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acacia trees, 36, 36, 38, 264
accident, role of, 149
action, 7–9, 12–13, 31, 56–86, 145, 158, 179, 185, 259–61; categories of, 57, 69, 91; communication, see communication; culture and, 125–26; directedness of, 137; engineering the environment, see engineering the environment; evaluation of, 97–99; evolution of, 57, 91, 158, 223; feeding, 57–58, 60, 61, 69, 70, 91, 161; human, 8, 9, 44, 223; information gathering, 57, 69, 70, 77, 91; land/sea differences in, 63–67, 71–72; language and, 132; movement, see movement; in networks, 86; perception and, 77–80; prediction-based view of, 78–80; sensing and, 77–78, 80–85, 158, 159, 260; sequences of, 58, 286n; shift from habit-based to plan-based, 72–73, 137–39, 260; tool use in, 69–70; Umwelt (self-world) and, 80–85; in unitary organisms, 267; use of term, 57
Adams, Douglas, 153–54
adrenaline, 44, 46, 48
aesthetic evolution, 98–99
Africa, 122, 150, 260; Kenya, 71, 133, 190; Rwanda, 119
aging and decline, 268
agriculture: animals in, see farming, animals in; beginning of, 135–37, 154, 226
air pollution, 230
albatrosses, 237
algae, 5, 26, 36, 54, 254, 259, 264; dinoflagellates, 30
altricial offspring, 151
amphipods, 64, 66
anemones, 65, 70, 75, 164, 258
anglerfish, 121
animal-human relations, 11, 193–221; animals’ adaptability and, 218; companion animals, 209, 246; disengagement ideal in, 209–10; in farming, see farming, animals in; in hunting and fishing, 209, 212; nature preserves and, 225–26; in scientific experiments, 11, 193, 212–21, 262
Animal Liberation (Singer), 202
animals, 5–7, 10, 12, 17, 18, 30, 31, 256, 259; bilaterian, 64; in biomass, 252; distribution of, 194; evolution of, 31, 59, 66, 262; movement in, 59–60; in nature, quality of lives of, 23, 218, 235–37, 239–45, 247, 248; population declines in, 86–87, 228, 229, 231, 248; rights of, 249, 262; self-control in, 240; transition to land, 5, 31, 63, 72
antelopes, 71, 190, 235
Anthropocene period, 11, 226
ants, 36, 36, 38, 264, 266
apes, 120–22; gorillas, 70, 119–22, 121, 150, 189
Apollonian and Dionysian, 156
apprenticeship, 124, 155
archaea, 254, 284n
Aristotle, 45
Armstrong, Josh, 133
arthropods, 5, 63, 194, 252
artificial intelligence (AI), 164–65
ascidians, 74, 75
asteroids, 42
atmosphere, 33; oxygen in, 28–29, 33, 41, 259, 262
atomic bomb, 226
atoms, 30, 276
attraction, 97–99, 101, 114
audience effects, 133
Australia, 87, 121, 189; birds in, 105–106; Blue Mountains in, 51–53, 55, 56, 107; Cabbage Tree Bay in, 67, 277–78; feral animals in, 248–49; Great Barrier Reef in, 34–35, 234–35; indigenous societies in, 136, 143–44; Octopolis and Octlantis in, 65, 73, 154–55; Shark Bay in, 3–4, 24, 54, 64, 281n; Tasmania, 116
bacteria, 24–26, 31, 59, 254, 259, 264, 266; communication in, 95; cyanobacteria, 3–6, 24–26, 30, 33, 54, 57, 59, 61, 62, 264; gut, 36, 264; preferences in, 100, 101
barbarians, 136–37
Barber, James, 24–25
Barron, Andrew, 261
bats, 99, 252
Beagle, HMS, 51, 52
beagles, 214, 217, 220
beauty, 102, 103, 190, 263
beavers, 64
bees, 99, 125, 132, 164, 208, 261
behaviors, 57, 59, 260, 267; convention-based patterns of, 139–40; evolution of, 58, 267; genes and, 127–28, 134; instinctive, 72; norms of, 126–28, 139, 196–98; preferences and, 100–101; shift from habit-based to plan-based, 72–73, 137–39, 260
Behrendt, Thomas, 180–81
Berger, Hans, 181
betrayal, 209
bilaterian body plan, 64
biomass, 194, 251–52, 264–65
birds, 5, 64, 71, 76–77, 84, 89–90, 151–52, 155–56, 176, 177, 194, 239–40, 252, 261; in Australia, 105–106; body features as display in, 101, 113–14; bowerbirds, 106, 109–14, 112, 125; Budgerigars, 76–77; calls and songs of, 89, 92, 94–95, 97, 99, 104–109, 114–16, 121, 125, 131, 292n; cockatoos, 71, 89, 97, 98, 113, 240, 241, 247; crows, 70, 166; evolution of, 90–91, 99, 101, 106, 114, 151, 152; feathers of, 90, 101; finches, 76, 77, 121, 228; flightless, 91; flowers and, 99; forest-building role of, 56; lyrebirds, 106–109, 106, 112, 114–16, 125; mimicry in, 108–109, 112, 115–16; nests of, 133, 155; parrots, 89–91, 92, 104, 116, 151, 152, 240; passerine, 91, 104–105, 152; population losses in, 228; scrubbirds, 106, 106; starlings, 76, 104, 116; tree diagrams of, 91, 92, 105–106, 106; weaverbirds, 133, 155; whipbirds, 115, 116
