, 184–5, 339; Congresses: Second (1919) 83, 95, 98; Sixth (1928) 85; Seventh (1935) 88; creation of 79, 82–3; dissolution of 112, 156, 194, 413; Ho Chi Minh and 338–9; Lenin School, Moscow 93, 166, 174; and Nazi – Soviet Pact (1939) 90–1; ‘partial stabilization of capitalism’ (1923–28) 84–5; and Poland 166; Popular Front (1935–39) 87, 88–90, 92, 93, 96, 103, 119; ‘Red Wave’ (1919–23) 83–4; and Second World War 92; Secretariat 156; ‘Third Period’ (1928–35) 85–8, 92–3, 95, 96, 97, 119; USSR and 82–3, 84, 85, 88, 112, 118–19, 184; see also Cominform
command economy 69, 108–9, 495, 587; abandonment of 520, 556, 605, 606, 607, 680n44; China 605; defects of 581, 591; North Korea 336, 607; USSR 260, 495–6, 512, 520, 556, 580–1; Yugoslavia 209
Committee of Party-State Control (USSR) 265
Committees for Defence of the Revolution (Cuba) 311
Commonwealth of Independent States 572
communism (as final stage of social development) xii, 11, 101, 110–11, 126–7, 613–14; abandonment of 604, 605; Gorbachev and 111, 521; Khrushchev and 228, 256, 259; Lenin and 56, 57–8, 101, 111; Marx and 9, 20, 21, 101, 111; Stalin and 74, 228; and utopianism 11, 56, 134, 255
Communist International see Comintern
Communist League of America 96
Communist Manifesto (Marx and Engels) 9, 20, 21–2, 24, 39, 625n51, 626n70
Communist parties: intertwining of party and state 230, 521; leading role/monopoly of power 2, 103, 105–7, 109, 110–11, 230, 357, 391, 405, 518, 532, 596, 606; organization of 106, 107, 109, 132, 133, 230; recruitment to non-ruling parties 1–2, 124–32, 614; recruitment to ruling parties 1–2, 132–4, 590, 615–16; role of party leader 107–8, 230, 596–7; see also Communist parties of individual countries
Communist Party of Czechoslovakia: Action Programme (1968) 381, 387–8, 661n32; apparatus 374, 375, 379, 381; Central Committee 377, 378–9, 381, 382, 392, 594; Congresses: Thirteenth (1966) 371; Fourteenth (1968) 392, 395; and Eurocommunism 467; foundation of 94; leading role/monopoly of power 159, 373, 381; parliamentary representation 94, 117; Party High School 384; party intelligentsia 370–1, 374–6, 383, 421, 594; party organs 382–3; Politburo/Presidium of the Central Committee 370, 378, 379, 382, 383, 388, 390, 392–5, 594, 663n82; popular support 94–5, 117, 155, 157, 271, 399; reform movements 290, 291, 368–9, 370–7, 380–4, 394–5, 397, 398–9, 539–40, 593–5, 615, 663n82; Secretariat of the Central Committee 272, 370, 383, 392; seizure of power 146, 154–6, 158–60, 369, 379; Stalin’s purges 213, 214, 215; and Two Thousand Words manifesto (1968) 381–2; and ‘velvet revolution’ 541
Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) 10, 85, 96–8, 113, 118, 120, 121, 123–4, 125–6, 127, 129, 130–1, 291, 466
Communist Party of India (CPI/CPI(M)) 127, 357, 358
Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) 127, 358–9
Communist Party of Nepal 604
Communist Party of Poland (KKP) 129–30, 166; see also Polish Communist party (PUWP) Communist Party of Russian Federation (CPRF) 603
Communist Party of South Africa (CPSA) 118, 359–63, 687n3
Communist Party of Soviet Union (CPSU): apparatus 227, 247–8, 250, 401, 402, 406, 413, 483, 506, 507, 515, 566, 574, 598; and CCP 189, 322–3, 445; central party organs 59, 107, 196–8, 252–3, 405, 489, 518, 520, 551, 610; disbanding of 571; and Eurocommunism 465, 466–7; factionalism 58, 189, 248, 251; leading role/monopoly of power 106, 197, 198, 232, 405, 410, 505, 518, 519–20, 598, 680n42; Nineteenth Party Conference (1988) 491, 506, 507, 508, 512, 514–15, 524, 527, 600; Orgburo (Organizational Bureau) 59; party intelligentsia 410, 469, 561, 594–5; regional party organizations 198, 235, 248, 249, 265, 329, 402, 511–12, 518, 551–2; role of party leader 59, 196–7, 231, 232, 249–50, 265, 403, 506–7, 511, 527, 574; Stalin’s purging of 64, 75, 217–19; Workers’ Opposition group 58
Communist Party of Soviet Union, Central Committee: Andropov and 482–3; apparatus 413–14, 483, 489, 574; and Beria’s removal from office 234–5, 268–9; Brezhnev and 402, 404; and China 322; Department of Propaganda and Agitation (Agitprop) 198, 218, 230, 413, 474, 491, 574–5; economic departments 489, 520, 559; first/general secretaryship 232, 235, 249, 404, 506–7, 511, 527, 574; General Department 391, 430, 483; Gorbachev and 483, 486–7, 488, 489, 490, 496–7, 512, 520, 597–8; International Department (ID) 112, 352, 360, 365, 366, 413, 414, 488, 526, 597, 623n1, 637n30; Khrushchev and 234–5, 245–51, 252–3, 264–6; and ‘Nina Andreyeva affair’ 504–5, 506; Socialist Countries Department 413–14, 415, 488, 597; Stalin and 59, 75, 197, 201, 217, 230, 231, 646n84; and Supreme Soviet 515; see also Communist Party of Soviet Union, Presidium of the Central Committee; Communist Party of Soviet Union, Secretariat of the Central Committee
Communist Party of Soviet Union, Congresses 230–1, 243fn; Tenth (1921) 58–9; Seventeenth (1934) 71, 75–6, 243; Eighteenth (1939) 231; Nineteenth (1952) 231; Twentieth (1956) 71, 75, 76, 124, 196, 217, 236, 238, 240–3, 244, 254, 275–6, 280, 291, 314, 316, 318, 341, 368, 370, 400, 466, 485, 614, 648n51, 648n55, 648–9n58; Twenty-Second (1961) 244, 253, 255–7, 265, 368, 370, 374, 400, 401; Twenty-Third (1966) 400; Twenty-Seventh (1986) 490, 491; Twenty-Eighth (1990) 555
Communist Party of Soviet Union, Politburo: and Afghanistan 354, 356; age of members 401, 402, 403, 481, 482; Andropov and 482–3; Brezhnev and 401–3, 404–5, 514; Chernenko and 484–5; Gorbachev and 482, 484–5, 486–8, 492–3, 496, 498, 505–6, 510–11, 512, 514–15, 561–2, 598, 683n15; Khrushchev and 232, 235; Lenin and 59; and Poland 430, 432, 433–5, 534fn, 667n29; and ‘Prague Spring’ 389–90, 391, 397; Stalin and 59, 72, 136, 197, 198, 199–200, 227, 231; Yeltsin and 514; see also
Communist Party of Soviet Union, Presidium of the Central Committee Communist Party of Soviet Union, Presidium of the Central Committee: and Anti-Party Group 245, 251; and Beria’s removal from office 268–9; Bulganin and 240, 245, 268–9; Bureau of 222, 231; commission on political prisoners and repression 238, 240–1; and Cuba 301, 654n41; developed from Politburo 231, 232, 286; and Hungary 279, 282, 283, 285–6, 287; Khrushchev and 232–3, 234, 235, 240, 242, 245–7, 248–9, 251–2, 264–5, 266, 301, 647n4; and security forces 239; Stalin and 231, 240, 242
Communist Party of Soviet Union, Secretariat of the Central Committee 59, 107, 574, 598; Andropov and 482; Brezhnev and 402, 404; Chernenko and 486; Gorbachev and 482, 486, 598; Khrushchev and 232, 251, 252; Malenkov and 231, 232; report on work stoppages 430; and security forces 197; Stalin and 59, 60, 65
Communist Party of the USA (CPUSA) 10, 85, 95–6, 118, 124–5, 130, 312, 614
Communist Party of Vietnam 106, 339, 340, 341, 344, 345, 606, 611
Communist party of Yugoslavia (League of Communists) 152–3, 204, 206, 207–9, 546, 547, 644n35
Communist systems’ defining features 196–7, 604–7; aim of building communism 110–11, 521, 604; command economy 69, 108–9, 495, 520, 587; democratic centralism 99, 107, 109, 110–11, 188, 518, 520, 596; identification with international Communist movement 4, 112–14, 521, 604; leading role/monopoly of power of the party 2, 103, 105–7, 109, 110–11, 230, 357, 391, 405, 518, 519–20, 532, 596, 606; state ownership of means of production 26, 108–9, 313, 520, 605, 606–7
communitarianism 18
‘Comparative Communism’ 2
Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) 463–4
Confucianism 612, 643n51
Congo 304, 309, 583
Congress Party (India) 357
Congress of People’s Deputies (USSR) 515–18, 519–20, 523, 552
connections (personal contacts) 580–1, 585
Consitutional Democrats (Russia; Kadets) 45, 49, 52
constitutions 106–7; Bulgaria 172–3, 542; China 108; Cuba 306; Czechoslovakia 4; Mongolia 106; Poland 424, 534; USSR 4, 60, 73–5, 106, 518, 519–20; Vietnam 106; Yugoslavia 4
Cooper, Frederick 659–60n104
corruption: China 183, 190, 193, 444, 451, 452, 453, 454, 605; Cuba 293–4, 308; Indonesia 359; South Korea 335; Third World 583; USSR 497, 558, 580
‘cosmopolitanism’ 195, 219, 221, 504, 646n84
Cossacks 53, 685n5
Cossacks of Kuban, The (film) 222
Council of Europe 536
Council of Ministers (Imperial Russia) 44, 45
Council of Ministers (USSR): Bureau of 218, 232; chairmanship 218, 219, 222, 228, 230, 231–2, 235–6, 240, 252, 265, 266, 275, 276, 305, 402, 403, 448–9, 482, 488–9; formation of 1, 98; Gorbachev and 482, 488–9; Khrushchev and 239, 240, 252, 265; Presidium 232–3, 245; Stalin and 197, 198, 217, 218, 230, 231, 232
Council of People’s Commissars see Sovnarkom
Councils of Ministers (Soviet republics) 551–2
counterrevolution: China 192, 193, 282, 348; Cuba 311; Czechoslovakia 305, 369, 385, 387–8, 389, 391, 392, 395; Hungary 81, 283, 284, 287, 289–90, 385, 530, 681n18; Poland 430, 431; USSR 76; Yugoslavia 206, 282
Craddock, Sir Percy 471
Crick, Bernard 578fn
Crimean Tatars 76, 141, 549, 558
Croatia 143, 546, 547–8
Croats 143, 150, 152, 153
cronyism 580
Crown of St Stephen 529
CSCE (Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe) 463–4
Cuba: achievements and failures of Communist system 307–12, 373, 607, 610; agriculture 304; army 308, 309; Batista regime 293–4, 295–8, 299, 307, 361; Bay of Pigs invasion (1961) 302, 343; constitution 306; corruption 293–4, 308; economic reform 607; education 310–11; endurance of Communist system 606, 607, 608, 610; evolution of Communist system 10, 293, 298–9, 303–5, 306–8, 311–12, 655n46; health care 310, 610; human rights 311; independence 293, 294; interventions in Africa 309, 349, 365–6, 367; middle classes 297, 311; nationalism 294, 586, 608; peasantry 297; revolution 293, 295, 296–8, 299–300, 308; and Third World 293, 308–9, 310, 366, 367; and United States 293–4, 299–300, 303, 304, 307, 309, 312, 320, 602, 608; and USSR 301, 302–3, 304, 305, 307, 308, 309, 311
Cuban Communist Party (ORI/PCC) 299, 300–1, 306, 606, 653n1; see also Popular Socialist Party (Cuba)
Cuban exiles 294, 300, 302, 308
Cuban missile crisis (1962) 10, 262, 266, 301–2, 303, 320, 602
Cultural Revolution (China) 313, 322, 324–31, 344, 348, 401, 456, 457, 529, 590, 612, 614, 615, 688n27
culture: American 127, 410; in Brezhnev era 410; in China 328, 448; in Cuba 310, 311; and glasnost 491; in Hungary 528; Khrushchev’s cultural policy 254–5, 262–4, 650n33; Stalinism and 70, 201–2, 220, 221–2, 230; youth culture 410; see also art; ballet; film; literature; music; theatre
Curzon, George, Lord 162
Curzon Line 162, 163
Czech Legion 54
Czechoslovakia: awareness of conditions in Western Europe 585; Catholic Church 540; Charter 77 539, 540, 544; Civic Forum 540–1, 544; and Cominform 157–8; Communists’ seizure of power 146, 154–6, 158–60, 369, 379; constitution 4; dissolution of 4, 372, 546; economic growth 371; education 380; end of Communist rule 540–1, 546; founding of 94; human rights 382; and Hungarian revolution (1956) 283, 290, 291, 392; under Husák 384, 397, 538–40; intelligentsia 316, 370–1, 374–6, 383, 384, 421, 594, 661n37; and Marshall Plan 156–7; Ministry of Interior 158, 159, 271, 369, 381; and Munich Agreement (1938) 91, 117, 138, 155, 369; Pilsen worker uprising (1953) 268, 271–2, 275; presidency 154, 379, 384, 540, 541; Second World War 135, 146, 154, 155, 171, 376, 378, 383; Slánský trial (1951-52) 213–15, 216, 220, 373, 380, 383; Stalin and 212, 213–15, 216; Two Thousand Words manifesto (1968) 381–2; see also Communist Party of Czechoslovakia; ‘Prague Spring’
Czechs 54, 117, 155, 291, 369, 384, 539
Dahal, Pushpa Kamal (Prachanda) 604
Dahl, Robert A. 616, 617
Daily Worker (British newspaper) 97, 125
Daily Worker (US newspaper) 130
Dalai Lama 317, 321
Dallin, Alexander 584
Daniel, Yuly 405
Daniels, Robert V. 249
Daoud, Mohammad 351, 352
Darkness at Noon (Koestler) 123, 504
Darwin, Charles 38
Daughters of the American Revolution 472
Davies, Joseph E. 75
Davy, Richard 672–3n7
de Gaulle, Charles 261, 342, 504
de Klerk, F.W. 362–3
de-Stalinization 236, 238, 240, 244, 257, 264, 280; limits of 251–4; in literature 254–5
Deakin, Sir William ‘Bill’ 144
decentralization 209, 490, 546
Dekanozov, Vladimir 136, 137
Delyusin, Lev 415, 664n17, 666n32
