CHAPTER 1: REDIRECT
1. The details of this story are taken from articles in The Tampa Tribune by Huntley (1998) and Tugan (2002). The quote is from Tugan, p. 1.
2. Kadet (2002).
3. The journalist who interviewed Gary Felice: Tugan (2002, p. 1). On the effectiveness of CISD: Bisson, Jenkins, Alexander, & Bannister (1997); Carlier et al. (2000); McNally et al. (2003). (McNally et al. quote is from p. 72.) Use of debriefing techniques after the Virginia Tech shootings: Horwitz (2007); “Clergy from the International Orthodox Christian Charities…” (2007).
4. Pennebaker (1997, 2004); Frattaroli (2006).
5. There are many versions of the bunny-duck figure, such as one used by Jastrow (1899). Brugger and Brugger (1993) showed a version of the figure to people on Easter Sunday or on a Sunday in October.
6. Scheier, Carver, & Bridges (2001); Taylor & Sherman (2008).
7. Cognitive behavioral therapy: Alford & Beck (1997); Greenberger & Padesky (1995). Other forms of psychotherapy also attempt to get clients to reinterpret the meaning of their feelings and behavior. In fact, family system therapists have used the term “story editing,” the same term I will use to refer to the social psychological approach (e.g., Erickson, 1998).
8. Lewin (1943, 1947, 1951).
9. Wegner (1994).
10. Quote from Sontag (2008), p. 295.
11. See Wilson & Linville (1982); Wilson, Damiani, & Shelton (2002). For a similar intervention with children, see Dweck (1975).
12. Quote from Aristotle (1962), p. 34.
CHAPTER 2: TESTING, TESTING
1. Details about the St. Paul diversity training program are from Estrada (2005). The quote from Mayor Kelly is from “City Workers…” (2005); the quotes from Shoua Lee and the middle-aged man are from Estrada (2005, p. 3B).
2. For one example of indirect measures of prejudice, see https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/
3. The quote is from the Theatre at Work website, www.theatreatwork.com/What_we_do/Does_it_work_/does_it_work_.html (accessed July 5, 2005). The study was conducted by Houden (1998).
4. Bargh (2007); Wegner (2002); Dijksterhuis & Nordgren (2006); Wilson (2002).
5. Nisbett & Wilson (1977); Wilson (2002); Pronin, Gilovich, & Ross (2004).
6. Ross (1989).
7. Kulik et al. (2007).
8. Women’s Health Initiative Steering Committee (2004).
9. Kalev et al. (2006), p. 589.
10. On the importance of random assignment: Cook (2003).
11. Ross & Nisbett (1991).
12. Pennebaker (2004); Wilson, Damiani, & Shelton (2002).
CHAPTER 3: SHAPING OUR NARRATIVES
1. On gender differences in happiness: Stevenson and Wolfers (2008); Wood, Rhodes, and Whelan (1989).
2. Article about Gus Godsey and quote: McCafferty (2003); On happiness and where we live: Schkade & Kahneman (1998).
3. “Self-Improvement Market in U.S. Worth $9.6 Billion” (2006).
4. The “eighteen-month rule”: Salerno (2005).
5. Quotes from Peale (1952), p. 16.
6. Quotes from The Secret: Byrne (2006), p. 11; pp. 27–28; p. 130, p.135. Bob Proctor quote from Nightline: Retrieved November 1, 2009, from: http://www.abcnews.go.com/images/Nightline/Microsoft percent20Word percent20-percent20Proctor percent20Transcript.pdf