Blixen, Karen, 190
Blue Magic, 257–58
Blue Mountains, 51–53, 55, 56, 107
Blue Planet II, 65
body plans, 64, 90; bilaterally symmetrical, 170–71
Bohr, Niels, 22n
bonobos, 70, 122
borders, biological, 264
borders, national, 232–33
Borgia, Gerald, 113
bowerbirds, 106, 109–14, 112, 125
brain, 31, 125, 145, 159–63, 165, 179, 185, 270; corpus callosum in, 147, 169, 172, 175; electrical activity in, 160–63, 179–82; emotion recognition and, 167–68, 168, 171, 175–78; hemispheres of, 166–72, 175–79, 295n; language and literacy and, 147, 166, 167, 171, 175–76; maps in, 139, 178, 213; memory experiments and, 169–72; neurons in, 159, 160, 180, 213; organoids, 164; predictive processing and, 78; scanning of, 160, 180–83, 185, 218, 296n; split-brain research, 166, 169–70, 172, 213–14, 265, 269; synchronization of, 180–88, 265, 296n; warm-bloodedness and, 286n
Brave New World (Huxley), 246
Brembs, Björn, 77
bryozoans, 74, 266
Budgerigars, 76–77
building structures, 133–35
Built by Animals (Hansell), 155–56
burrowing, 61, 84
Butterfield, Nicholas, 60
butterflies, 87, 228
Buzsáki, György, 77
Buzz (Hanson), 99
Cabbage Tree Bay, 67, 277–78
Caesar, Julius, 124
CAFOs (concentrated animal feeding operations), 201, 203, 210, 302n; see also farming, animals in
Cairns-Smith, Graham, 19
Cambrian period, 26, 31, 54, 59–61, 149, 158
carbon, 6, 27; cycles of, 6, 23–25, 28, 30, 41, 48, 223–24, 231, 255–56, 301n; oxygen and, 27–29
carbon dioxide, 4, 24, 27–30, 48, 223, 224, 255; climate change and, 227, 231, 233; fertilization effect of, 229; greenhouse effect of, 40
Carboniferous period, 223
cats: cheetahs, 189, 190, 226, 228, 254; feral, 249; as research animals, 217, 219, 221
cattle, 201, 204, 210, 219, 252, 253
cells, 19–20, 31–32, 264; cytoskeletons in, 59, 259; movement and, 59, 158; single-celled organisms, 24, 30, 32, 54, 59, 158, 259
census, 141n
Central America, 142
Chamberlain, Houston, 82
cheetahs, 189, 190, 226, 228, 254
chickens, 201, 202, 204, 205n, 210, 219, 242–43, 252, 253
children, 151; norms and, 126–27, 139, 197; play of, 139; rearing of, 151–54
chimpanzees, 70, 121, 122, 125, 176, 241
China, 142
choice, 45, 47
Chomsky, Noam, 130, 131
Christianity, 45
cicadas, 88, 95
Clark, Andy, 185
Clarke, Arthur C., 63
Clean Water Act, 234
climate change, 11, 223, 226–34; habitat loss and, 231–33; local action and, 233–34
clocks, 186–87
coal, 40, 223–24, 226, 230
cockatoos, 71, 89, 97, 98, 113, 240, 241, 247
cocktail party effect, 183
collaboration and cooperation, 30, 35–38, 43, 258, 264; ant-acacia, 36, 36, 38, 264; in engineering in the sea, 67–69, 68; in human society, 35, 122, 196; in hunting, 150–51; shared intentions in, 188
colonial history, 141n
colors, 99–100, 160; bowerbirds and, 109–11; in coral reefs, 102
communication, 57, 58, 92–95, 131; arbitrariness of signs in, 94; in bacteria, 95; body features as, 94; culture and, 123; gesture, 130–31, 133; language, see language; minded, 133; in octopuses, 95–97, 96; in primates, 93, 132, 133; senders and receivers in, 93–95, 98, 131–33, 141, 145; vocalization, 130–31; see also displays
Communist Manifesto, The (Marx and Engels), 144
companies, 139
complementarity, 22, 38, 44
confirmation bias, 173
conifers, 54–55
consciousness, human, 8, 10, 157–90, 274; as product of animal felt experience and culture, 157, 188–89; rapid and high-frequency activity in, 185; reality and, 12–13
conservation, see habitat protection
contingency, 149
convention, 139–40
Conway Morris, Simon, 149
cooking, 123, 134
cooperation, see collaboration and cooperation
corals and coral reefs, 22–23, 30, 36, 62, 64, 67, 74, 75, 102, 258, 264–68
coronation, 137
cows, 36; in farming, 201, 204, 210, 219, 252, 253
crabs, 70, 75, 164