democracy: in Africa 363, 364; in Albania 545–6; Bolsheviks and 37, 52, 57; in Bulgaria 542; in China 99, 315, 449, 454–6, 458, 606, 612; and Confucianism 612; in Cuba 293, 294, 308; in Czechoslovakia 94, 154, 213, 293, 371, 376–7, 539, 541; democratic accountability 308, 583, 587, 599, 613, 616–17; and dictatorship of the proletariat 62; in East Germany 173, 538; Gorbachev and 489, 490–1, 525, 528, 596, 598, 599, 676n11; in Hungary 80, 81, 286, 531; in India 357; in Indonesia 359; perestroika and 489, 490–1, 563–5, 599; in Poland 434, 533–4; in Romania 544; in Russian Federation 516; and socialism 101–2, 102–3, 167, 469; in South Africa 363; in South Korea 335, 612; Stalin and 71, 74, 173; superiority of system 486, 616–17; in USSR 198, 489, 490–1, 516–17, 525, 528, 596, 598, 599, 676n11; in Vietnam 339; in Yugoslavia 236, 547, 548; see also democratization
Democracy Wall (China) 440, 449
democratic centralism: abandonment of 380, 429, 516, 518, 520, 547, 596, 598; in China 456, 604–5, 606; in Czechoslovakia 380; endurance of 456, 605, 606; and Eurocommunism 466; in India 357; as Leninist principle 99, 107, 109, 110–11, 188, 596; in Poland 429; in Yugoslavia 547
Democratic Party of Albania (DPA) 545–6
Democratic Party (USSR) 520
Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) 340–1
Democratic Russia (opposition movement; USSR) 553–4, 555
Democratic Union (anti-Communist organization; USSR) 507
‘democratism’ 74, 76, 491
democratization 563–5, 598, 612, 616–17; Albania 545–6; Bulgaria 542; China 447, 454–5, 606, 612, 613; Czechoslovakia 369, 371, 381–2, 384, 540–1; East Germany 537–8; Hungary 81, 530–1; Korea 335, 612; Poland 532–4, 590; Romania 544; USSR 411, 490, 491, 503, 506, 509, 512, 515–18, 548, 550, 552, 554–5, 563, 567, 568, 582, 583, 616
Deng Liqun 450
Deng Xiaoping: and Cultural Revolution 327–8, 440; de facto leader 322, 438–41, 444, 447–52, 597, 610, 614–15; early life 98–9, 314, 327, 438; and economic reform 318, 439–40, 441–3, 447–8, 451–2, 605, 610, 615; general secretary 318, 324; and Great Leap Forward 439–40; and Mao 314, 318, 328, 438–9, 448; and Tiananmen Square massacre 445–7
‘Deng Xiaoping Theory’ 456, 605, 607
‘departmentalism’ 248, 311–12
détente 399, 414, 460–1, 463, 465, 601
Deutscher, Isaac 274, 595
‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ 20, 21, 39, 52, 56, 61, 62, 81, 104, 105–6, 120, 180, 230, 255–6, 421
Dienstbier, Jiri 541
Dimitrov, Georgi: background and early career 87, 172; and Comintern 83, 87, 88, 112, 184–5, 205; establishment of Communist state in Bulgaria 172–3; and Stalin 172, 182, 184–5, 204–5, 205–6, 642n20, 644n35
Ding, X.L. 450, 451–2, 670n48
Dingxin Zhao 688n27
dissidents (China) 449
dissidents (Eastern Europe) 463–4, 468, 539
dissidents (USSR): and anti-Sovietism 579; emergence of dissident movement 405–7; and Eurocommunism 468; and glasnost 494, 503–4; and Helsinki Agreement 463–4; literature 405–7, 415, 503–4; and nationalism 407, 553; punishment of 35, 411, 412, 576–7; restrictions on 563, 583; see also samizdat
Dittmer, Lowell 187–8
divorce 68, 69
Djilas, Milovan 144–5, 153, 205, 206, 288, 615, 644n35
Djugashvili, Ioseb see Stalin, Josif
Dmitry, Grand Duke of Russia 47
Dobrynin, Anatoly 309, 366, 499, 500, 501
Doctor Zhivago (Pasternak) 254, 508, 650n33
‘doctors’ plot’ (USSR) 220, 222, 575
‘dogmatism’ 319, 400
Dole, Bob 502
‘domino theory’ 344, 345, 545
Dostoevsky, Feodor 202
Dowsett, Betty 125
Drtina, Prokop 156
DRV see Democratic Republic of Vietnam
Dub
ek, Alexander: background and early career 377–8; party leader 374, 379, 385, 386–7, 388–93, 395–6, 593–4, 663n82; popularity of 382, 388; replaced as party leader 384, 397, 539; and ‘velvet revolution’ 541
Duccek, Julius 378
Dudintsev, Vladimir 254
Dugin, Alexander 563
Dulles, Allen 342
Dulles, John Foster 289
Duma 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49
Dumbarton Oaks conference (1944) 488
Dunham, Vera 202
Dutt, Rajani Palme 97, 124
Dutt, Salme 97
Dyker, David 153
Dzerzhinsky, Felix 54, 67, 249
East Germany (German Democratic Republic; GDR): awareness of conditions in Western Europe 474, 537, 585; Berlin uprising (1953) 269, 270–1, 275, 574; dissolution of 536–8, 681n43; economy 535, 538; and Eurocommunism 468; flight of population to West 270, 271, 536, 537; foreign broadcasts to 474, 537; formation of 164, 173–6, 268; human rights 538; and Hungarian revolution (1956) 290; nationalism 593; Ostpolitik and 399, 534; and ‘Prague Spring’ 385, 387–91, 392–3; Protestant Church 535, 538; Soviet intervention in 236, 268–71, 272; Stasi (State Security Police) 176, 275, 305–6, 535; under Ulbricht 268–71
Eberlein, Hugo 82
ecology 24, 409, 452, 608, 665n22
economic determinism 582–3, 587–8, 666n34
economic growth: China 443, 451–2, 456–7, 611, 613; Communist systems and 5, 303, 590; Czechoslovakia 371; Poland 423–4; USSR 260, 398, 403, 409, 416
‘economism’ 36
Eden, Anthony 151, 161, 162
education: achievements of Communist systems 273, 459, 577, 588; Afghanistan 356; China 193, 314, 327, 443–4, 611–12; Cuba 310–11; Czechoslovakia 380; Hungary 273; India 357; Poland 273, 422; USSR 60, 65–6, 67, 69, 134, 203, 258–9, 417, 494, 577, 584, 588–9; and utopianism 15, 17, 18
egalitarianism 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 149, 311, 367, 607
Egypt 261, 283–4, 291, 353–4, 358, 364
Ehrenburg, Ilya 237, 238
Eikhe, Robert 242–3
Eisenhower, Dwight D. 261–2, 284, 321, 342, 343, 344; administration of 284, 289, 302, 340–1
Eisler, Pavel 371
El Alamein 139
Elliott, David 345
émigrés 195, 244, 407–8
Engels, Friedrich: Bernstein and 38; and early Communists 13, 20; Kautsky and 38, 52; life and career 18, 19–20, 26, 625n44; relationship with Marx 19, 20, 625n44; and Second International 28; and social democracy 38; Tkachev and 32; Communist Manifesto 9, 20, 21–2, 24, 39, 625n51, 626n70; The Condition of the Working Class 19
England see Great Britain
Enlightenment, the 15
environmentalism 221, 665n22
Escalante, Anibal 300
Estonia 91, 92, 194, 407, 516, 549–50, 562, 564, 566, 589fn; see also Baltic states
Ethiopia 309, 364–5, 366–7
‘ethnic cleansing’ 173, 347, 546, 547
ethnicity 128, 143, 153, 317, 342, 356, 360, 364, 458, 546–7, 593
Eurocommunism 5, 93, 358, 360, 369, 464–8, 474, 484, 492, 594, 673n23, 674n28
European Economic Community 461
European Union 461, 567, 571, 572
evolutionary socialism 15, 22, 26, 37–9
Fabians 38, 120, 121–2
Fadeev, Alexander 223
Fainsod, Merle 244
Fairbank, John King 189–90
Falin, Valentin 637n30
Falun Gong 610–11
famines: Cambodia 346, 347; China 317, 318, 346, 656n17; Ethiopia 367; USSR 58, 63, 123, 142, 194
Fang Lizhi 444, 447
fascism: and anti-semitism 46; in Croatia 143, 150; fall of 10, 148; in Italy 2, 92, 93, 128, 143; rise of 10, 88, 91, 96, 97, 118, 131; in Slovakia 146; struggle against 87, 88, 89, 91, 92, 97–8, 119, 127–8, 142–3, 148, 466; see also anti-fascism
fascist states 1, 346, 614
Fast, Howard 119–20, 124–5, 614
Fatherland Front (Bulgaria) 172
Federal Republic of Germany see West Germany
Ferguson, Adam 15
feudalism 12, 21, 528, 670n48
film: China 192–3, 448; Czechoslovakia 375, 376; Eastern Europe 660n11; United States 96; USSR 70, 221–2, 417, 491, 660n11
financial crisis, global (2008–) 102, 495, 592, 603, 613
Fink, Carole 84
Finland 417; Communist Party 117, 118, 126, 149; Lenin in 51, 56; Winter War (1939–40) 91–2, 632–3n53; see also Scandinavia
First Circle, The (Solzhenitsyn) 261, 405, 503, 511
First Indochina War (1946–54) 340, 342, 609
First International 19, 27, 83
First, Ruth 363fn
First World War 46–8, 50, 53, 71, 78, 79, 81, 96, 98, 152
Fischer, Ruth 86
Fitzpatrick, Sheila 49
Five Hundred Days Programme (USSR) 557–8, 561
‘Five-Anti’ project (China) 193
Five-Year Plans 111; China 188, 313; Mongolia 333; USSR 64, 70, 119, 188; Yugoslavia 203
folklore 70, 551
Ford, Gerald 399, 460, 461, 463
foreign travel 413, 464, 468–73, 537, 589, 597
Fourier, Charles 16, 21
France: Enlightenment 15; First World War 46, 98; Gorbachev visits 469; and Indochina 339–40, 342, 344, 346; intellectuals 10, 118, 127; Marxists 28–9; Munich Agreement (1938) 91, 117, 155, 369; Napoleonic Wars 47, 141; and partition of Germany 173, 175; Revolution 15–16, 27, 118, 127, 339, 360; and Russian civil war 54; Second World War 91, 128, 135; and Spanish Civil War 89; Suez crisis (1956) 283–4, 291; utopian socialism 17, 21; Vichy regime 128; welfare state 459; working-class movement 34; see also French Communist Party
Franco, General Francisco 90, 91, 465
Frederick II ‘the Great’, King of Prussia 593
freedom: of assembly 74, 531; Bakunin and 27; Bolsheviks and 50; of choice 524, 525, 527; democracy and 617; early Communists and 12; Gorbachev and 503, 512, 524, 525, 527, 599; and Helsinki Agreement (1975) 462; of information 462, 464, 491–2, 598, 599–600, 686n17; intellectual freedom 577–8; Lenin and 56, 57; Marx and 9; press freedom 74, 195–6, 281, 390, 428, 508–11, 600; religious freedom 17, 141, 259, 462, 540; of speech 58, 74, 195–6, 280, 387, 405, 428, 494, 503, 509, 600, 678n1; Stalin and 74, 75
Frelimo movement (Mozambique) 365, 659–60n104
French Communist Party (PCF): and Comintern/Cominform 94, 204; and Eurocommunism 465, 467; Ho Chi Minh and 338; intellectuals and 10, 118, 127; parliamentary representation 10, 93–4; popular support 10, 92, 93–4, 117, 118, 126, 127, 128, 149
French Indochina 337–8, 344, 346
French Revolution 15–16, 27, 118, 127, 339, 360
Fried, Eugen 94
Friedberg, Karl (pseud. of Karl Gröhl) 86–7, 632n33
Fulton, Missouri 176, 525
Gagarin, Yury 260, 261
Gaidar, Yegor 499, 556, 557, 582, 666n34, 677n15
Galbraith, John Kenneth 342
Galich, Alexander 411
Gambia 364
Gamsakhurdia, Zviad 553
Gandhi, Mahatma 357
‘Gang of Four’ (China) 328, 329, 438, 440
Gapon, Father Georgy 42
Garton Ash, Timothy 426, 538
Garvey, Sir Terence 463
Gates, Robert M. 675n56
Gati, Charles 653n75, 653n76
Gda
sk 422, 427–8, 429, 432, 434
GDP (Gross Domestic Product): China 451, 605; Korea 336
GDR see East Germany genetics 221
Geneva Conference (1954) 340
Geneva summit meeting (1985) 501
Genoa Conference (1922) 84
genocide 143, 347, 658n49
George VI, King 164
Georgia 137, 217, 244, 400–1, 496, 516, 550, 551, 597–8; independence movement 553, 560–1, 566, 571; minorities in 553, 560, 573
Gerasimov, Gennady 593, 602
Geremek, Bronislaw 533
German Communist Party (KPD) 79–80, 82, 85, 86–8, 123, 173–5, 212
German Democratic Republic see East Germany Germany: anti-German feeling 26–7, 142, 167, 399; concentration camps 88, 139, 146, 149, 156, 169, 175, 373, 383; early Communists in 12–14, 19; First World War 49, 50, 53, 79, 98; hyper-inflation (1923) 82; invasion of Poland (1939) 91, 135, 166, 466; invasion of USSR (1941) 47, 64, 65, 90, 131, 135–9, 141, 146, 149; medieval 12–14; Munich Agreement (1938) 91, 117, 155, 369; National Socialists (Nazis) 86, 87–8, 135, 138–43, 144, 145–6, 148, 149, 167, 169, 466; Nazi – Soviet Pact (1939) 65, 88, 90–2, 97, 98, 125, 131, 135, 140, 142, 146, 155, 162; partition of 162, 164, 173, 175–6; possible unification of 269–70, 534–5; proletariat 20–21; Rapallo Treaty (1922) 84; reunification 461, 535, 538, 681n43; Second World War 135–43, 151, 167, 169, 171; social democrats 20–1, 28, 37–8, 39, 79–80, 86, 173, 174, 175, 212, 512, 527, 625n54; and Spanish Civil War 90; uprisings (1918–23) 79–80, 82; Weimar Republic 86; working-class movement 34; see also East Germany; German Communist Party; West Germany Ger
Ern
170, 279, 280, 281–2, 285, 286
Gestapo 88
Ghana 365
Gheorghiu-Dej, Gheorghe 170, 171, 288, 290
Gide, André 122
Gierek, Edward 422–4, 425, 426, 427, 429, 431
Gimes, Miklós 288
Gittings, John 438, 669n9
glasnost 258, 489, 491–2, 494, 508–11, 575, 600, 676n11, 678n1
Glavlit 575
Glemp, Cardinal Józef 436, 532, 681n22
globalization 102, 591, 611
Goebbels, Joseph 178
Goldstücker, Eduard 379, 396
Gomu
ka, Władysław: background and early life 166; and Czechoslovakia 290–1, 385, 387, 388–9, 392, 395, 396; establishment of Communist state in Poland 166–7, 267–8; fall of (1970) 421–2, 423; and Hungarian revolution (1956) 282, 290–1, 292, 385; imprisonment 268, 645n62; return to power (1956) 268, 277–8, 279, 292; Stalin and 212, 400
Gooding, John 71
Gorbachev, Mikhail: and Afghanistan 356; agriculture secretary 442, 469–70, 581–2; Andropov’s promotion of 413, 482–3; anti-Stalinism 485, 493–4, 676n11; appointment as general secretary 478, 481, 485–6, 486–8, 596–7, 675–6n1, 676–7n14; background and early life 66, 203, 222, 485, 569; and Bukharin 629n33; and Chernenko 482–3, 485; and China 445, 446; and Congress of People’s Deputies 515–18, 519–20; coup against (August 1991) 198–9, 250, 503, 506, 566, 567–71, 595, 684n43; and disbanding of CPSU 571; and dissolution of USSR 554–5, 557, 566–7, 571–3, 582–3, 598–9; and East European independence 523–8, 534fn, 536–7, 538, 540, 572, 582, 616, 681n18; and final stage communism 111, 521; Five Hundred Days Programme 557–8, 561; foreign policy 356, 366, 367, 413, 499–502, 507fn, 513, 523–8, 535, 536, 597, 602, 616, 678n39; foreign travel of 469–72, 589; and Helsinki Agreement 464; introduction of perestroika 488–96, 511–12, 515–18, 519–21, 552–3, 555–6, 563, 582–3, 590, 593, 595, 610, 615, 616; and Leninism 596, 686n16; and nationalist unrest 550, 556, 559–63, 565–6, 593; and ‘Nina Andreyeva affair’ 505–7; and Nineteenth Party Conference (1988) 491, 506, 507, 508, 512, 514–15, 524, 527, 600; Novo-Ogarevo process 567, 571; popularity of 513–14, 679n27; presidency 552, 561–2, 682–3n5; and Reagan 472, 477, 478, 500–2, 512–14, 602; referendum on federation (1991) 566–7; seventieth anniversary of Bolshevik revolution report 485, 493–4, 496–8; and Supreme Soviet 517; United Nations speech (December 1988) 525, 526, 527, 602; ‘Perestroika Tested by Life’ (unpublished manuscript) 484fn, 505fn
Gorbachev, Raisa 485, 497, 567, 570–1, 572
Gordievsky, Oleg 675n56
Gorky 412, 494
Gosplan (Soviet state planning committee) 111, 199, 520, 581, 582
Gotha Programme 20–21, 625n53–4
Gottwald, Klement 155–7, 158, 159, 213–14, 215, 272, 369, 388
Goulding, Marrack 350, 658n49, 658n62
Grachev, Andrey 507fn
Gramsci, Antonio 93
Granma (Cuban newspaper) 296, 607
Great Britain: and Balkans 204, 205; British Union of Fascists 97–8; Empire 337; Enlightenment 15; Fabians 38, 120, 121–2; First World War 46, 78, 98; Gorbachev visits 470–2; immigrants 118, 129; and Indochina 342; industrialization 23; intellectuals 10, 113, 126; Jews in 98, 124, 129, 130–1; Labour Party 28, 85, 96, 97, 119, 149, 178, 578fn, 615; Marx and Engels in 18–19, 19–20, 22, 23; Munich Agreement (1938) 91, 117, 155, 369; New Left 113, 126; and partition of Germany 164, 173, 175–6; recognition of USSR 85; and Russian civil war 54; Second World War 91, 135, 136, 139, 141, 143, 144, 151, 162; social democracy 38; socialism 101–2; and Spanish Civil War 89; Suez crisis (1956) 283–4, 291; trade unions 97, 103, 124; utopian communities 17, 21; welfare state 459; working-class movement 34, 103; see also Communist Party of Great Britain
Great Depression 96, 118–19, 131, 148
Great Leap Forward (China) 316–18, 322, 324, 326, 328, 346, 347, 348, 439–40, 456
Great Purge/Terror (USSR) 65, 66, 68, 72, 75–6, 81, 87, 88, 90, 100, 122, 123, 169, 200, 202, 212, 220, 279, 325, 330, 575
Great Soviet Encyclopedia 575, 646n82
Grechko, Marshal Andrei 386
Greece 143, 157, 161, 203–4, 205, 465, 545, 644n32
Grishin, Viktor 488, 489, 675–6n1
Gromyko, Andrey 237, 472, 515, 637n30, 667n30; and Afghanistan 352, 353, 354, 355; and Gorbachev 487–8, 505, 525, 558, 676n1; and Helsinki Agreement 462, 464; and Khrushchev 483–4; and Poland 430
Grossman, Vasily 508
Grósz, Károly 530
Grotewohl, Otto 176
GRU (Soviet military intelligence) 89, 136, 287
Guantánamo naval base, Cuba 303
guanxi 585
Gueffroy, Chris 538
Guesde, Jules 28
Guevara, Ernesto ‘Che’ 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 304, 305–6, 311
Guinea 309
‘guitar poets’ 411
Gulag 238, 566, 576, 577, 648n36
Gulag Archipelago, The (Solzhenitsyn) 238fn, 411–12, 503–4, 511
Guomindang see Kuomintang
Hai Rui Dismissed from Office (Wu Han) 325, 328
Haig, Alexander 477, 502
Haile Selassie, Emperor 366, 367
Hájek, Jií 383
Hamburg 82
Han Chinese 317, 458
Hani, Chris 363fn
Hankiss, Elemér 528
Hanoi 339, 340
Hanson, Philip 108
Harbin 183
Hardie, Keir 28, 46
Harding, Neil 627n20
Harriman, Averell 161–2
Harvard Project 195, 672n1
Havana 298, 306, 309
Havana University 295
Havel, Václav 377, 383, 539, 540–1
Havemann, Robert 535–6
health care 310, 314, 357, 443, 459, 577, 584, 610
Hegel, G.W.F. 23
Hejzlar, Zden
k 383
Helsinki Agreement (Final Act; 1975) 399, 425, 460–4, 465, 534, 540, 600, 672–3n7, 673n15–16
Hendrych, Jií 377
Heppell, Jason 131
Herzen, Alexander 27
Hess, Moses 19
Heydrich, Reinhard 146
Hirszowicz, Maria 422
Hitler, Adolf: and German Communists 86, 88; and Munich Agreement (1938) 91, 155; and Nazi invasion of USSR 47, 65, 135–6, 139, 146; and Nazi – Soviet Pact (1939) 65, 91, 97, 135; rise to power 86, 88, 89; and Spanish Civil War 90; and Stalin 65, 86, 91, 135, 140, 148
Hmong 609
Ho Chi Minh 337–40, 344, 348, 607, 609
Ho Chi Minh City 607; see also Saigon
Ho Chi Minh Trail 609
Hobsbawm, Eric 112–13, 131
Hoffmann, David L. 70
Honecker, Erich 272, 431, 505, 533, 536–7
Hong Kong 339, 442, 446, 449, 605
Horne, Alistair 492fn
Horner, Arthur 85, 124
Howe, Sir Geoffrey 471, 472, 674n39
Hoxha, Enver 150–1, 290, 319, 545
HSWP see Hungarian Communist party
Hu Jintao 452–3, 455–6
Hu Yaobang 439, 441, 443, 444, 448, 669n10
Hua Guofeng 439, 441, 443, 448
H
bl, Milan 384
human rights: Bulgaria 542; China 331, 453, 670n46, 670n48; Cuba 311; Czechoslovakia 382; dissidents and 407; East Germany 538; Ethiopia 367; and Helsinki Agreement 425, 461, 462, 464, 672–3n7, 673n15; Poland 425; United States and 331, 349, 432, 461; USSR 75, 237, 331, 407, 494; Western Europe and 461, 538, 616
Humanité, L’ (newspaper) 150, 337, 662n58, 676n11
Hume, David 336, 337, 657n10
Humphrey, Hubert 343–4
‘Hundred Flowers’ movement (China) 313, 314–16, 318
Hungarian Academy of Sciences 528, 530
Hungarian Communist party (HSWP) 112, 169–70, 211, 275, 276, 279, 281–2, 286, 291, 370, 530–1; Central Committee 282, 530, 531; and Eurocommunism 468; leading role/monopoly of power 170, 173, 531; party intelligentsia 594–5; Politburo 275, 282, 530
Hungarian Democratic Forum 530
Hungarian Socialist Party 531
Hungarian Socialist Workers’ Party (HSWP) see Hungarian Communist party
Hungarian Soviet Republic (1919) 80–1, 94
Hungarian Workers’ Party see Hungarian Communist party
Hungary: agriculture 80, 442; awareness of conditions in Western Europe 585; Catholic Church 170, 289–90; democracy 80, 81; economic reform 372, 529, 530, 601; education 273; end of Communist rule 528, 530–1, 681n18; establishment of Communist state 161, 169–70; foreign broadcasts to 273–4, 289, 290, 653n76; foreign travel of citizens 468; intelligentsia 280, 286, 289, 389, 528, 594–5; under Kádár 286, 292, 410, 450, 528–30, 532; middle classes 80; Ministry of Interior 170; New Economic Mechanism (NEM) 292; opening of border with Austria (1989) 536; peasantry 80, 169, 289; and Polish worker unrest 668n32; and ‘Prague Spring’ 385, 387–91, 392–3; revisionism 272, 274–6; revolution (1848) 280; revolution (1919) 80–81, 169, 287; revolution (1956) 5, 245, 264, 278–92, 368, 385, 392, 432, 523, 530, 563, 574, 601, 614; Second World War 146, 161, 169, 171; Stalin and 211–12; Thatcher visits 471; see also Hungarian Communist party
Hus, Jan 12–13
Husák, Gustáv 146, 215, 383, 384, 395, 397, 431, 529, 538–9, 540, 541
Hussites 13
Hyde, Douglas 125
hyper-inflation 82, 183
Iglesias, Pablo 29
Ignatiev, Semyon 249
Ilichev, Leonid 262
immigrants 96, 118, 124, 128–9, 130–1
Independent Social Democratic Party (Germany; USPD) 79
India 98, 127, 261, 321, 357, 358, 604
‘indigenization’ 60
indigenous vs non-indigenous revolutions 303, 578, 586
Indochina War (1946–54) 340, 342, 609
Indochinese Communist Party 339, 348
Indonesia 127, 358–9
Indra, Alois 388, 391, 394, 395
Industrial Revolution 23
industrialization: China 186, 313; Great Britain 23; Imperial Russia 34, 41–2; USSR 62, 64–5, 66, 71, 141, 202, 239, 247, 257; Yugoslavia 203
INF (intermediate-range nuclear forces) Treaty (1987) 502
infant mortality 310, 590
inflation 189–90, 425, 427, 443, 444, 495; hyper-inflation 82, 183
‘informals’ (pressure groups; USSR) 507–8
information, freedom of 462, 464, 491–2, 598, 599–600, 686n17
informers 73, 258, 279, 311, 535
Ingush 140
inheritance rights 27, 68
INION Department of Scientific Communism (Moscow) 414–15, 666n32
Inkpin, Albert 85
Inozemtsev, Nikolay 414
Institute of Economics (Moscow) 371, 557
Institute of Economics of the World Socialist System (Moscow) 414
Institute of Marxism-Leninism Mao Zedong Thought 450, 669n10
Institute of State and Law (Moscow) 600, 673n11
Institute of the United States and Canada (Moscow) 409, 414, 470, 500
Institute of World Economy and International Relations (IMEMO) 409, 413, 414, 470, 500, 659n102, 665–6n28
Integrated Revolutionary Organization (Cuba; ORI) 300–301
intellectuals: and anti-capitalism 337; Ethiopia 367; France 10, 118, 127; Germany 79; Great Britain 10, 113, 126; Italy 10, 93; Jewish 131; ‘organic intellectuals’ 93; Russia 27, 32; United States 10
Intelligent Woman’s Guide to Socialism and Capitalism, The (Shaw) 119–20
intelligentsia (in Communist states) 132, 216, 421, 588–90; Baltic states 92; Bulgaria 542; China 180, 192, 193, 315–16, 441, 443, 444, 445; Cuba 311; Czechoslovakia 316, 370–1, 374–6, 383, 384, 421, 594, 661n37; Hungary 280, 286, 289, 389, 528; Poland 277, 421–2, 424–5, 427; USSR 66, 74, 201–2, 203, 255, 258, 406, 411, 494, 506–7, 550–1, 576, 577–8, 588–9, 597–8
intelligentsia, party 421, 468, 469; China 441, 454; Czechoslovakia 370–1, 374–6, 383, 421, 594; USSR 410, 469, 561, 594–5
Inter-Factory Strike Committee (Poland; MKS) 428, 429
Inter-Regional Group of Deputies (USSR) 519–20, 680n41
International Brigades 89–90, 383
International Department (of Central Committee of CPSU; ID) 112, 352, 360, 365, 366, 413, 414, 526, 623n1, 637n30
International Labour Organization (ILO) 428
International Working Men’s Association see First International
internationalism 62, 112–14, 129, 130, 142, 149, 390, 391, 408–9, 467
internet 453–4, 592, 611
Iran 351, 354
Iraq 364
Ireland 124
iron curtain 176–8, 525
Iskra (newspaper/organization) 35, 36, 425, 685n5
Islam 550; see also Muslims
Islamists 351, 354, 356, 501, 550
Israel 101, 201, 210, 283, 284, 408
Italian Communist Party (PCI): and Comintern/Cominform 83, 204; and Eurocommunism 465–6, 467; Gramsci and 93; intellectuals and 10; parliamentary representation 10, 128; popular support 10, 12–18, 117, 118, 126, 127–8, 149, 470; and Second World War 92, 145, 151
Italy: Albanian emigration to 545; fascism 92, 93, 128, 143; Gorbachev visits 469, 470; intellectuals 10; Munich Agreement (1938) 91, 117, 155, 369; recognition of USSR 85; and Russian civil war 54; Second World War 92, 143; and Spanish Civil War 90; see also Italian Communist Party
Ivan IV ‘the Terrible’, Tsar 61, 380, 593
Izvestiya (newspaper) 507fn, 515
Jacobins 33, 118, 127
Jacobs, Joe 130–31
Jacobs, Seth 343
Jakeš, Miloš 540
Japan: annexation of Korea 334; Communist Party (JCP) 358, 359, 659n85, 673n23; democracy in 612; First World War 98; and Russian civil war 54; Russo-Japanese War (1904–05) 42; Second World War 135, 136, 146–7, 179, 185, 186, 190, 334, 339, 641n3; Sino-Japanese War 146–7, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 185, 438
Jaruzelski, Wojciech 433, 434–6, 532, 533–4, 638n30, 668n41
JCP see Japan, Communist Party
Jefferson, Thomas 18
Jenkins, Roy 178
Jesus Christ 11, 12, 13, 108, 120, 121, 126, 298
Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee (USSR) 219, 220
Jews: and Bolshevism 46, 128–9; Bund (Jewish socialist organization) 36, 99; and Communism 124, 128–32, 360, 408, 422, 659n91; in Czechoslovakia 396; emigration 45, 128–9, 130–1, 407–8, 422, 464, 468, 504–5; in Great Britain 98, 124, 129, 130–1; in Hungary 80, 279; in Imperial Russia 45–6, 128; and internationalism 409; Nazi extermination of 138, 142, 167; persecution of 45–6, 132, 201, 210, 216, 219; in Poland 129–30, 422; ‘refuseniks’ 504–5; in South Africa 360; Stalin and 72, 201, 210, 214, 215, 219–20; in United States 129; see also anti-semitism; Judaism; Zionism
Jiang Qing 192, 325–6, 327, 328, 329
Jiang Zemin 448, 449, 451, 452, 453, 455
Jiangxi 100
Jingjiang 450–1
John Paul II, Pope 5, 426–7, 429, 436, 475, 478, 532, 540, 675n49
Johnson, Lyndon B. 305, 343–4, 345
jokes, political 73, 111, 263, 286, 304, 468, 481
Judaism 18, 129
judiciary 57, 106, 362, 381, 512, 577, 606
Kádár, János: Andropov and 410, 482; Brezhnev and 379, 529; and Czechoslovakia 385, 387, 388–9; death 529; and establishment of Communist state in Hungary 170; government of 286, 292, 410, 450, 528–30, 532; and Hungarian revolution (1956) 279, 280, 281–2, 283, 284–8; ousting of 530; and Poland 431, 668n32; and Rajk affair 170, 211; reputation 292, 529; Stalin and 170, 211, 400