Cretaceous period, 53–55, 86, 90, 227, 228
Crick, Francis, 160
crows, 70, 166
crustaceans, 235
culture, 10, 122–30, 141, 150–52, 154, 157, 165, 179, 180, 193, 223, 251, 260, 261; action and, 125–26; building structures in, 133–35; cooking in, 123, 134; dolphins and, 153; evolution and, 134; genes and, 134; human consciousness as product of animal felt experience and, 157, 188–89; language, see language; learning and, 123–25; left-right phenomena and, 177; looping patterns within, 124; “material,” 123, 125; norms and, 126–28, 139, 196–98; “Rubicon” point of no return in, 124–25, 128–29; self and, 174–75; traditional knowledge, 128–29; unhelpful side of, 129–30
cuttlefish, 277–78
cyanobacteria, 3–6, 24–26, 30, 33, 54, 57, 59, 61, 62, 264
cycles and burial process, 6, 23–25, 28, 41
cytoskeletons, 59, 259
dark room objection, 79
Darwin, Charles, 19, 51–53, 289n
Darwinian evolution, see evolution
Dawkins, Richard, 20
death, 211–12, 236, 241, 245, 268–71, 273–76; of farm animals, 206, 207, 216
deer, 190
Dehaene, Stanislas, 166
deliberation, 174
Dennett, Daniel, 282n
dens, 69, 154
Devonian period, 56
Dewey, John, 179
diabetes, 215
Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (Hume), 50
Diamond, Jared, 111, 149, 291n
dignity, 243
dinoflagellates, 30
dinosaurs, 53–55, 90–91, 92, 101, 120–21
Dionysian and Apollonian, 156
disease, 137, 202, 245
displays, 95–98; birds’ body features as, 101, 113–14; bowerbirds’ creation of, 109–14, 112; culture and, 126; evaluation of, 97–99; evolution of, 98–99; in octopuses, 95–97, 96
DNA, 20, 21, 120, 160
dogs, 176, 190; as research animals, 214, 215, 217, 219–21, 299n
dolphins, 67, 152–54, 189, 190, 241
Doolittle, Ford, 34
Dorrigo Rainforest, 115
drawing, 145
dreaming, 178, 213
Drum-Taps (Whitman), 275–76
Duane, T. D., 180–81
ducks, 91, 92
Earth: as dynamic, 32; end of life on, 255–56; history of, 17, 18, 263, 275; history of life on, 6–9, 17, 31; life-friendliness of, 34–35, 39–44, 49–50; as organism (Gaia hypothesis), 32–39, 42–44; slow processes in shaping of, 51, 52; temperature on, 34, 39–40, 42, 43, 48, 49
earthworms, 61, 84–85, 164
Ebert, Roger, 177
echidnas, 121, 121, 189
ecological systems, 262, 264–65; breakdown of, 229, 231; Huxleyan, 246–47
ecological viewpoint, 11–12, 84–86
ecosystem engineer, 61
EEG (electroencephalogram), 160, 180–83, 296n
effects, 21–22, 45–47, 57; see also action
Egypt, 142
electrical activity in the brain, 160–63, 179–82
electromagnetic radiation, 100
electrons, 23–24
elephants, 189, 189, 190
emotion recognition, 167–68, 168, 171, 175–78
emus, 91, 92
Enantiornithes, 91, 92
energy, 20, 21, 23, 25, 57, 259; from fossil fuels, 28–29, 223–24, 227, 229–32; in photosynthesis, 3–4, 23–26, 29–30, 57
Engels, Friedrich, 144
engineering the environment, 57–66, 69, 70, 91, 145; bowerbirds and, 109–14, 112; corals and, 62; evolution and, 62; land/sea differences in, 64–66, 153; in sea, collaboration in, 67–69, 68; transforming the environment versus, 60–62
Enigma of Reason, The (Mercier and Sperber), 173–74
Enlightenment, 45, 50
environment: agriculture’s effects on, 202, 227; engineering of, see engineering the environment; transformation of, see transformation of the environment; see also nature
epilepsy, 166, 214
ESP, 181, 184, 186
ethical questions, 11, 194–200, 262, 269; animals in farming, see farming, animals in; animals in scientific experiments, 11, 193, 212–21, 262; disagreement and resolution in, 199, 207, 208; “ethical” and “moral,” use of terms, 195; found versus made values and, 195, 199; intuitive framework for, 196–98; parity judgments in, 197–98, 200, 208; valuation and, 198–200
ethical questions, philosophical approaches to, 194–95, 198, 202; Kantian, 202–203, 207–208, 298n; utilitarian, 202, 207–209, 215, 219, 236–37, 298n; welfarist, 207–209, 298n
eukaryotes, 59
eutherian mammals, 121, 189
evaluation, 97–101, 112, 114, 298n; culture and, 126; see also displays
evolution, 6, 7, 17, 20, 31, 37, 38, 45–49, 72, 138, 157, 190, 260, 263, 275; of action, 57, 91, 158, 223; aesthetic, 98–99; of animals, 31, 59, 66, 262; of behaviors, 58, 267; of birds, 90–91, 99, 101, 106, 114, 151, 152; in Cambrian explosion, 31, 54; circus of forms produced by, 30–31, 264; of controlled movement, 31, 57, 59, 158; and cruelty of nature, 235; culture and, 134; dark room objection and, 79; engineers produced by, 62; function changes in, 101; of humans, 10, 129, 141, 145–46, 149, 154, 223, 247–48, 262; of mind, 265; natural selection in, 37, 45, 47, 49, 259; organisms’ active role in, 146; of primates, 150; “replaying the tape” of, 149; rhythmic activity in, 161; wanting and, 58
Evolution of Beauty, The (Prum), 99, 101
Evolved Apprentice, The (Sterelny), 124
expectations, 139–40
experience, felt, 8, 10, 157–65, 270; artificial intelligence and, 164–65; biology of, 159–65, 179; contrasts in, 236; controlling the flow of, 77–78, 80; in evaluating a life, 237–40; gestalt in, 162; as a graded phenomenon, 164; human consciousness as product of culture and, 157, 188–89; location and merging of, 184–85; nervous systems and, 158–63; in unitary organisms, 267, 268; usefulness of, 301n; see also consciousness, human
exploitation, 208–209, 225
extinctions, 11, 248; climate change and, 231; of humans, 251, 254–56; mass, 90, 121, 228
eyes and vision, 160, 162, 176, 177
face and emotion recognition, 167–68, 168, 171, 175–78
fairness, in intuitive ethics, 196–98
farming, animals in, 11, 193, 194, 200–212, 214–20, 251–53, 262, 300n, 302n; betrayal in, 209; in CAFOs, 201, 203, 210, 302n; cattle, 201, 204, 210, 219, 252, 253; chickens, 201, 202, 204, 205n, 210, 219, 242–43, 252, 253; exploitation in, 208–209; in humane farming, 206–208, 211, 217, 218, 243; life worth living and reincarnation thought experiment, 203–204, 206, 207, 212, 242–43; mutual benefit in, 208, 210, 211; number of, versus wild animals, 252–53, 262; pigs, 201–204, 219, 242–43, 252, 253
farming, beginning of, 135–37, 154, 226
feathers, 90, 101
feedback, 39, 43, 48–49, 138; negative, cycles of, 40, 41, 48
feeding, 57–58, 60, 61, 69, 70, 91, 161
feral animals, 248–49
fictions, 139–40
filmmaking, 177, 178
finches, 76, 77, 121, 228
fire, 134
fish, 64–67, 70, 72, 75, 95, 122, 176, 194, 214, 235, 258; anglerfish, 121; in biomass, 252; fishing and fish farming, 209, 212, 231, 253; sleeper gobies, 67–69, 68; territorial, 73
FitzRoy, Robert, 52
Flanagan, Richard, 148–49
flatworms, 300n
flight, 63, 101, 151, 155
flowers, 54–56, 86, 90, 99, 101
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), 180, 182, 296n
food: cooking of, 123, 134; feeding behaviors, 57–58, 60, 61, 69, 70, 91, 161; see also farming, animals in
forests, 5, 55, 87, 99, 150, 246; birds’ role in building of, 56; Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution and, 53–54; increase in, 229; loss of, 86–88, 229, 231; ocean life compared to life in, 73–77; oxygen and, 27–29
Fossey, Dian, 289n
fossil fuels, 28–29, 223–24, 227, 229–32
Froese, Tom, 184–85, 188
frogs, 95
fruit flies, 214
functions, 45–47; evolutionary changes in, 101
fungi, 30, 54, 74, 84, 266; and weathering of rocks, 28, 40
Gaia hypothesis, 32–39, 42–44
game parks, 225
gamma rays, 100
gazelles, 244
Gazzaniga, Michael, 169, 170, 172
genes, 20; behaviors and, 127–28, 134; culture and, 134; mutations in, 267
gestalt, 162, 241
gesture, 130–31, 133
giraffes, 35, 189, 190, 254
goals, 44–48, 137–39; chains of actions in, 58, 286n; in engineering versus transforming the environment, 60–62
goats, 253
Göbekli Tepe buildings, 134–35
gobies, 67–69, 68
God, 37, 45, 50, 195, 258; playing, 244
Golding, William, 33
gorillas, 70, 119–22, 121, 150, 189
Gorillas in the Mist (Fossey), 289n
Gould, Stephen Jay, 149
government, 140
grammar, 131
Great Barrier Reef, 34–35, 234–35
Great Oxygenation, 26, 54
Greece, ancient, 142, 156
Grinberg-Zylberbaum, Jacobo, 181
Gruen, Lori, 244
gut, 134; bacteria in, 36, 264
habitat protection, 11, 223, 228, 229, 231–43, 247, 248, 262–63; climate change and, 231–33; local action and, 233–34