Kadets (Russian Constitutional Democrats) 45, 49, 52
Kaganovich, Lazar 198, 218, 240, 245, 247, 248–9, 251–2, 257, 408, 484, 648n49
Kalinin, Mikhail 164, 199
Kaliningrad (Königsberg) 164
Kamenev, Lev 72, 129
Kampuchea see Cambodia
KAN (Club of Non-Party Activists; Czechoslovakia) 382
Kania, Stanisław 426, 429, 430, 431, 433–4
Kapek, Antonín 391
Kapitsa, Petr 253
Kaplan, Karel 662n42
Kardelj, Edvard 153, 204–5, 274, 595
Karelia 92
Karmal, Babrak 352, 354, 355
Karmen, Roman 187
Károlyi, Count Mihály 80, 81
Katowice 422
Katsnelson, Zinovy 90
Katyn massacre (1940) 140, 141, 637–8n30
Kautsky, John H. 104
Kautsky, Karl 38, 39, 52, 56, 104
Kazakhstan: agriculture 63, 260; Communist Party 235; deportations to 141; and Korea 334; Malenkov in 252; nationalist unrest 558; republican presidency 552; size 564
Kennan, George 165, 177–8
Kennedy, John F. 262, 301–2, 342, 343
Kerala 357
Kerensky, Alexander 31, 49, 51
Kerensky, Fedor 21
Keynes, John Maynard 587
KGB (Soviet Committee of State Security): and Afghanistan 352, 354–5; and August (1991) coup 569, 570; Brezhnev and 405, 417; and Congress of People’s Deputies 517; Democratic Russia and 553; forerunners of 55, 197; formation of 197; Gorbachev and 507, 526, 565, 569, 571, 602, 616; informers 258; and MVD 197, 239; and nationalist unrest 562; and ‘Prague Spring’ 396; Western spies 473; see also NKVD
Khalq group (Afghanistan) 351–2, 355
Khariton, Yuly 221
Khlevniuk, Oleg 72
Khmer Rouge 345–50, 529
Khrushchev, Nikita: achievements and failures of 257–62, 405; and Anti-Party Group crisis (1957) 245–52, 257, 260, 318–19; background 66, 228; and Beria 228, 233–5, 647n13, 647n24; cronyism 580; and Cuban missile crisis 262, 266, 301–2, 303, 320; cultural policy 254–5, 262–4, 650n33; and de-Stalinization 236, 238, 240, 241, 244, 251–5, 257, 264, 280; death 264; and East Germany 269; exposure of Stalin’s crimes 10, 71, 75–6, 124, 140, 196, 217, 240–3, 244, 275–6, 485; fall of 198–9, 250, 264–6, 322–3; as First Secretary of the Central Committee 110, 199, 229–30, 232, 235, 249; house-building programme 256, 257–8; and Hungarian revolution (1956) 264, 279, 280, 281, 283–4, 285, 287, 288; and Lenin 31; and Mao 315, 318–19, 320–3; memoirs 228–9, 253–4, 647n5; Moscow first secretary 218, 232; and Poland 277–8; reputation of 483–4; rise to power 228–30, 232–3, 234–6, 239–40; and Sino-Soviet split 320–3; socializing with Stalin 229; on Stalin’s death 223, 646n97; and Stalin’s personality cult 61, 241, 243; and state violence 75–6, 199, 229; and Svoboda 379; and Tito 206, 207, 276, 319; Twentieth Party Congress speech (1956) 71, 75, 76, 124, 196, 217, 236, 238, 240–3, 244, 254, 275–7, 280, 291, 314, 316, 318, 341, 368, 370, 400, 466, 485, 614, 648n51, 648n55, 649n58; and Twenty-Second Party Congress (1961) 244, 253, 255–7, 265, 368, 370, 374, 400, 401; Ukraine first secretary 198, 218, 229; and Winter War (1939–40) 92, 632n53; and Yugoslavia 240
Khrushchev, Sergei 229, 242, 647n5
Kiedel, Albert 671n60
Kiev 45, 142, 246, 570
Kim Dae Jung 612
Kim Il-sung 107, 108, 190, 334, 335–6, 336–7, 348, 455, 609, 610
Kim Jong-il 107, 336–7, 348, 455, 609, 610
Kirgiz 66
Kirichenko, Alexey 235, 246, 252–3
Kirilenko, Andrey 402–3
Kirov, Sergey 71–2, 196, 257
Kissinger, Henry 309, 330–1, 342, 403, 461, 502
Klímová, Rita (née Budínová) 541, 660n4, 660n5
Koestler, Arthur 123, 504
Kohl, Helmut 538
Kohout, Pavel 377
Kołakowski, Leszek 27, 273, 278, 421–2
Kolbin, Gennady 558
Kolder, Drahomír 391
Koldunov, Alexander 500
Kollontai, Alexandra 48
Komsomol 254, 404, 516
Koniev, Ivan 139
KOR (Workers’ Defence Committee; Poland) 424–5, 667n12
Korea: Communist Party 334–5, 606; Japanese annexation 334; nationalism 127; partition of 334–5; potential reunification 609; see also North Korea; South Korea
Korean War (1950–53) 190–2, 215, 236, 318, 321, 335, 642n39, 642n43
Kornai, János 274, 590–1, 595, 596, 685n4
Kornilov, Lavr 51
Korolev, Sergey 260–1
Korotich, Vitaly 508
Kosovo 546, 547, 682n63
Kostov, Traicho 210–11
Kosygin, Aleksey: and Afghanistan 352–3, 354; Brezhnev and 385, 386, 389, 390, 396, 402, 403, 404, 405, 663n76; Chairman of Council of Ministers 219, 305, 352–3, 402, 403, 405; and Czechoslovakia 385, 386, 389, 390, 396, 403, 663n76; Khrushchev and 219; and ‘Leningrad Affair’ 219, 646n83; reforms 403–4; Stalin and 219, 403
Kotane, Moses 361
Kovalev, Anatoly 462
Kozlov, Frol 250, 252–3, 266, 650–51n60
Krajina ‘ethnic cleansing’ of Serbs 547
Kraków 426
Kramer, Mark 652n27
Krasin, Yuriy 664n17
Kravchuk, Leonid 567, 570, 571, 572
Krenz, Egon 537
Krestinsky, Nikolai 75
Kriegel, Annie 94
Kriegel, František 370, 383, 392, 395, 396
Kronstadt 51; Revolt (1921) 58
Krupskaya, Nadezhda 45
Kryuchkov, Vladimir 526, 534fn, 568, 569
kulaks 62–3, 76
Kulikov, Oleg 603
Kulikov, Marshal Viktor 435
Kultúrny život (journal) 384
Kun, Bela 80–81, 169, 287
Kunaev, Dinmukhamed 558
Kundera, Milan 376
Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party) xi, 99–100, 146–7, 179–80, 181–3, 185–6, 187, 189, 192, 333, 339, 586
Kurchatov, Igor 221, 262
Kurile Islands 179
Kuro, Jacek 424–5
Kursk, battle of (1943) 139
Kusin, Vladimir 159
Kutuzov, Mikhail 141
Kuusinen, Otto 83, 250–51
Kuvaldin, Viktor 623n1
Kuznetsov, Alexey 197, 217–18, 219, 239, 646n82
Kuznetsov, Sergey 620
labour: child labour 9–10; forced labour 62, 67, 76, 139, 433; hired labour 16, 21, 35, 58, 73; labour laws 202–3, 271; slave labour 16, 21, 27, 41, 142, 238; women and 69
labour camps 66, 100, 121, 138, 166, 174, 219, 228, 237, 238fn, 255, 261, 263, 511; see also Gulag
Labour Party (British) 28, 85, 96, 97, 119, 149, 178, 578fn, 615
land ownership: Afghanistan 352, 356; Bolsheviks and 50, 53, 58, 148; China 147, 180, 181–2, 186, 313, 440, 442, 456; Cuba 294, 297, 300; Hungary 80; Imperial Russia 41–2, 44–5; India 357; Indonesia 358; Jews and 129; Marxism and 15, 22, 24, 338; Poland 168; USSR 202; Vietnam 340, 341; Yugoslavia 203, 206, 260; see also collectivization of agriculture; private property
Landsbergis, Vytautas 592, 686n7
Lange, Oskar 274
language 16, 29, 60, 130, 228, 254, 551–2; of politics 578–9
Lansky, Meyer 293, 295
Laos 4, 127, 332, 341–3, 606, 607, 608, 609, 610
Laptev, Ivan 507fn, 515
Latin America: anti-Americanism in 294; Communists in 10, 104–5, 293, 304–5, 306, 307; guerrilla movements 297, 304, 305, 309; peasantry 297; see also individual countries
Latvia 91, 92, 194, 407, 516, 549, 550, 562–3, 564, 566; see also Baltic states Law on the State Enterprise (USSR; 1987) 495, 520
‘leading role of the working class’ 180, 391, 421, 430, 504
Lebedev, Vladimir 263, 650n56
Lee, Vernon 178
Legvold, Robert 467
Leipzig 536, 537
Leipzig trials (1933) 87, 206
Lend-Lease Act (1940) 135
Lenin, Vladimir: background 6, 30, 31, 66; and Bolshevik revolution 51, 52, 53, 56, 61; on colonialism 98, 337–8; and Comintern 83; commemoration of 31, 626n18; death 59, 71; and early Communists 11, 16; and February (1917) revolution 48–9; and First World War 46, 47–8; foreign policy 84; Gramsci and 93; influences on 32–4; and John Reed 95; on Keir Hardie 28; life and career 30–2, 33, 34–5, 41, 48, 49; and Marxism 32, 33, 49, 120; NEP (New Economic Policy) 58–9, 64, 84, 85, 188, 686n16; and party discipline 35, 36–7, 40–1, 50–1, 56–7, 61; and revisionists 38, 39; and revolution of 1905 44, 45, 48; and Robespierre 118; and RSDLP 36–7, 39, 40; and Russo-Polish war 81–2; and single-party dictatorship 10, 57–8; and Sovnarkom 59, 61, 67, 230; and stages of communism 56, 57; and Stalin 30, 31, 59, 61, 76; and terror 33, 61, 67–8, 626n18; and utopianism 56, 57, 596; Western writers and 120–1; ‘April Theses’ 49; The Development of Capitalism in Russia 34–5; One Step Forward, Two Steps Back 37; The State and Revolution 56–7; ‘Theses on the National and Colonial Questions’ 337; What is to be Done 35, 50, 56–7; see also Leninism; Marxism-Leninism Leningrad xii, 71, 139; Ballet School 473; party organization 201, 516; see also Petrograd; St Petersburg ‘Leningrad Affair’ 217–19, 239
Leninism: in Africa 365; Bakunin and 27; Bernstein and 38; Brezhnev and 400; Castro and 298–9; in China 180, 188, 441, 605; democratic centralism principle 99, 107, 109, 110–11, 188, 596; Dubek and 387; Gorbachev and 596, 686n16; and reform movements 596; revisionism 274; in Spain 89, 467; Stalin and 61, 71, 76, 196; see also Marxism-Leninism Leonhard, Wolfgang 174–5, 640n43, 640n45
Lermontov, Mikhail 202
Lessnoff, Michael 102
Li Peng 444, 446, 448, 449
Li Shuxian 447
liberalization: Albania 545; China 315, 449, 451, 608; Czechoslovakia 382, 397; East Germany 535; Hungary 292, 528, 532, 590; Poland 277, 278, 436, 528, 532; USSR 58–9, 408, 411, 416, 485–6, 490, 494–5, 509, 516, 550, 554–5, 563, 582, 583, 594, 599, 616; Vietnam 608
libertarianism 56, 57, 154
liberty see freedom
libraries 577–8, 662n58
Lidice 146
Liebknecht, Karl 79–80
Liebknecht, Wilhelm 28
life expectancy 310, 418
Life of Wu Xun, The (film) 192–3
Ligachev, Yegor: and anti-alcohol campaign 496; demoted to agriculture secretary 510–11; and nationalist unrest 559, 560, 561; and ‘Nina Andreyeva affair’ 504, 505, 506, 507fn; opposition to East European independence 526; and Russian nationalists 510; second secretary 250, 489, 496, 526; and Tbilisi crackdown (1989) 560, 561; and Yeltsin 489, 496–7, 514–15
Likhachev, Dmitry 509
Lin Biao 183, 189, 191, 325, 326
literacy: Afghanistan 356; China 189; Cuba 310; USSR 60, 65–6
Literární noviny/Literární listy (newspaper) 375, 381
literature: in Brezhnev era 330, 405–7, 409, 410, 411–12, 415, 589fn, 657n58; and Czechoslovak reform movement 376–7, 380, 385; dissident 405–7, 415, 503–4; foreign literature in USSR and Eastern Europe 589fn; in Khrushchev era 202, 237, 254–5, 263–4; Lenin Prize 404; and perestroika 492, 508–11; and Stalinism 201–2, 221–2, 254–5; ‘village prose’ writers 409; Western writers and Communism 119–23; see also samizdat
Lithuania 91, 92, 194, 407, 516, 549–50, 592; Catholic Church 427, 478, 549; independence 553, 562–3, 564, 566, 569, 571, 685–6n7; see also Baltic states
Liu Ji 455
Liu Shaoqi 187, 318, 322, 324, 325, 326
Lloyd George, David 54, 78
Löbl, Evžen 380
‘localism’ 248, 312
Locke, John 296
Lon Nol 346
Long March (1934–35) 100, 146, 184, 339, 438
Lublin 163, 164, 166–7
Lukyanov, Anatoly 493, 568–9
Lulchev, Kosta 172
Luther, Martin 13, 120, 593
Luxemburg, Rosa 39, 79–80
Lvov, Prince Georgy 49
Lysenko, Trofim 221, 259
McCarthy, Joseph 653n75
McDiarmid, Hugh 120–21, 291
MacDonald, Ramsay 85
Macedonia 546, 548
Macedonians 152, 153
McFarlane, Robert 476
Machel, Samora 365
Machiavelli, Niccolò 336, 337, 375, 657n9
Maclean, Donald 473
Maclean, Sir Fitzroy 144
McLellan, David 23–4, 625n41–2, 625n53
Maclure, William 625n40
Macmillan, Harold 261, 342, 492fn
McNamara, Robert 343
MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction) 523
Madison, James 18
magnitizdat 411
Major, John 570
Makarova, Natalia 473
MAKN see Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party
Malenkov, Georgy: and Anti-Party Group 245, 248–9, 251–2; Beria and 227–8, 233, 234, 647n24; Chairman of Council of Ministers 222, 228, 231, 232–3, 235, 239, 275, 630n38; Chernenko and 484; and Cominform 157; and East Germany 269–70, 272; and Hungary 275, 283; Khrushchev and 232–3, 239–40, 245, 248–9, 251–2, 269, 647n24; and ‘Leningrad Affair’ 217–18, 239; Minister of Electricity Power Stations 239–40, 252; Stalin and 197, 201, 217–18, 222, 248, 251
Maléter, Pál 281, 287, 288
Malinovsky, Marshal Rodion 251, 323
Malinovsky, Roman 76
Malta summit meeting (1989) 602
Mamula, Miroslav 379
Manchuria 146, 179, 182, 641n3, 642n43
Mandela, Nelson 309, 360–2, 363fn
Manuilsky, Dmitry 85
Mao Zedong: and civil war (1945–49) 179, 181–2, 183, 185; and Cultural Revolution 313, 322, 324–31, 344, 348, 401, 456, 457, 529, 590, 612; death 325, 329, 438; and Deng Xiaoping 314, 317, 328, 438–9, 448; early life 98, 100, 184; foundation of People’s Republic 180; and Great Leap Forward 313, 316–18; and ‘Hundred Flowers’ movement 313, 314–16, 318; and Hungarian revolution (1956) 282; and Khrushchev 315, 318–19, 320–3; and Korean War 190–2, 335, 642n43; Little Red Book 327; and Long March (1934–35) 100, 184; and Nixon 330–1, 657n59; and nuclear war 262, 320; personality cult 108, 184, 186, 314, 326; on power 148; rise of 184–5, 186–9, 191; and roles of chairman/party leader 107, 108, 187–8, 191, 314, 324, 329; and single-party dictatorship 10, 315; and Sino-Soviet split 318–24; and Stalin 184, 185–6, 186–7, 190–1, 656n22
‘Mao Zedong Thought’ 108, 190, 314, 329, 330, 438, 450, 456
Maoism 193, 326, 332, 347, 438–9, 448, 454, 604, 606, 607
Maoists 326, 357, 439
Marchais, Georges 467
Margolin, Jean-Louis 348, 349
market economy: booms and busts 119, 495; in China 441, 442–3, 450–2, 494, 585, 605–6; and command economy 108, 495–6, 587, 591, 606; in Russian Federation 585; socialism and 102, 374, 441, 546; in USSR 489, 490, 495–6, 520, 553–4, 556–7, 568, 591, 599; in Yugoslavia 374, 546
‘market socialism’ 209, 274, 607
marriage 68, 356
Marshall, George 156
Marshall Plan 156–7, 175, 176
Martí, José 294, 298–9
Martineau, Harriet 18
Martov, Julius 35, 36, 37, 49, 628n6
Marx, Karl: and anarchism 26, 27; and early Communists 11, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21; economic theory 5, 9–10, 15, 21, 23–4, 27, 29, 32; and First International 27; influences on 23–4; interpretations of history 23–5, 337–8; Kautsky and 52; life and career 18–19, 22, 26, 625n44; relationship with Engels 19, 20, 625n44; Shaw on 120; theory of stages 15, 21, 32, 56; and utopianism 11, 16, 20, 21, 38–9; vision of universal liberation 9–10; Capital 20, 22, 32, 38, 120, 603, 625n50; The Civil War in France 23; Communist Manifesto 9, 20, 21–2, 24, 39, 625n51, 626n70; Critique of the Gotha Programme 20–21, 625n53-4; The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte 23, 24–5, 626n71; The Poverty of Philosophy 16
Marxism: in Africa 365; and anarchism 26, 27; Castro and 295, 296, 299; in China 441, 605; and class 29–30, 180; foundations of 19, 23; Gramsci and 93; in Hungary 528; and nationalism 337; revisionism 38, 274; scientific status 9, 20fn, 29, 38, 39; and Second International 27–9; Shaw and 120; Western academics and 528
Marxism-Leninism: abandonment of 274, 388, 408, 472, 493, 500, 509–10, 550, 565, 578, 603, 605; in Africa 364–5, 366, 367, 659n104; Brezhnev and 408; in Cambodia 347; Castro and 298, 299; in China 108, 179–80, 189, 329, 438, 440, 443, 448, 450, 456, 605; in Czechoslovakia 388, 389, 391; development of 58; in Eastern Europe 173, 203, 207, 273, 274, 388, 391, 395, 414, 547; and final stage communism 110; Gramsci and 93; Jews and 132, 219; Khrushchev and 228, 241, 253, 256; in Mongolia 106; nationalism and 408, 549; and socialism 101, 203, 365; Stalin and 196, 202, 221, 228, 241; in Vietnam 106, 337–8, 345; see also Leninism Masaryk, Jan 156, 159, 214, 380, 639n29
Masaryk, Tomáš 154, 380, 387
Maslow, Arkadi 86
mass media: China 447, 451; in Communist systems 473, 474, 574–5; Cuba 300; Czechoslovakia 371, 374, 379, 385, 389, 639n29; Eastern Europe 177, 474; North Korea 336; Poland 168; South Africa 360; USSR 70, 195–6, 222, 389, 396, 399, 401, 417, 427, 463, 508, 510, 520, 575, 600; Western 386, 473–5, 510, 525, 561; see also press freedom; television mathematics 132, 220–1, 259, 422, 577, 688n25
Matlock, Jack F. 476, 477, 502, 512, 517
Matos, Huber 300
May Fourth Movement (China) 99
Mazowiecki, Tadeusz 533–4
Mbeki, Thabo 363
Medvedev, Roy 406–7, 411, 468, 644–5n39, 649n58, 664–5n17–18
Medvedev, Vadim 499, 505, 506, 510–11, 519, 540, 556
Medvedev, Zhores 644–5n39, 649n58, 665n18
Meeker, Oden 342
Meir, Golda 201
Memorial (Russian non-governmental organization) 76, 507
Mengistu Haile Mariam 367
Mensheviks 37, 39, 40, 41, 45, 46, 49, 51, 52, 236, 628n6
Merridale, Catherine 195, 633n53
Mexico 63, 296, 310
MGB 197, 207, 210, 216, 217, 220, 227, 249
Michael, King of Romania 171
Michnik, Adam 425, 534, 564–5
Mi
unovi, Velko 652n50
middle classes: Cuba 297, 311; Hungary 80; USSR 202–3, 417, 580, 588; see also bourgeoisie
Mihailoví, Draža 144, 153
Mikhail, Grand Duke of Russia 48
Mikhoels, Solomon 219
Mikołajczyk, Stanisław 163, 168
Mikoyan, Anastas: Brezhnev and 402; and Cuba 301, 302; and Czechoslovakia 214; and Hungary 279–80, 282, 283, 285–6; Khrushchev and 229, 240–1, 246, 247, 265–6, 286, 402, 647n24, 648n51, 648n55, 650–1n60; in Politburo/Presidium 187, 199, 200, 246, 247, 286, 402; Second World War 140; Stalin and 200, 201, 229, 231; and Twentieth Party Congress 241, 648n51, 648n55
Mikoyan, Artem 241
Mikoyan, Sergo 199
militias, workers’ 159, 172, 271, 359
Millar, John 15
millenarianism 11, 13
Miloševi, Slobodan 547–8, 592
Milton, John 296
Mindszenty, Cardinal József 170, 289–90
Ministry of Defence (USSR) 251, 509, 602
Ministry of Finance (USSR) 520
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (USSR) 112, 236, 245, 352, 463, 593, 640n9
Ministry of Interior (USSR) 561, 570
Ministry of Internal Affairs (USSR) see MVD
Ministry of State Security (USSR) see MGB Mirsky, D.S. 121
mixed economy 26, 59, 102, 109, 495, 606
MKS (Inter-Factory Strike Committee; Poland) 428, 429
Mladenov, Petûr 542
Mlyná, Zdenk: career 383, 661–2n39, 663n82; and Gorbachev 222, 540, 565, 676n11; and ‘Prague Spring’ 373, 375, 381, 383, 386, 387, 393–4, 395, 396, 663n82, 664n2; on reformists 373, 375, 660n9, 676n11; on self-censorship 375
Mobuto, Sese Seko 583
Moczar, Mieczysaw 422, 423
Mohammad Reza, Shah of Iran 351
Moldova 400, 550, 566, 571, 580
Molodaya gvardiya (journal) 410, 678n10
Molotov, Vyacheslav: ambassador to Mongolia 252; and Anti-Party Group 245, 248–9, 251–2; and Beria 233, 647n24; Chairman of Sovnarkom 67; and Chernenko 484; and Council of Ministers 643n11; foreign minister 67, 91, 161, 171, 236–7, 240, 245, 252, 340; and Hungary 283, 285, 287; and Khrushchev 236, 240, 245, 248–9, 251–2, 319, 647n24, 648n51; and Lenin 67; party secretary 82; Second World War 140, 161, 171; and Stalin 199, 200, 201, 227, 231, 251, 257; and Yugoslavia 236, 240
Molotov – Ribbentrop pact see Nazi – Soviet Pact
monarchies 12, 28, 48–9, 145, 152, 171, 348, 351, 354, 604, 612
Moncada Fortress, Cuba 295
Mongolia 3, 78–9, 106, 182, 252, 332, 333
Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party (MAKN) 106, 333
Monroe, James 18
Montenegrins 143, 152, 153
Montenegro 546, 548
Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Baron de 15
Moravia 13, 95, 117, 146, 155, 369, 376
More, Sir Thomas 14–15, 624n19
Morris, William 28, 623n12
Moscow: August (1991) coup demonstrations 570; Bolshoi Theatre 473; Churchill visits (1944) 161; Higher Party School 378; Lenin (Comintern) School 93, 166, 174; Novodevichy cemetery 264; party organization 218, 232, 407, 489, 497, 498, 517–18; Reagan visits (1988) 512–14, 602; Second World War 139; security police 234; stock market 603; White House 569, 570; Yiddish theatre 219
Moscow News 220, 508
‘Moscow Spring’, possibility of 368, 660n1
Moscow Treaty (1970) 399
Moskalenko, Kirill 234, 251
Moskovskie novosti (weekly newspaper) 507fn, 508
Moskva (journal) 410, 678n10
Mosley, Oswald 98
Mozambique 309, 363fn, 364–5
MPLA see Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola
Mujahedin 356
Munich 274, 289, 473
Munich Agreement (1938) 91, 117, 155, 369
Münnich, Ferenc 285, 286, 287, 292
Müntzer, Thomas 13–14
music 70, 201, 281, 410–11
Muslims 153, 359, 458, 639n15; see also Islam; Islamists
Mussolini, Benito 85, 90, 91, 92, 145
Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) 523
MVD (Soviet Ministry of Internal Affairs) 197, 227, 239
Myasnikov, V.S. 641n3
Nagorno-Karabakh 558–9
Nagy, Imre 170, 275, 278–86, 287–8, 289, 290, 531
Najibullah, Mohammad 501
names, new 579, 684–5n5
Nanjing government 100
Napoleon I 47, 141
Napoleon III 23, 24–5
Narodnaya Volya (People’s Will; Imperial Russia) 33
Nash sovremmenik (journal) 410, 678n10
Nasser, Gamal Abdel 266, 283–4, 353–4, 358, 364
National Agrarian Reform Institute (Cuba; INRA) 300
National Committee of Liberation of Yugoslavia 152
National Front (Czechoslovakia) 154, 158
National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA) 366
National Independence Front (Hungary) 169
National Liberation Front (Albania; NLM) 151
National People’s Congress (China) 449
National Salvation Front (Romania; NSF) 544
nationalism: Albania 150, 291; and anti-semitism 129, 408, 409; Asian 127, 337, 608; ‘bourgeois nationalism’ 215, 236, 275, 383, 384; Cambodia 346; China 98, 99, 146, 179, 457, 586, 608, 611; Cuba 294, 586, 608; and dissidents 407; East Germany 593; and endurance of Communist systems 585–6, 608–9, 610; and fall of Communist systems 585–6, 588, 592–3, 599; Hungary 288; Imperial Russia 45–6; Indonesia 359; and Marxism 337; North Korea 334, 335, 608, 609; Poland 163, 422, 423; Romania 212, 609; Ukraine 142; USSR 202, 255, 258, 406, 407, 408–10, 413, 509–10, 549–53, 558–63, 585–6, 588, 592–3, 599, 665n28, 678n10; Vietnam 127, 337, 586, 608; Yugoslavia 143, 150, 236, 547, 592, 593
nationalities: in China 457–8; in USSR 60–1, 66, 76, 140–1, 228, 407–8, 457, 518, 549–53, 586
nationalization (of industry) 102, 103, 338; Bulgaria 173; China 193; Cuba 304; Czechoslovakia 155; Poland 168; USSR 58, 59, 195
nationalization (of landholdings) 80, 186, 206, 338, 365
NATO 270, 461, 477, 523, 535, 611
Nazarbaev, Nursultan 552, 558
Nazi – Soviet Pact (‘Molotov – Ribbentrop pact’ 1939) 65, 88, 90–2, 97, 98, 125, 131, 135, 140, 142, 146, 155, 162
Nazis (German National Socialists) 86, 87–8, 135, 138–43, 144, 145–6, 148, 149, 167, 169, 466
Nehru, Jawaharlal 321, 358
Neizvestny, Ernst 263–4
Németh, Miklós 530, 681n18
NEP 58–9, 64, 84, 85, 188, 686n16
Nepal 332, 356–7, 603–4, 687n3
nepotism 359, 543
Netherlands 101, 469
Neto, Aghostino 365–6
Neues Deutschland (newspaper) 505
Nevsky, Alexander 141
New Economic Mechanism (Hungary; NEM) 292
New Economic Policy (of Lenin) see NEP
New Harmony, Indiana 17–18, 624–5n40
New Lanark 17
New Left (British) 113, 126
‘New Thinking’ (on Soviet foreign policy) 356, 366, 367, 499–502, 507fn, 513, 523–8, 535, 536, 597, 602, 616, 678n39
New Times (journal) 467
New York Times 242, 463
New Zealand 358
Ngo Dinh Diem 345
Nicholas II, Tsar 42–3, 46, 47, 48, 49
Nie Yuanzi 440
‘Nina Andreyeva affair’ (USSR) 504–7, 678n3, 679n17
Nineteen Eighty-Four (Orwell) 122, 154, 416fn, 504, 578fn, 649n1
Nixon, Richard 330–1, 399, 403, 460, 461, 657n59; administration of 330, 346–7
Nkrumah, Kwame 365
NKVD (People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs): Beria and 197, 239; brutality of 55, 137; informers 279; Nagy and 279; and Second World War 136–7, 138, 140, 141, 637–8n30; and show trials 216; and Spanish Civil War 89, 90; in Ukraine 239
Nobel Prize: Literature 122, 254, 411, 508, 511; Peace 436
nomenklatura xiv, 133–4, 380, 402, 577, 580, 636n57
North Korea: and China 3; command economy 336, 373, 607; endurance of Communist system 606, 609–10; establishment of Communist state 4, 332, 333, 334–6; Korean War 190; nationalism 334, 335, 608, 609; personality cults 108, 337, 348, 610; role of party leader 107, 108, 335–7
Norway 101, 417; see also Scandinavia
Nosek, Václav 159
Nove, Alec 109, 110, 129, 575, 602, 619–20
Novo-Ogarevo process (USSR) 567, 571
Novocherkassk strikes (1962) 264, 650–1n60
Novomeský, Laco 378, 661n22
Novotný, Antonín: background and early career 373; party leader and president 290, 320, 371, 373–4, 377–8, 384; removal from office 374, 378–9
Novy mir (journal) 237, 254, 255, 263, 405, 411, 508, 509, 511, 678n10
nuclear accidents 491–2, 564
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963) 262, 303
nuclear weapons 190, 221, 253fn, 260, 262, 301–3, 320, 412, 475–6, 477, 500, 501–2, 513, 523, 572, 602, 641n43, 675n51
Nureyev, Rudolf 473
Nyerere, Julius 365
Nyers, Rezsö 530
Oakeshott, Michael 110, 619
Obolensky, Alexander 517
Observer, The (newspaper) 242, 579
Ochab, Edward 276–7
October Manifesto (of Nicholas II) 43–4, 45
October revolution see Bolshevik revolution
Octobrists 45
Oder – Neisse Line 164, 173
Ogonek (magazine) 508
OGPU xv, 55
oil 140, 189, 305, 415–16, 489, 582, 592, 677n15
Okhrana (Imperial Russian secret police) 35–6, 45, 54, 76
Oktyabr’ (journal) 677n20
Okudzhava, Bulat 411
Olympic Games 584; Beijing (2008) 449, 457, 672n84
One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (Solzhenitsyn) 263, 650n56
O’Neill, Thomas ‘Tip’ 529
optimism 70, 82, 126–7, 148, 194, 222, 237, 263
Organization of African Unity 366
ORI see Integrated Revolutionary Organization (Cuba)