Haidt, Jonathan, 196
Hamilton, William, 49
handedness, 167, 171
hands, 134, 150, 154
Hansell, Mike, 155–56
Hanson, Thor, 99
Harari, Yuval Noah, 139–40
harm, in intuitive ethics, 196–98
hearts, 46–48
Heidegger, Martin, 82
Henrich, Joseph, 124–25, 128–30, 150
Higgins, Jackie, 100
Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, The (Adams), 153–54
Hitler, Adolf, 82
Hofstadter, Douglas, 292n
hominids, 121–22
Homo, 125, 130
Homo sapiens, 17, 125
horses, 190; wild, 248–49
Houellebecq, Michel, 205n
Hrdy, 122
Hudson River, 234
Hughes, Ted, 53
human beings, 17, 31, 35, 119–56, 189, 266; actions of, 8, 9, 44, 223; bacteria and, 36; body plan of, 64; boundaries of, 264; childrearing among, 151, 152; consciousness in, see consciousness, human; collaboration and cooperation among, 35, 122, 196; culture of, see culture; environment transformed by, 193, 194, 224, 226; evaluating lives of, 237–40; evolution of, 10, 129, 141, 145–46, 149, 154, 223, 247–48, 262; extinction of, 251, 254–56; guts of, 36, 134, 264; hunter-gatherers, 135–37, 154; lifespans of, 151, 152; relations with other animals, see animal-human relations; social living of, 122, 125, 126, 152, 193, 195–96, 223; tool use in, 123, 133–34
Hume, David, 50
humpback whales, 234
hunter-gatherers, 135–37, 154
hunting, 150–51, 209, 212
Huygens, Christiaan, 186
Huxley, Aldous, 246
Huxleyan ecology, 246–47
Hydra, 160–61
hydrogen, 23–24
hyperscanning, 180–82, 185, 296n
hyraxes, 189
imagination, 137, 139
imitation, 138, 155
immortality, 271, 273–76
Industrial Revolution, 226
information: gathering of, 57, 69, 70, 77, 91; memory and, 147–48; offloading of, 144–45, 147; two ways of handling, 147–48
insects, 5, 55–56, 63, 64, 84, 86, 87, 194, 235–36, 252; bees, 99, 125, 132, 164, 208, 261; butterflies, 87, 228; loss of, 86–87, 228; cicadas, 88, 95; flowers and, 99; plants and, 55; preferences in, 100–101
instinctive behaviors, 72
insulin, 215
intelligence, 149–53
intentions, shared, 188
invasive species, 248–49
iron, 4–6
It’s a Wonderful Life, 238
jackals, 190
jellyfish, 59–60, 64, 268
jellyfish-like animals (Hydra), 160–61
Juan Fernández Islands, 99
Jurassic period, 90
kangaroos, 121, 189
Kant, Immanuel, 202–203, 207–208, 298n
Keizjer, Fred, 77
Keller, Evelyn Fox, 20
Kenya, 71, 133, 190
killer whales (orcas), 67, 70, 72
Kitcher, Philip, 196, 217
Knoll, Andrew, 24
knowledge, 155; in traditional societies, 128–29
Koch, Christof, 160
Korsgaard, Christine, 203
Krasner, Lee, 222, 244
language, 130–33, 137, 140, 151, 165–67, 171, 172, 174, 175, 262, 295n; action and, 132; brain and, 166, 167, 171; convention and, 139; emotion processing and, 175–78; ideas and, 172, 173; internal version of, 172–73; open-endedness of, 131; origins of, 130–32; private mind and, 178–79; reading, 146–49, 175–76; rules in, 131; self and, 174–75; speech, 142–45, 148, 166; thought and, 132–33, 165; written, see writing
large-scale dynamic patterns, 160–62, 179, 182
learning, 128, 138, 260; culture and, 123–25; by imitation, 138, 261; by reinforcement, 236; scaffolded, 123–24; by trial and error, 47, 49–50, 72, 138, 283n
left-to-right versus right-to-left motion, 177, 178, 295n
legal codes, 197
Lenton, Tim, 39, 42, 43, 49–50
Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 141, 142, 144
Lewontin, Richard, 145–46
life, 17, 31, 259; bond connecting new and old forms of, 32; circus of forms of, 30–31, 264; defining, 21; Earth as friendly to, 34–35, 39–44, 49–50; history of, 6–9, 17, 31; pockets of order in, 19, 22, 259
life, origins of, 18–23, 33, 37, 42–43, 259–61; crash-and-rebuild scenario for, 49–50, 256; oxygen as crucial to, 29, 261
life, quality of: for animals on factory farms, 203–204, 206, 207, 212, 242–43; for animals in nature, 23, 218, 235–37, 239–45, 247, 248; good and bad events in, 237–40, 242, 243; projects in, 218, 239–43, 245, 247; richness in, 242
light, 100
lions, 71, 235, 244
literacy, 146–49, 175–76
Livingstone, Margaret, 299n
Locke, John, 132
loops, 124, 144, 159, 291n