Orlov, Alexander 90
Orlov, Yury 464
Orthodox Church 141, 406, 409, 510
Orwell, George 122, 244, 346, 414, 578, 649n1; Animal Farm 122, 504, 649n1; Nineteen Eighty-Four 122, 154, 416fn, 504, 578fn, 649n1
Osama Bin Laden 351
Ostpolitik 399, 534
Oudong massacre 347
Owen, David Dale 624–5n40
Owen, Robert 17–18, 21, 624–5n40
Owen, Robert Dale 625n40
pacifism 46, 178, 342
Paine, Tom 296
Pakistan 351
Palazchenko, Pavel 525
Pantsov, A.V. 642n20
papacy 12–13, 14; see also Vatican
Parcham group (Afghanistan) 352, 355
Paris: Chinese Communists in 98–9; Ho Chi Minh in 338; Marx and Engels in 19, 27, 28; Pol Pot in 348; Second International 27–8
Paris Commune (1870) 23
Paris Peace Accords (1973) 344, 347
Paris Peace Conference (1919) 84, 92, 98, 162
Parkinson, C. Northcote 589fn
parliaments (in Communist systems) 153, 449, 517
parliaments (Soviet republics) 552–3
partisans 138, 143, 146, 149, 154; Albania 150, 151; Bulgaria 172; Yugoslavia 143–4, 145, 151–3, 175, 203, 615
‘Partisans’ (Poland) 422
Party of Democratic Socialism (Germany) 538
‘party-mindedness’ 201–2, 222, 237, 239
Pasternak, Boris 254, 508, 650n33
Pathet Lao 342, 609
P
trcanu, Lucre
iu 212
Patriotic War (1812–13) 47, 141
patriotism 469, 608; and anti-colonialism 332–3; China 180; Cuba 312; Hungary 288; and internationalism 62, 143, 149; Korea 335, 609; Poland 267; USSR 2, 62, 73, 134, 141, 579, 585; Yugoslavia 153, 204, 208
Patten, Chris 605, 611, 671n60
Pauker, Ana 171, 212
Paul VI, Pope 423
Pavel, Josef 383
Pavlov, Valentin 568
PCC see Cuban Communist Party
PCE see Spanish Communist Party
PCF see French Communist Party
PCI see Italian Communist Party
PDPA see People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan
‘peaceful co-existence’ 84–5, 323, 341, 359, 460, 677n20
Pearl Harbor 135
peasant parties 129, 168, 169
peasantry: Bohemia and Moravia 13; China 9, 100, 147, 180, 181–2, 442, 443; Cuba 297; England 12; Germany 13–14, 17; Hungary 80, 169, 289; India 357; kulaks 62–3, 76; Poland 168; representation in Communist parties 133, 338; Russia 9, 24, 41, 42, 43, 44–5, 50, 53–4, 55, 180; USSR 58, 62–3, 66–7, 75, 196, 202, 203, 255–6, 259, 404, 442, 495; Vietnam 340, 341; Yugoslavia 207–8
Peasants Revolt (English) 12
Pelé (footballer) 306
Pelikán, Jií 383, 396
Peng Dehuai 190, 318
Peng Zhen 324, 325, 326
Penney, Sir William 492fn
‘people’s democracies’ 167, 236
People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) 351–2, 355, 356
People’s Liberation Army (China; PLA) 181, 325, 326, 330
perestroika: changing meanings of 489, 490, 491, 514, 599; economic reforms 488, 490, 494–6, 556–8, 582–3, 590, 599; introduction of 488–96, 593, 595, 610; and liberalization of publishing 508–11, 578, 600, 678n10; and nationalism 550, 555, 558, 559, 564–5, 566; ‘Nina Andreyeva affair’ and 506; origins of reformers 413–14, 488; political reforms 488–91, 492–5, 511–12, 514–21, 523, 552–3, 555–6, 563–5, 583, 590, 598, 600; ‘Popular Fronts’ in support of 507, 564; role of intelligentsia 594–5; see also glasnost
personality cults: Brezhnev 398, 404–5; denouncement of 241, 314, 401; Hua Guofeng 440; Mao Zedong 108, 184, 186, 314, 326; Miloševí 547; North Korea 108, 337, 348, 610; Stalin 31, 61, 71, 196, 241, 243, 401, 404
Pertini, Alessandro 470
Pervukhin, Mikhail 245
Peter I ‘the Great’, Tsar 61, 380, 593
Peter II, King of Yugoslavia 144, 145, 152
Ptka (Czechoslovakia) 154
Petkov, Nicola 172
‘Petfi Circle’ (Hungary) 280
Petrakov, Nikolay 556
Petrograd xii, 48, 49, 50, 51; see also Leningrad; St Petersburg
Pham Van Dong 340–1
Philby, Kim 473
Philippines 127
Phnom Penh 347
physics 220–1, 253fn, 406, 412, 422
Pieck, Wilhelm 174, 176
Pijade, Moša 153
Piller, Jan 383, 662n40
Pilsen 271–2, 275, 651n10
Pínkowski, Józef 428–9
Pinsky, Leonid 257–8
Pioneers (youth movement) 306
Pipes, Richard 676–7n14
Pitsunda 265–6
PKI see Communist Party of Indonesia
PLA see People’s Liberation Army (China)
Plekhanov, Georgy 28, 32, 33, 46
Plekhanov, Yury 569
pluralism: in Africa 364; in Albania 545; in Bulgaria 542; in Chile 307; in China 314–15, 458, 606; in Czechoslovakia 155, 160, 213, 372, 381, 467, 492; and Eurocommunism 468, 492; in Hungary 170, 530, 531; Lenin and 57; in Romania 544; socialism and 102, 467, 505; in USSR 195, 362, 373, 476, 482, 492–3, 497, 505, 507, 509, 568, 596, 598, 600; in Yugoslavia 546
Po Prostu (Polish journal) 277, 280
Podgorny, Nikolay 402, 663n76, 663n87
Pol Pot 346, 347, 348–50, 614
Polan, A.J. 57
Poland: agriculture 108; awareness of conditions in Western Europe 585; Catholic Church 167–8, 212, 216, 292, 422, 423, 425, 426, 427, 429, 431, 436, 478, 532, 533, 578; constitution 424, 534; economy 423–4, 425–6, 427, 436, 532; education 273, 422; end of Communist rule 531–4, 564; establishment of Communist state 165–70; foreign broadcasts to 273–4, 474; foreign travel of citizens 468; under Gierek 422–6, 427; under Gomuka 166–7, 267–8, 277–8, 279, 292, 421–2; human rights 425; and Hungarian revolution (1956) 282, 290–1, 292; intelligentsia 277, 421–2, 424–5, 427; under Jaruzelski 433, 434–6, 528, 532; Jews in 129–30, 422; Khrushchev and 242; martial law (1981–83) 418, 430, 432–3, 434–6, 531; Ministry of Interior 435; nationalism 163, 422, 423; partition of 91, 140, 162–4, 165–6; peasantry 168; ‘Polish October’ (1956) 245, 276–8, 368, 385; and ‘Prague Spring’ 385, 387–91, 392–3; revisionism 272, 274–6, 422; revolution of 1980–81 429–34, 523, 563; Russo-Polish war (1919–20) 81–2, 137, 162; Second Polish Republic (1921–39) 162–3; Second World War 91, 135, 138, 140, 146, 163, 166, 212, 433; Stalin and 212, 273; trade unions 166, 427–8, 434, 474; worker unrest (1970–80) 421–3, 424–6, 427–9, 667n3; see also Polish Communist party; Solidarity
‘police socialism’ 42
Polish Committee of National Liberation 166–7
Polish Communist party (PUWP) 166–7, 212, 268, 277, 370, 432, 436, 478, 531–2, 533–4; Central Committee 273, 426, 429, 433, 434, 533; and Eurocommunism 468; leading role/monopoly of power 424, 431, 532, 534; Politburo 277, 430, 435, 533; see also Communist Party of Poland (KKP)
Polish Socialist Party 166, 168, 169
Polish United Workers’ Party see Polish Communist party
Polish Workers’ Party 166, 169
political culture 93, 470, 612
political prisoners 545; Czechoslovakia 146, 216, 382, 383; Poland 277, 428; Romania 216; South Africa 363; USSR 76, 138, 141, 237–8, 248, 411–12; see also Gulag; labour camps
Polityka (journal) 433
Pollitt, Harry 97, 124, 466
pollution 24, 452
Polozkov, Ivan 556, 562
Pomerantsev, Vladimir 237
Ponomarev, Boris 112, 352, 353, 354, 355, 366
Pope John Paul II 5, 426–7, 429, 436, 475, 478, 532, 540, 675n49
Pope Paul VI 423
Popiełuszko, Father Jerzy 436
Popov, Gavriil 519
Popov, Georgy 218
Popper, Karl 9–10
Popular Front (Comintern) 87, 88–90, 92, 93, 96, 103, 119
Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) 365–6
Popular Socialist Party (Cuba; PSP) 293, 297, 298, 299, 300
population policy: China 443, 671n60; USSR 69–70, 418
populism 27, 32, 41, 46
Portugal 365, 465, 548
Pospelov, Petr 241, 648n51
Potresov, Alexander 35, 36
Potsdam conference (1945) 162–3, 164, 165, 488
POUM (Worker Party of Marxist Unification; Spain) 89
Powers, Gary 262
Poznán 277, 424, 652n27
Pozsgay, Imre 530–31, 681n18
Prachanda (Pushpa Kamal Dahal) 604
‘Pragmatists’ (Poland) 422
Prague: demonstrations of 1968 390, 394; Hussite rising (1419) 13; party organization 380–1; Second World War 135; and ‘velvet revolution’ 541
‘Prague Spring’ 158, 214, 305, 368–97, 563, 572, 593–4, 615; coming of 368, 369–79; ending of 396–7; reaction in Eastern Europe 290–1, 369, 381, 385–91, 421, 422, 427, 433, 468, 609; reaction in USSR 290, 368–9, 380–1, 385–91, 468, 523, 574, 662n58, 663n69; reaction in West 369, 386, 432, 465, 466–7, 594, 601; reforms of 379–84; role of intelligentsia 316, 370–1, 374–6, 383, 384, 421, 594–5, 661n37; significance of 368–9, 594; Soviet-led invasion 379, 389–90, 391–6, 398, 418, 461, 538, 539, 540, 541
Pravda (newspaper) 63, 178, 200, 220, 223, 307, 322, 393, 505fn, 506, 579
Presidential Council (USSR) 562, 566
Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (USSR) 199, 231, 239, 402, 487, 525, 558
press freedom 74, 195–6, 281, 390, 428, 508–11, 600; see also censorship
Primakov, Yevgeny 560, 570
private property 13, 14, 16, 17, 21, 53, 173, 186, 202, 451, 452
privatization: China 451–2, 456; USSR 495–6, 557
Procházka, Jan 380
Prokofiev, Sergei 201
‘proletarian internationalism’ 390, 391
proletariat: class struggle and 126–7, 253, 326, 504; France 127; Germany 20–1; Jewish 36; Lenin and 37; Marx and 9, 20; revolutions 9, 20, 22, 24, 38, 44, 52; USSR 62; Western Europe 40; see also ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’
propaganda: anti-Czech 387–8; anti-German 142; Bolshevik 35, 50, 51, 58; China 180, 322, 449, 606; ‘counter-propaganda’ 409fn; North Korea 336; USA 414; USSR 68, 69, 90, 100, 134, 178, 230, 289, 469; see also Agitprop
Protestant Church 535, 538, 543
Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph 16–17, 19
Prussia 18, 19, 164, 593
PSP see Popular Socialist Party (Cuba)
public opinion 599–600, 686n17; in Czechoslovakia 375, 382, 388; in East Germany 537; in Hungary 531; and nuclear weapons 500, 502; in Poland 277; of Stalin 194, 195–6; in USSR 356, 412, 416, 496, 497, 507, 508, 517, 600, 679n27
Pugo, Boris 566, 568
Purishkevich, V.M. 47
Pushkin, Alexander 202
Putin, Vladimir 583
PUWP see Polish Communist party
Puzanov, Aleksandr 352
Pyatnitsky, Iosif 632n33
race 308–9, 311, 360, 462
racism 311, 360, 361, 362, 363, 614
Radek, Karl 82, 129
Radio Free Europe (RFE) 274, 289, 290, 394, 473–4, 540, 653n76
Radio Liberty (RL) 473, 474
Radio Martí 294
Rajk, Júlia 280
Rajk, Lászlo 170, 211–12, 213, 280, 289
Rákosi, Mátyás 83, 170, 211–12, 275, 276, 279, 280, 281, 282, 285, 286–7, 289
Rakowski, Mieczysaw 433, 532, 634n1
Rankovi, Aleksandar 153
Rapallo, Treaty of (1922) 84
Rapp, George 17
Rasputin, Grigory 47
Razumovsky, Georgy 560
Reagan, Ronald: administration of 470–1, 472, 476–7, 500–1; and Gorbachev 472, 477, 478, 501–2, 512–14, 602; and Helsinki Agreement 463; perceived role in fall of communism 5, 475–8; and Polish revolution (1980–81) 432; and SDI 475–6, 501–2; and Thatcher 471–2, 481
Red Army (China) 179, 180, 182, 183, 184, 189, 325
Red Army (USSR): in China 179, 182, 183; formation of 53; in Mongolia 78; Russian civil war 53, 54, 55, 65, 142; Russo-Polish war (1919–20) 81–2, 137; Second World War 65, 137–8, 139–40, 142, 144, 145–6, 148, 155, 163, 164, 166, 171, 195, 399; Stalin’s purges of 65, 75, 76, 137, 246, 325, 353, 637n11; Winter War with Finland (1939–40) 633n53
‘red directors’ (USSR) 496
Red Guard (Bolshevik) 50
Red Guards (China) 325, 327, 328, 329–30, 440
‘red hat’ system (China) 450–1
Reed, John 95
reformism: China 192, 329, 448, 450, 595, 598, 613; Cuba 305, 607; Czechoslovakia 290, 291, 368–9, 370–7, 380–4, 394–5, 397, 398–9, 540, 593–5, 615, 663n82; Hungary 275, 286, 528, 590, 594–5, 668n32; Poland 433, 528, 531–2, 590, 615–16; Russia 45; and social democracy 79, 103; USSR 5, 64, 83, 239, 245, 250, 368–9, 403–4, 410, 488–91, 499, 506, 511, 556, 592, 594–602, 613, 615, 678n10; Yugoslavia 547, 615; see also perestroika
‘refuseniks’ 504–5
religion: anticlericalism 73, 75, 80; and Communist party membership 124, 125, 126; religious dissent 549, 610–11; religious freedom 17, 141, 259, 462, 540, 607, 610; religious persecution 216, 259, 409, 450, 610–11; see also Catholic Church; Christianity; Orthodox Church; Protestant Church
Remnick, David 483, 678n1, 678n3
Requiem (Akhmatova) 492, 677n20
Rettie, John 242
revisionism 5, 274–6, 291, 319, 322, 324, 328–9, 348, 375, 389, 400, 427, 601, 634n3
revisionists 38, 319, 328, 330, 369, 422
Revolutionary Military Committee (China) 181
‘Revolutionary of the Upper Rhine’ 13
Revolutions of 1848 20fn, 24–5, 26–7, 28–9, 280
Reykjavik summit meeting (1986) 501, 502
RFE see Radio Free Europe
Rhee Syngman 335
Rhineland 18
Ribbentrop, Joachim von 91
Rigby, T.H. 111, 200, 635n17
RL see Radio Liberty
Robespierre, Maximilien 118
Robotnik (newspaper) 425, 428
Rochet, Waldeck 93
Rodríguez, Carlos Rafael 297, 298, 299
Rokossovsky (Rokossowski), Marshal Konstantin 139, 141, 251, 277
Romania: under Ceauescu 543, 609–10; end of Communist rule 542, 543–4; establishment of Communist state 161, 170–2; foreign travel of citizens 468, 469; and Hungarian revolution (1956) 283, 288, 290, 291; and ‘Prague Spring’ 385, 388, 609; Second World War 146, 161, 171; security police (Securitate) 535, 543, 544; Stalin and 212, 216
Romanian Communist Party 170–1, 468
Romanov dynasty 48, 49
Romanov, Grigory 488
Rommel, Erwin 139
Roosevelt, Eleanor 164–5
Roosevelt, Franklin D. 96, 135, 140, 142, 151, 152, 162, 164, 165, 179, 295, 339
Rothschild, Joseph 81
Rothstein, Andrew 96
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 296
Roy, M.N. 98, 99, 338
RSDLP see Russian Social Democratic Labour Party
RSFSR see Russian republic
Rudé právo (newspaper) 375, 383, 386
Rukh (Ukraine) 564–5
Rusinow, Dennison 144, 204, 208
Russia, Imperial: 1905
revolution 41–5, 48, 99; army 43, 46, 47–8, 49, 53; February (1917) revolution 32, 48–9, 51, 57; First World War 46–8, 50, 53; Great Reforms (1860s) 31, 43, 44; industrialization 34, 41–2; Jews in 45–6, 128; Patriotic War (1812–13) 47, 141; peasantry 9, 24, 41, 42, 43, 44–5, 50, 53–4, 55, 180; Provisional Government (1917) 49–50, 51, 57; revolutionaries 24, 32–3, 34, 36, 42, 44, 45, 46, 48; Russo-Japanese War (1904–05) 42; social democrats 34, 35–6, 37, 40; see also Bolshevik revolution
Russian civil war (1918–22) 51, 53–5, 60, 65, 142
Russian Federation: Communist Party (CPRF) 603; democracy in 516; formation of 573; and global financial crisis 592; market economy in 585; under Putin 583
Russian republic (of USSR; RSFSR): autonomous regions 551; collectivization 63; Communist Party 556, 562, 571; and Congress of People’s Deputies 516; Democratic Russia 553–4, 555; and dissolution of USSR 554–6, 572, 686n11; and formation of USSR 60; independence 554–5, 572, 573; nationalism 255, 258, 408–410, 509–10, 551; parliament 555; presidency 552, 553, 683n8; Stalin and 94; Supreme Soviet 555, 556
Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) 34, 35–7, 40
Russo-Japanese War (1904–05) 42
Russo-Polish war (1919–20) 81–2, 137, 162
Rust, Matthias 499–500
Ruthenberg, Charles 95
Rykov, Alexei 129
Ryzhkov, Nikolay 482, 488–9, 499, 505, 517, 556, 557, 568, 677n26
Saburov, Maksim 245
Sadat, Anwar 353–4
Saddam Hussein 364
Safarov, Rafael 599–600, 686n17, 686–7n19
Sagdeev, Roald 674n29, 675n51
Saigon 341, 345, 607
St Petersburg xii, 27, 33, 36, 42, 44, 180; see also Leningrad; Petrograd
Saint-Simon, Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de 16
Saj dis (Lithuanian nationalist movement) 553
Sakharov, Andrei 223, 406, 412, 494, 507, 509, 517, 519, 554, 576, 579, 664n15
SALT II (arms limitation treaty; 1979) 399
samizdat 406, 407, 410, 411, 412, 415, 417, 425, 539, 549, 576, 579, 665n18
Samuel, Raphael 113, 125–6, 130
Sanatescu, General Constantin 171
Santiago de Cuba 295, 298
SARS virus 611
Sassoon, Donald 29–30, 83, 142–3
Saxony 82
Scandinavia 149, 258, 417, 459, 564, 577, 579; see also Finland; Norway; Sweden
Schabowski, Günter 537
science 61, 220–1, 259, 310, 577, 591, 674n29
‘scientific socialism’ 9, 16, 20fn, 38, 39, 388
Scotland 15, 17, 120, 123–4
SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative; ‘Star Wars’) 475–6, 501–2, 675n51
Second International 27–9, 30, 37, 39, 83
Second World War 135–48, 161–5, 169–70, 171–2, 334, 339; Balkans in 138, 143–5, 150–54, 161; China and 146–7, 179–80, 181, 183, 184, 185, 186, 190; Comintern and 92; German invasion of USSR 47, 64, 65, 90, 131, 135–9, 141, 146, 149; outbreak of 91, 92, 135; USSR during 2, 4, 47, 63, 64–5, 134, 135–43, 145–6, 147, 148, 155, 171, 179, 194, 195–6, 369, 399, 637n21
Securitate (Romanian security police) 535, 543, 544
self-censorship 375, 472, 506, 575, 600
‘semi-presidentialism’ 683n8
Semichastny, Vladimir 254, 404
Senegal 364
Serantes, Archbishop Pérez 296
Serbia 546–7, 548, 592, 593
Serbian League of Communists 547
Serbs 143, 150, 152, 153, 547, 593
serfdom 12, 21, 53; abolition of 31, 41–2, 44
Sergey, Grand Duke of Russia 43
Serov, Ivan 239, 246
Shaanxi 100, 146
Shakhnazarov, Georgy 410, 412–13, 488, 492, 500, 526, 552, 559, 571, 597, 599, 615, 634n1, 664n17, 665n26
Shakhty trial 68, 236
Shambaugh, David 671n71
Shanghai 179, 326, 328, 446, 448, 669n25;
party organization 448, 455
Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences 670n48
Shanghai Revolutionary Committee 328
Shatalin, Stanislav 556, 557, 558
Shaw, George Bernard 119–20, 122
Shelepin, Alexander 265, 404
Shelest, Petro 390, 663n69, 663n87
Shen Zhihua 642n43
Shenin, Oleg 562, 568, 569
Shepilov, Dmitry: Beria and 218, 233, 234; editor of Pravda 220, 223, 233; head of Department of Propaganda and Agitation 218; Khrushchev and 234, 241, 245–6, 247, 248, 647n4; Minister of Foreign Affairs 245; Molotov and 287; Pospelov and 241; Stalin and 218, 220, 221, 223, 246
Shevardnadze, Eduard 464, 487–8, 499, 505, 519, 526–7, 534fn, 560–1, 566, 571, 597–8
Shirk, Susan 452, 670n31
Shlyapnikov, Alexander 58
Sholokhov, Mikhail 223
shortages 14, 69, 73, 133, 138, 147, 259, 260, 416, 425, 460, 499, 555, 556, 580, 581–2, 585
Shostakovich, Dmitry 201
show trials 64, 67, 84, 119, 170, 210, 220, 242, 289, 380, 383–4
Shultz, George P. 472, 476, 477, 478, 513, 525, 602, 675n43
Shushkevich, Stanislav 572
Siberia 34–5, 36, 47, 92, 141, 174, 260, 418, 488, 674n29
Sichuan earthquake (2008) 453
Sierra Maestra, Cuba 297, 300
Sihanouk, King Norodom 346, 347 Šik, Ota 371, 396, 652n18
Silesia 422, 435 Šimon, Bohumil 398, 399, 664n1
Simonia, Nodari 659n103
Sino-Japanese War (1937–45) 146–7, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 185, 438
Sinyavsky, Andrey 405
Sisulu, Walter 361
Slánský, Rudolf 213–14, 216, 220, 373, 380, 383
slave labour 16, 21, 27, 41, 142, 238
Slavík, Václav 370, 383, 663n82
Slovak Democratic Party 158
Slovak National Rising (1944) 378, 383
Slovak Organization for the Defence of Human Rights 382
Slovakia 81, 94, 95, 117, 146, 158, 283, 369, 380, 386, 395, 397, 538–9, 540, 546
Slovaks 155, 213, 215, 377–8, 384
Slovenes 152, 153
Slovenia 546, 547, 548
Slovo, Joe 360, 361, 363
Smallholders’ Party (Hungary) 169, 281
‘Smersh’ (counterintelligence organization) 197
Smith, Adam 15, 23, 624n27
Smrkovský, Josef 370, 383, 390, 396
Snegov, Aleksei 644 5n39
Snow, Edgar, Red Star Over China 184
Snowden, Ethel 178
Snowden, Philip 178
Snyder, Timothy 163
Sobchak, Anatoly 560–61
social democracy 34, 37–9, 102, 131, 149, 258, 466, 512, 528, 531, 596, 598
Social Democratic Party (SPD; Germany) 79, 86, 173, 174, 175, 212, 512, 527
Social Democratic Party (Hungary) 281
Social Democratic Workers’ Party (Germany) 20–1
social democrats: Bulgaria 172; Czechoslovakia 94, 146, 155, 158; Germany 20–1, 28, 37–8, 39, 79–80, 86, 173, 174, 175, 176, 212, 512, 527, 625n54; Hungary 169, 281, 282; Russia 34, 35–6, 37, 40; Scandinavia 258, 634n3
social mobility 2, 66, 67, 103, 104, 133–4, 149, 202, 228, 587
socialism: and capitalism 102, 120, 148; and Christianity 17, 28, 36; and class 29, 32; and democracy 101–3, 167, 469; different models of 203, 210, 386, 467, 599, 616; evolutionary socialism 15, 22, 26, 37–9; ‘market socialism’ 209, 274, 607; Marx and 20–1; and mixed economy 26, 102; ‘police socialism’ 42; revolutionary socialism 34, 35, 45; roots of 16, 26; ‘scientific socialism’ 9, 16, 20fn, 38, 39, 388; ‘socialism with a human face’ 372, 527, 599; ‘socialism in one country’ 62, 84, 112, 129, 543; Third World 365, 659n103; utopian socialism 17–18, 20, 38, 39, 298
Socialist International see First International; Second International
Socialist Party of Albania 545–6
Socialist Party of Serbia 547
‘socialist pluralism’ 492, 493, 497, 596
‘socialist realism’ 70, 263
Socialist Revolutionary Party (Russia; SRs) 41, 43, 45, 46, 50, 51
Socialist Unity Party (East Germany; SED) 175, 176
Sokolov, Sergey 500
Solidarity (Poland) 522–3, 528, 531–4, 564–5, 616, 667n28, 668n43; and martial law (1981–83) 434–6; as mass movement 429–34, 436–7, 478, 616, 667n28; political power 436, 532–4, 564; rise of 5, 427–9, 474, 478, 528, 531, 668n43; significance of 436–7, 528, 616; as underground organization (1982–87) 436, 478, 522–3, 531, 532
Solomentsev, Mikhail 505, 515
Soloviev, Yury 516
Solzhenitsyn, Alexander 255, 263, 377, 405–6, 409, 411–12, 503, 511, 579, 650n56, 664n15, 678n1; Cancer Ward 405, 503, 511; The First Circle 261, 405, 503, 511; The Gulag Archipelago 238fn, 411–12, 503–4, 511; One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich 263, 650n56
Sorbonne 118
Sorge, Richard 136
Soukup, Lubomír 639n29
South Africa 118, 128, 129, 309, 359–63, 366, 367, 659n91, 687n3
South Korea 321, 335, 336, 609, 612
South Ossetia 553, 573
South Yemen 365
Souvanna Phouma, Prince 342
Sovetskaya Rossiya (newspaper) 504, 505
Soviet Union see USSR
Soviet of Workers’ Deputies 44, 48, 49, 50, 51
sovnarkhozy (Soviet regional economic councils) 248, 265
Sovnarkom (Council of People’s Commissars) xv, 53, 59, 61, 62, 67, 198, 230; see also Council of Ministers (USSR)
space programmes 260–1, 316, 459, 476, 495, 584, 675n51
Spain 101, 294, 465, 548
Spanish Civil War (1936–39) 89–90, 123, 170, 215, 383
Spanish Communist Party (PCE) 89, 465–7
Spanish Socialist Party 29
Spartacists 79, 80
Spear of the Nation organization (South Africa) 361
Special Operations Executive (British; SOE) 151
sputnik 260, 261
SRs see Socialist Revolutionary Party
Stakhanov, Alexey 72–3
Stakhanovite movement 72–3
Stalin, Josif: background 66; and Balkans 150, 161, 203–4, 205–7, 210–12; and Bukharin 64; campaign against ‘cosmopolitanism’ 195, 219, 221, 504; and China 179, 181, 182, 183, 184–6, 641–2n20; and Churchill 140, 142, 143, 161–2, 163, 164, 178, 179, 200, 204, 504; collectivization policy 62–3, 64, 142, 188, 195, 202, 313; and Comintern 84, 85, 86, 95, 112; Commissar for Nationalities 53, 60; control of Party 59–60, 65, 72, 74; and CPUSA 95; ‘cultural revolution’ 64; and Czechoslovakia 213, 214, 215, 369; death 170, 193, 222–3, 227, 231, 236, 237, 249, 270, 646n97, 647n4; Deutscher’s biography of 274, 595; and establishment of Communist systems in Eastern Europe 165–6, 167, 170, 171, 173, 174, 176; and German invasion of USSR (1939) 135–8, 141; and Hitler 65, 86, 91, 135, 140, 148; industrialization policy 62, 64–5, 66, 71, 202, 247, 257; Khrushchev’s exposure of crimes of 10, 71, 75–6, 124, 140, 196, 217, 240–3, 244, 275–6, 485; and Korean War 190–1; and Lenin 30, 31, 59, 61, 76; and ‘Leningrad Affair’ 217–18, 219; and Mao 184, 185–6, 186–7, 190–1; and Marshall Plan 156–7; and nationality 30, 60–1; and Nazi – Soviet Pact (1939) 65, 88, 91, 92, 97, 135; persecution of Jews 72, 201, 210, 214, 215, 219–20; personality cult 31, 61, 71, 196, 241, 401, 404; popular opinion of 194, 195–6, 485; population policy 69–70; potential rehabilitation of 249, 400–1, 483–5, 664n7; pseudonym 45, 61; removal of body from mausoleum 257; rise of 45, 53, 55, 59–60; and role of party leader 107–8, 187, 196–7, 198–201; and science 61, 220–1; and Second World War 63, 135–43, 148, 179; and single-party dictatorship 10, 61, 73, 198; and ‘socialism in one country’ 62, 84, 112, 543; socializing with 229; and Sovnarkom 198, 230; and Spanish Civil War 90; and state terror 61, 65, 67–8, 71–2, 75–6, 199–201, 210, 237, 371, 417, 494, 549, 575, 643; and Tito 152, 153, 204, 206–7, 644n32, 644n35; and Trotsky 62, 63, 64, 72, 84; and Truman 156, 164–5; and Winter War (1939–40) 92; at Yalta and Potsdam conferences (1945) 162, 163, 164, 165, 179, 204; see also Stalinism; Stalinization
‘Stalin Constitution’ (1936) 61, 73–5
Stalingrad 139–40, 484, 562
Stalinism: and anti-semitism 30, 100, 201, 210, 213, 215, 216, 219–20, 409, 504; Brezhnev and 330, 400–1; and China 323–4; and Czechoslovakia 371; and early Communists 11; excesses of 76–7, 122, 125, 149, 160, 200, 234, 596; Gorbachev and 485, 493–4, 676n11; Great Purge/Terror 65, 66, 68, 72, 75–6, 81, 87, 88, 90, 100, 122, 123, 169, 200, 202, 212, 220, 279, 325, 330, 575; in Hungary 274, 280, 281, 282, 286, 287; Khrushchev and 236, 238, 240, 241, 244, 251–5, 257, 264, 280; late purges 209–20; Medvedev on 406–7; in North Korea 335; in Poland 273; and social mobility 66, 202; Western writers and 122–3, 125, 223, 244; see also anti-Stalinism
Stalinization: of Comintern 98; of Communist parties 97; of Eastern European states 170, 176; see also de-Stalinization
Starkov, Vasily 33
Stasi (East German State Security Police) 176, 275, 305–6, 535
State Council (China) 324, 325, 327, 328, 439