Lovelock, James, 32–35, 37, 39, 226
Low, Tim, 105
loyalty, in intuitive ethics, 196–98
luck, 41–43
Lyell, Charles, 52
lyre, 114
lyrebirds, 106–109, 106, 112, 114–16, 125
macaques, 217–18, 299n
MacIver, Malcolm, 72–73
magnolias, 54, 99
mammals, 120–21, 149, 151, 163, 189–90, 239, 252–53, 261; eutherian, 121, 189; number of, 252–53
manatees, 190
manta rays, 258
maps, inner, 139, 178, 213
Margulis, Lynn, 32–34, 37, 39
mark making, 144–45
Mars, 56
marsupials, 121, 169, 189
Martinho-Truswell, Antone, 151–52, 154
Marx, Karl, 144
mathematical induction, 271–72
mathematics, 144, 145, 166, 167
Mayr, Ernst, 105
McCullough, C. B., 160
McMahan, Jeff, 244–47, 249–50
meat: farmed, see farming, animals in; lab-grown, 205, 246
Mediterranean Sea, 41
membranes, 31–32
memory, 142–44, 146–48, 155, 159, 270; in animals, 241; episodic, 241; experiments on, 169–72; memorization techniques, 142–43; music and, 148; selfhood and, 174–75
Mercier, Hugo, 173–74
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 82
Mesopotamia, 142–44
message sticks, 143–44
Messiaen, Olivier, 148
metabolic processes, 20–21, 37, 259, 264
metaphors, 47
Metazoa (Godfrey-Smith), 9, 189, 213
methane, 227
metronomes, 186–87
mice, 214, 217, 252, 299n
millipedes, 5
mind(s), 8–10, 12, 85, 165–79, 185, 223, 260, 265, 269–70, 273–75; artificial, 164–65; boundaries of, 265; evolution of, 265; inner codes used by, 166; materialist view of, 184; privacy of, 178–79, 260; self and, 174–75; thought in, see thought; see also brain; consciousness, human; experience, felt
mind-body relationship, 8–10
minded communication, 133
minerals, 26
mitochondria, 26, 33–34
modular organisms, 266
molecules, 20–21, 30
money, 139, 140
monkeys: macaques, 217–18, 299n; as research animals, 217–18, 220, 299n; rhesus, 176; vervet, 93, 132
monogamy, 151–53
monotremes, 121, 169
Montague, Read, 180
moral issues, 11; claims and facts in, 194–95; “ethical” and “moral,” use of terms, 195; found versus made values and, 195, 199; see also ethical questions
Morin, Olivier, 142–44
motion, left-to-right versus right-to-left, 177, 178, 295n
movement, 57–60, 69, 91; cells in, 59, 158; controlled, evolution of, 31, 57, 59, 158; environment altered by, 61; on land versus in the sea, 63
murmuration, 76
mushrooms, 74
music, 98, 148, 167
myths, 139–40
Nadel, Lynn, 213
Nagel, Thomas, 249, 271–73, 275
narratives, 169–72, 174–75, 179, 238–41
natural selection, 37, 45, 47, 49, 259
nature, 11, 209, 222–56, 262–63; climate change and, see climate change; feral animals and invasive species in, 248–49; game parks and nature preserves, 225–26; habitat protection and, see habitat protection; humans as set apart from, 222–25, 244, 247; leaving animals alone in, 249, 250, 262; and “natural” as good, 223–24; predation in, 235, 243–46, 249, 302n; quality of animals’ lives in, 23, 218, 235–37, 239–45, 247, 248; rewilding and, 246–49, 262; safari tourism and, 302n; suffering in, 235, 243–46, 250, 251; “wild,” use of term, 225; wilderness management and, 244–47
Nazi Germany, 82
Nelson Bay, 75, 103
nematodes, 254
nervous systems, 10, 31, 99, 179, 260, 261, 267; felt experience and, 158–63
networks, 85, 86, 161; nervous systems as, 159
Newcomen, Thomas, 226
New York Harbor, 234
niche construction, 59, 62, 146, 154
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 156
nitrox, 7–8
norms, 126–28, 139, 196–98
Nussbaum, Martha, 225, 244–45, 302n
observation selection effects, 42–43
ocean, planet covered by, 66
oceans, 28, 52, 54, 63, 256; carbon and, 228, 301n; oxygen and, 27, 29; saltiness of, 34, 41, 42; sponges’ clearing of, 60, 62; vents in, 19, 24
oceans, animals in, 194; action and engineering of, versus on land, 63–67, 153; collaborative engineering of, 67–69, 68; evolution of, 31, 66; forest life compared with, 73–77; movement of, 63; social life of, 67; sounds of, 95
octopuses, 64–66, 73, 75–76, 95, 122, 154–55, 164, 237, 245, 266, 267, 277; crabs and, 70; at Octopolis and Octlantis, 65, 73, 154–55; as research animals, 214, 221; signals and displays of, 95–97, 96