state ownership of means of production 26, 108–9, 313, 520, 605, 606–7
‘states of socialist orientation’ 332, 364–7
Stedman Jones, Gareth 625n51, 626n70
Stolypin, Petr 44–5, 109
Strategic Defense Initiative see SDI
Su Shaozhi 448, 669n10
Šubaši, Ivan 152
Sudetenland 91, 155
Suez crisis (1956) 283–4, 291
sugar 297, 304
Suharto, Hadji 359
Sukarno, Ahmed 358–9
Sun Yat-sen xi, 99, 100, 220
Suny, Ronald 76, 633n53
Supreme Soviet (Russian republic) 555, 556
Supreme Soviet (USSR) 240, 260, 515–16, 517, 568, 569; Presidium of 199, 231, 239, 402, 487, 525, 558
Supreme Soviets (of Soviet republics) 551–2
Suslov, Mikhail: Andropov and 405, 409, 481; Brezhnev and 402, 403, 463; in Central Committee 246, 248, 266, 402, 508; death 481; and Helsinki Agreement 463; and Hungary 282, 283, 285; Khrushchev and 246, 247, 248, 266; Medvedev and 407; nationalism 409, 410; and Poland 430, 435, 667n30; in Politburo 246, 402, 430, 435, 667n30; Stalin and 218
Suvorov, Alexander 141
Sverdlovsk 252, 489, 555, 581
Švestka, Oldich 391
Svoboda, Ludvík 158, 379, 390, 395, 396, 663n76
svyazí 580, 585
Sweden 101, 417, 634n3; see also Scandinavia
wiatło, Józef 274
Switzerland 48
Szczecin 422, 428
Szczepkowska, Joanna 533
Taborites 13
Taiwan xi, 186, 442, 612
Tajiks 66
Taliban 351
Tambo, Oliver 360
tamizdat 406
Tanzania 350, 365
Taraki, Nur Mohammad 351–4, 355, 356
Tatars 76, 141, 549, 558
Tatarstan 551
Taubman, William 251, 647n24
Taylor, Richard 70
Tbilisi 560–61
technological development 5, 310, 459–60, 486, 489, 495, 499, 513, 590–2, 685n4
Teiwes, Frederick 188
television: China 446, 447; in Communist systems 574–5; Cuba 298, 300; Czechoslovakia 379, 383, 385, 390, 394; Germany 474, 537; Hungary 528, 531; Poland 426, 427, 436, 533; Romania 544, 545; USSR 515, 516, 517, 518, 550, 574–5
terrorism 33, 303
Thailand 343, 349fn
Thälmann, Ernst 86, 88
Thatcher, Margaret 463, 470–2, 481, 529, 602, 660n1, 673n15, 674n33, 674n40, 675n43, 675n49
Thaw, The (Ehrenburg) 237, 238
theatre 219, 221–2, 411, 417, 448, 491, 559, 580
There’s No Other Way (anthology) 508–9
Third International see Comintern
Third World: Communist systems in 5, 10, 105, 293, 338, 365, 586, 659n103; Cuba and 293, 308–9, 310, 366; dictatorships in 105, 486, 583; USSR and 261, 291, 365, 366
Thorez, Maurice 94, 223, 241
‘Three Represents’ (China) 455, 456
‘Three-Anti’ campaign (China) 193
Tiananmen Square demonstration (1919) 98
Tiananmen Square massacre (1989) 444–5, 446–8, 449, 450, 537, 615
Tibet 317, 321, 458
Tigrid, Pavel 158
Tikhonov, Nikolay 482–3, 488
Timashuk, Lydia 220
Timioara 543
Tismaneanu, Vladimir 544
Tito, Josip Broz: and Albania 145, 150, 644n32; and Brezhnev 388; death 547, 548; establishment of Communist state in Yugoslavia 143–5, 150, 152–3, 161; and expulsion of Yugoslavia from Cominform 175, 207; and Hungarian revolution (1956) 282, 283, 287–8; and Khrushchev 206, 207, 276, 319; partisans 143–4, 151–3, 175, 203, 615; and Stalin 152, 153, 204, 206–7, 644n32; and ‘Yugoslav model’ 209
Titoism 170, 208, 210, 276, 280
Tkachev, Petr 32–3
Togliatti, Palmiro 83, 93
Tokés, Laszlo 543
Tokés, Rudolf 673n16
Tolstoy, Leo 202
Tompson, William 648n55, 651n66
Tomsky, Mikhail 129
totalitarianism: in Albania 545; of Communist systems 4, 105, 110, 333, 416fn, 477, 486, 583, 610, 614; Lenin and 57; Marx and 32; in North Korea 333, 335–6, 609–10; Orwell’s indictment of 122, 416fn, 578fn; in Romania 543, 609–10; in USSR 57, 416fn, 486, 509, 518, 557
trade unions: and Eurocommunism 466; and Second International 27–8; and social democracy 34, 38; in West 78, 97, 103, 117, 124, 358
trade unions (Poland) 166, 427–8, 434, 474; see also Solidarity
trade unions (Russia/USSR): and 1905 revolution 43; Brezhnev and 404; and Kronstadt Revolt (1921) 58; Lenin and 35, 58; Stalin and 122
Transcaucasia 60
Transylvania 283
Trapeznikov, Sergey 400, 407, 665n18
travel, international 413, 464, 468–73, 537, 589, 597
Trotsky, Leon: and 1905
revolution 43–4; and Bolshevik revolution 40, 50, 51, 53; death 63; exile 36, 63, 71; and February (1917) revolution 48; and First World War 46; and Lenin 36, 37, 40; and Red Army 142; and Russian civil war 53, 55, 60; and Stalin 62, 63, 64, 72, 84, 244; theory of ‘permanent revolution’ 44, 84; in United States 48, 130
Trotskyists 89, 90, 95, 96, 166, 206, 215, 466, 485
Trudeau, Pierre 470, 674n33
Truman, Harry S. 156, 157; at Yalta and Potsdam conferences (1945) 162, 163, 165; and China 183; and Churchill’s ‘iron curtain’ speech 177, 178; and Stalin 156, 164–5; and Vietnam 339; and Yugoslavia 208
Truman Doctrine 157
Tucker, Robert C. 196, 649–50n32
Tudman, Franjo 547, 548
Tukhachevsky, Marshal Mikhail 137
Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques 15
Turkey 157, 262, 302
Turkmenistan 66, 458
Tvardovsky, Alexander 237, 255, 263, 405, 511, 650n56 26th of July Movement (Cuba) 296, 298, 299, 300
Two Thousand Words manifesto (Czechoslovakia; 1968) 381–2
U-2 incident (1960) 261–2
Uighurs 458, 672n84
Ukraine: collectivization of agriculture 63; Communist Party 198, 218, 229, 235, 246; famines 63, 123, 142; and global financial crisis (2008) 592; in Imperial Russia 45; independence movement 564–5, 567, 572; Jews in 45; NKVD in 239; partition of 91, 163; Second World War 142, 163; Ukrainian language 60; in USSR 60, 198, 551
Ulbricht, Walter: East German Party leader 156, 174, 175, 176, 267, 268, 269, 270–71, 272, 431; and Czechoslovakia 385, 387, 389, 392, 395–6, 431; and Hungary 290
Ulc, Otto 651n10
Ulyanov, Alexander 31–2, 627n20
Ulyanov, Ilya Nikolaevich 30–1, 66
Ulyanova, Anna 30
Ulyanova, Maria Alexandrovna 30–1
unemployment 119, 148, 443, 444, 613
Union of Democratic Forces (Bulgaria; UDF) 542
Union of the Russian People (Black Hundreds) 46
UNITA (Angola) 366
United Nations (UN) 284, 330, 341, 344, 350, 366, 488; Gorbachev’s speech at (December 1988) 525, 526, 527, 602; Security Council 573
United States of America: and Afghanistan 351, 356; and Africa 366; anti-Americanism 127, 294, 608, 609; anti-Communism in 96, 342, 345, 432, 477, 500, 609; atomic bomb 190, 221, 641n3; and Balkans 205, 208, 210; and Baltic states 562–3; Bay of Pigs invasion (1961) 302, 343; and Cambodia 346–7, 349–50; and Chinese civil war 181, 182, 183, 186; and Chinese economy 452, 456; Communist Labor League 95; Communist League of America 96; communist settlements in 17–18, 624–5n40; and Cuba 10, 262, 266, 293–4, 299–300, 301–2, 303, 304, 307, 309, 312, 320, 602, 608; Declaration of Independence 339; and détente 399, 601; and First Indochina War 339, 342; and Helsinki Agreement (1975) 461, 463; and human rights 331, 349, 432, 461; and Hungarian revolution (1956) 284, 289, 290, 432, 653n75; immigrants 118, 129, 130, 408; intellectuals 10; Korean War 190, 191, 192; and Laos 342–3, 608, 609; Marshall Plan 156–7, 175, 176; military build-up/expenditure 261, 475–6, 499, 523, 602; and partition of Germany 164, 173, 175–6; and partition of Korea 334, 335; and Polish revolution (1980–81) 425, 432; and ‘Prague Spring’ 386, 432; rapprochement with China 330–1, 344, 350, 611; Reagan administration 470–2, 475–8; recognition of USSR 85; and Russian civil war 54; Second World War 135, 139, 147, 151, 162, 190, 272, 369; and Sino-Soviet split 319, 320, 321, 330–1; socialism 102; space programme 261; and Suez crisis 284; technological development 459; and Third World 10; and U-2
incident 261–2; Vietnam War 340, 341, 343–5, 346, 347, 353, 356, 386, 501, 608; see also Communist Party of the USA
urbanization 180, 257, 273, 550
Urrutia, Manuel 299, 300
uskorenie (acceleration; USSR) 489–90
USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics): and Afghanistan 82, 351–6, 367, 398, 414, 418, 432, 501, 509, 601, 668n38; and Africa 360–1, 362, 364–5, 366, 367; agriculture 53, 59, 62–3, 64, 67, 71, 142, 188, 195, 202, 259–60, 313, 404, 415, 442, 469, 630n39; August (1991) coup 198–9, 250, 503, 506, 566, 567–71, 595, 684n43; bureaucrats 401–2; and Cambodia 349; and Chinese Cultural Revolution 330–31; and Chinese ‘Hundred Flowers’ movement 315; and Comintern/Cominform 82–3, 84, 85, 88, 112, 118–19, 184, 210; command economy 69, 108, 260, 495, 520, 556, 580–1; Congress of People’s Deputies 515–18, 519–20, 523, 552; constitution 4, 60, 73–5, 106, 518, 519–20; and Cuba 301, 304, 305, 307, 308, 309, 311, 366; and Cuban missile crisis 10, 262, 266, 301–2, 303, 320, 602; de-Stalinization 236, 238, 240, 244, 251–5, 264; dissolution of 4, 60, 449, 503, 554–6, 557, 568, 571–3, 583–4, 598–9; and East European independence 522–8, 534fn, 538, 548, 563–5; economic growth 260, 398, 409, 415–16; economic stagnation 482, 485–6, 489–90, 556–7, 582, 666n34, 677n15; education 60, 65–6, 67, 69, 134, 203, 258–9, 417, 494, 577, 584, 588–9; emigration 407–8, 468; establishment and recognition of 60, 84, 85; famines 58, 63, 123, 142, 194; Five-Year Plans 64, 70, 119, 188; foreign travel of citizens 468–9, 472–3; German invasion (1941) 47, 64, 65, 90, 131, 135–9, 141, 146, 149; Great Purge/Terror 65, 66, 68, 72, 75–6, 81, 87, 88, 90, 100, 122, 123, 169, 200, 202, 212, 220, 279, 325, 330, 575; and Helsinki Agreement (1975) 399, 460–4; housing 256, 257–8, 577; human rights 75, 237, 331, 407, 494; and Hungarian revolution (1956) 280–8, 290–1, 392, 523, 530, 574, 601, 614; industrialization 62, 64–5, 66, 71, 141, 202, 239, 247, 257; intelligentsia 66, 74, 201–2, 203, 255, 258, 406, 411, 494, 506–7, 550–1, 576, 577–8, 588–9, 597–8; invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968) 379, 389–90, 391–7, 398–9, 418, 461, 523, 539, 540, 541, 574, 601; and Korean War 190–1, 236; middle classes 202–3, 417, 580, 588; military build-up/expenditure 260–1, 415, 499–500, 523, 525, 574, 583–4, 590, 602, 685n4; and Mongolia 78–9, 182, 333; nationalism 202, 255, 258, 406, 407, 408–410, 413, 509–10, 549–53, 558–63, 585–6, 588, 592–3, 599, 665n28, 678n10; Nazi – Soviet Pact (1939) 65, 88, 90–2, 97, 98, 125, 131, 140, 142, 146, 155, 162; ‘New Thinking’ (on foreign policy) 356, 366, 367, 499–502, 507fn, 513, 523–8, 535, 536, 597, 602, 616, 678n39; and North Korea 334; and partition of Germany 162, 164, 173, 175; peasantry 58, 62–3, 66–7, 75, 196, 202, 203, 255–6, 259, 404, 442, 495; and Polish revolution (1980–81) 430–5, 523; population policy 69–70, 418; Presidency 552, 561–2, 682–3n5; Presidential Council 562, 566; Rapallo Treaty (1922) 84; referendum on federation (1991) 566–7; republican institutions 551–2; republican parliaments 552–3; republican presidencies 552–3; Second World War 2, 4, 47, 63, 64–5, 134, 135–43, 145–6, 147, 148, 155, 171, 179, 194, 195–6, 260, 369, 399, 637n21; shortages 73, 138, 259, 416, 425, 460, 499, 555, 556, 580, 581–2; Sino-Soviet split 5, 261, 267, 306, 313, 318–24, 330–1, 333, 344; space programme 260–1, 316, 459, 476, 495, 584, 675n51; and Spanish Civil War 88, 89; and Vietnam 340, 344, 350; Winter War with Finland (1939–40) 91–2, 632–3n53; Yugoslav – Soviet split 154, 203–10, 236, 248, 267, 319, 522, 601; see also Communist Party of Soviet Union; perestroika; Red Army (USSR); Supreme Soviet Ustaše 143, 150
Ustinov, Dmitry 352, 353, 354, 355, 390, 395, 430, 435, 483–4, 484, 667n30
utopian socialism 17–18, 20, 38–9, 298
utopianism 11, 14–15, 16–17, 27, 134, 255; Chinese policy and 317, 324, 329, 606; Cuban policy and 303, 306, 307; Lenin and 56, 57, 596; Marx and 11, 16, 20, 21, 38–9
Uzbekistan 66, 334, 550
Vaculík, Ludvík 376–7, 381–2
Vaillant, Edouard 28
Valentinov, Nikolay (Volsky) 33, 34, 41, 627–8n6
Varennikov, Valentin 569, 570
Vatican 290fn, 423, 426, 540; see also papacy
Velebit, Vladimir 204
‘velvet revolution’ (Czechoslovakia) 540–1, 546
Venezuela 297, 304
Versailles, Treaty of (1919) 84, 86–7, 92, 98
Vichy France 128
Victoria, Queen 47
Vienna 349
Vientiane 342, 607
Viet Cong 343
Vietnam: ‘boat people’ 343; and Cambodia 347, 349–50; endurance of Communist system 606, 608, 610–11; establishment of Communist state 4, 10, 106, 332, 337, 340–1, 343, 344–5; and First Indochina War 340, 609; and Laos 342, 343; marketizing reform 606–7, 608, 611; nationalism 127, 337, 586, 608; partition of 340–1; peasantry 340, 341; see also Communist Party of Vietnam
Vietnam War 340, 341, 343–5, 346, 347, 353, 356, 386, 501, 608
Vilnius 564, 569
‘Virgin Lands’ campaign (USSR) 260
Vogel, Hans-Jochen 512, 527–8
Voice of America 447, 474
Vojvodina 682n63