Oikopleura, 66–67
O’Keefe, John, 213
orangutans, 122
orcas (killer whales), 67, 70, 72
organisms: cooperation and conflict among, 35; systems with features of, 36–38
Orpheus myth, 98, 114
Other Minds (Godfrey-Smith), 9, 189, 277
otters, 70
oxygen, 4–6, 25–27, 30, 180, 259, 260; in atmosphere, 28–29, 33, 41, 259, 262; carbon and, 27–29; as crucial to life, 29, 261; cyanobacteria and, 4–6, 24–26, 57, 61, 62; in cycles and burial process, 6, 23–25, 28, 41; forests and, 27–28; Great Oxygenation, 26, 54; iron and, 4–5; in photosynthesis, 4, 23–25; plants’ production of, 27–28; and rise of animal life, 31; scuba diving and, 7–8
pain, 204, 220, 235–36, 243, 300n
Paine, Thomas, 144
painting, 145
Parfit, Derek, 269–71, 273
parity judgments, 197–98, 200, 208
parrots, 89–91, 92, 104, 116, 151, 152, 240; Budgerigars, 76–77; cockatoos, 71, 89, 97, 98, 113, 240, 241, 247
Passano, L. M. “Mac,” 160–62
passerine birds, 91, 104–105, 152
peasant rebellions, 141n
perception, 77–80, 85
perceptual control theory, 77–78
pesticides, 86
philosophy, 292n; see also ethical questions, philosophical approaches to
photosynthesis, 3–4, 23–26, 29–30, 36, 54, 57, 223, 255, 259, 261
physics, 22n
pigs, 201–204, 219, 242–43, 252, 253
plankton, 6, 28
plans, 137, 172, 240; shift from habit-based to plan-based behaviors, 72–73, 137–39, 260
plant-based diets, 205, 210
plants, 5, 6, 26, 30, 31, 54–57, 255–56, 259, 265; in biomass, 252; conifers, 54–55; breakdown of, 27–28; “breathing” of, 27; flowering, 54–56, 86, 90, 99, 101; insects and, 55; oxygen produced by, 27–28; photosynthesis in, 3–4, 23–26, 29–30, 54, 57, 223, 255, 259, 261; pollination of, 55, 56; preferences of, 203; rivers and, 56; and weathering of rocks, 28, 40
Plato, 146
platypuses, 121, 169, 189, 189
play, 139, 153
political systems, 141
pollination, 55, 56
Pollock, Jackson, 222, 244
pollution, 86, 230, 231, 234
precocial offspring, 151
predation, 235, 243–46, 249, 302n
predictive processing, 78–80
preferences, 100–101, 203, 300n
Preston, Katherine, 111
primates, 5–6, 120, 122, 133, 149–51, 154–56, 163, 189, 190, 260; communication in, 93, 132, 133; evolution of, 150; as research animals, 214, 217, 219, 221; social groups of, 150–51
projects, in animal life, 218, 239–43, 245, 247
Prum, Richard, 98–99, 101
purity, in intuitive ethics, 196–98
purposes, 44–48, 138; in engineering versus transforming the environment, 60–62
Pye, Dave, 97
Queller, David, 35
quorum sensing, 95
rabbits, 190, 221
radio waves, 100
rain, 28, 40
Raja Ampat, 257
rats, 139, 165–66, 178, 189, 213, 214, 217, 252, 299n
rays, 65, 104, 258
reading, 146–49, 175–76
reality, 12–13
reasoning, 173–74, 197
Reasons and Persons (Parfit), 269
recitation, 143
recordkeeping, 141n, 142
Regan, Tom, 250
religion, 45, 135, 139, 196, 197, 258; see also God
replication, 20–21
reproduction, 21, 32, 37, 49, 58, 79, 151, 152, 154, 259, 268; bottlenecks in, 267–68
respect, in intuitive ethics, 196–98
respiration, 26, 27
rewilding, 210, 262
rhesus monkeys, 176
rights, 249, 262
Rights of Man, The (Paine), 144
right-to-left versus left-to-right motion, 177, 178, 295n
ritual, 123, 135
rivers and streams, 51–53, 56–57; plants and, 56
RNA, 20, 21
rocks, weathering of, 28, 40, 255
rodents, 190, 221, 252; mice, 214, 217, 252, 299n; rats, 139, 165–66, 178, 189, 213, 214, 217, 252, 299n
Rogers, Lesley, 171
Roma, 257
Rome, ancient, 142
Ross, Laurie, 112
Rubicon, 124
“Rubicon,” cultural, 124–25, 128–29
rust, 4
Rwanda, 119
safari tourism, 302n
salps, 63
sanctity, 196
Sapiens (Harari), 139–40
scallops, 164
Scheel, David, 70, 73, 97
Science, 181
scientific experiments, animals in, 11, 193, 212–21, 262
scientific revolution, 45
Scott, James C., 136, 141n
scrubbirds, 106, 106
scuba diving, 7–8, 63, 277–78
seahorses, 103–104
seals, 70, 72
seamounts, 257–58
sea squirts, 66–67
Secret of Our Success, The (Henrich), 128
self, 22, 174–75, 269–73; in teletransportation scenario, 269, 270
self-control, 240
Selfish Gene, The (Dawkins), 20
self-other distinction, 159
self-world (Umwelt), 80–85
sensing, 21, 80, 81, 158, 179; action and, 77–78, 80–85, 158, 159, 260; land/sea differences in, 71–72; Umwelt (self-world) and, 80–85
sensory systems, 158–59, 162, 176, 184–85; focusing of subjectivity and, 159, 163
sentience, 158, 163–65, 300n; ethical questions and, 203; predation and, 243; see also experience, felt
Sentient (Higgins), 100
Serotonin (Houellebecq), 205n
settled communities, 135–37
Shark Bay, 3–4, 24, 54, 64, 281n
sharks, 75, 245
sheep, 253
shelters, 133–35
shrimp, 67, 95
shrimp-like animals, 64, 66
sightlines, 71–73, 89
signals, 131
Singer, Peter, 202
Singh, Maharaj, 176
single-celled organisms, 24, 30, 32, 54, 59, 158, 259
sleeper gobies, 67–69, 68
smartphones, 147
snakes, 97, 98
social control, 141, 144
social living, 125, 153, 165, 262; of humans, 122, 125, 126, 152, 193, 195–96, 223; of primates, 122, 150–51; reasoning and, 173, 197; of sea animals, 67
Socrates, 146, 148
song, 98
songbirds, 92, 99, 104–109, 114–16, 121, 125, 292n
sorcery, 129
species, 31
speech, 142–45, 148, 166
Sperber, Dan, 173–74
spiders, 5, 79
sponges, 60, 62, 70, 75, 153, 257
starlings, 76, 104, 116
state-based life, 136, 154
Sterelny, Kim, 108–109, 123–24, 150–51, 196
stingrays, 104
Strassmann, Joan, 35
stress, 300n
striving, 245
Stroll Through the Worlds of Animals and Men, A (Uexküll), 80, 81, 87
stromatolites, 4, 59, 64, 281n
subjectivity, 159, 163, 179
suffering, 243–48, 250, 252, 262, 300n; in farm animals, see farming, animals in; pain, 204, 220, 235–36, 243, 300n; predation and, 235, 243–46; special significance of, 249–50
“Sugar Loaf” (Hughes), 53
Sumer, 142
sun, 57, 255, 256; temperature of, 34, 39–41, 255
sunscreen, 102
survival, 58, 154
symbionts, 22, 102, 259
symbolism, mathematical, 144, 145
synchronization: of brains, 180–88, 265, 296n; of clocks and metronomes, 186–87
syntax, 131
systems, 35
tardigrades, 254
Tasmania, 116
taxes, 136, 140
technologies, 6, 66–67, 144, 146, 147, 152–55, 165, 225, 260, 262, 268
teeth, 134
teleological ideas, 45
telepathy, 181, 184, 186
termites, 64
Third Chimpanzee, The (Diamond), 149, 291n
thought, 132–33, 137, 165, 171, 172; privacy of, 178–79; reasoning in, 173–74, 197
Tierra del Fuego, 129–30
time, 267; writing and, 140–41, 144
Tolman, Edward, 213
tools, 69–70; bowerbird displays as, 111–12; dolphins’ use of, 153; humans’ use of, 123, 133–34
traditional societies: destructive practices in, 129; knowledge in, 128–29
transformation of the environment, 60–62, 123, 145, 158, 223, 226; by humans, 193, 194, 224, 226
Traubel, Horace, 276
treaties, 143, 144
tree of life diagrams, 91, 121, 121, 189–90, 189; of birds, 91, 92, 105–106, 106; of dinosaurs, 91, 92
trees, 5, 84, 264, 266; waterways and, 56; see also forests
trial and error, 47, 49–50, 72, 138
Tristes Tropiques (Lévi-Strauss), 141
tunicates, 66–67
Turritopsis, 268
Tyrannosaurus rex, 91, 92
Uexküll, Jakob von, 80–85, 87
Umwelt (self-world), 80–85
unitary organisms, 266–68
utilitarianism, 202, 207–209, 215, 219, 236–37, 298n
universe, 18, 37, 273; age of, 17, 255
U.S. Civil War, 275–76
Vaid, Jyotsna, 175–76
Valencia, Ana Lucía, 184–85, 188
Vallortigara, Giorgio, 176
valuation, 198–200
vertebrates, 5, 63, 72, 170–71, 262
vervet monkeys, 93, 132
viruses, 21, 254
vision, 160, 162, 176, 177
vocalization, 130–31
volcanoes, 28, 40, 52, 255
wanting, 58
warm-bloodedness, 286n
water, 51–53, 66; in origin of life, 19, 42–43; and temperature of Earth, 34
weaverbirds, 133, 155
we-intentions, 188
welfarism, 207–209, 298n
whales, 97, 190; humpback, 234; killer (orca), 67, 70, 72
Where Song Began (Low), 105
whipbirds, 115, 116
Whiteside, Shaun, 205n
Whitman, Walt, 275–76
Wilkinson, Charles, 52
Williams, Bernard, 272
Williams, Donald, 292n
wings: of birds, 90; of cicadas, 88
World War II, 226
worms, 64, 214; earthworms, 61, 84–85, 164; flatworms, 300n
Wright, Larry, 45, 47, 48
writing, 140–49, 155, 175; origins of, 142; social control and, 141, 144; time and, 140–41, 144
X-rays, 100