7. Reports of people seeking therapy after failing in the dream world of The Secret: Watkin (2007).
8. Oishi (2010); see also McMahon (2006).
9. Yoffe (2009).
10. Inglehart, Foa, Peterson, & Welzel (2008).
11. Becker (1973); Langer (1975); Greenberg, Solomon, & Arndt (2008).
12. Pargament (2003); Diener & Biswas-Diener (2008).
13. Sam Gross cartoon reprinted with permission. ©Sam Gross/The New Yorker Collection/www.cartoonbank.com.
14. Mikulincer et al. (2003).
15. Wiggins et al. (1992).
16. McEwan (1997), p. 141.
17. Kross (2009); Kross, Ayduk, & Mischel (2005); Kross & Ayduk (2008); Ray, Wilhelm, & Gross (2008).
18. Wilson, Centerbar, Kermer, & Gilbert (2005); Wilson & Gilbert (2008).
19. For the “George Bailey” study, and a review of the literature on gratitude journals, see Koo et al. (2008).
20. On learned helplessness theory: See Seligman (1991); Gillham et al. (2001).
21. The Life Orientation Test-Revised adapted with permission. Copyright © 1994 by the American Psychological Association. The official citation that should be used in referencing this material is: Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., & Bridges, M. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A re-evaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1063–1078. No further reproduction or distribution is permitted without written permission from the American Psychological Association.
22. On optimism: See Scheier, Carver, & Bridges (2001); Nes & Segerstrom (2006).
23. Riskind, Sarampote, & Mercier (1996).
24. King (2001); Harrist et al. (2007).
25. Wood, Perunovic, & Lee (2009).
26. Pham & Taylor (1999); Rivkin & Taylor (1999).
27. On optimism and dieting: See Ogińska-Bulik & Juczyński (2001); Benyamini & Raz (2007).
28. Deci & Ryan (1985).
29. Autonomy, effectiveness, and competence are key ingredients to a happy life: Niemiec, Ryan, & Deci (2009). Helping others makes people happy: Dunn, Aknin, & Norton (2008); Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade (2005).
30. Ethan Kross, personal communication, March 24, 2010.
31. King (2001), p. 801.
32. Peanuts by Charles Schulz, October 11, 1964. Quoted with permission from Universal Uclick.
CHAPTER 4: SHAPING OUR KIDS’ NARRATIVES
1. Harris (2009).
2. Nisbett (2009).
3. Quotes from Spock (2004), pp.1 and 2.
4. Baby Einstein website: http://www.babyeinstein.com/en/our_story/about_us/
5. DeLoache et al. (2010).
6. Shapiro (2002).
7. Pomerantz & Wang (2009); Qin, Pomerantz, & Wang (2009).
8. Roth, Assor, Niemiec, Deci, & Ryan (2009); Grolnick & Ryan (1989).
9. What grown-ups understand about child development: A national benchmark study (2000); Straus & Stewart (1999).
10. Gershoff (2002).
11. Quotes from Spock (2004), p. 418.
12. Lepper (1973).
13. Greene, Sternberg, & Lepper (1976).
14. Ross, M. (1976); Harackiewicz, Durik, & Barron (2005).
15. The study on guilt versus shame with the racing cars: Dienstbier et al. (1975). The study on littering: Miller et al. (1975).
16. Dweck (2006); Williams (2001).
17. Reprinted with permission. Sally Forth © King Features Syndicate.
18. Berlin, Cassidy, & Appleyard (2008).
19. van den Boom (1994); Cassidy et al. (2010); Berlin, Zeanah, & Lieberman (2008).
20. Iannelli (2007); Child abuse and neglect fatalities (2009).
21. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, U.S. Advisory Board on Child Abuse and Neglect (1991); Healthy Families America: http://www.healthyfamiliesamerica.org/home/index.shtml
22. Duggan et al. (2004); Chaffin (2004).
23. Bugental et al. (1993); Larrance & Twentyman (1983).
24. Bugental et al. (2002); Bugental & Schwartz (2009); Bugental et al. (2010).
CHAPTER 5: JUST SAY… VOLUNTEER
1. The quote from Amanda Ireland is from Kingsbury (2008). The quote from Christen Callahan is from “Teen ‘pregnancy pact’…” (2008).
2. The quotes from Nancy Runton and Cynthia Quinteros are from Welsh (2008).
3. The survey results are from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey, which is conducted every two years by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States (“Youth Online: Comprehensive Results”). Pregnancy statistics: Stein & St. George (2009); Terry-Humen, Manlove, & Moore (2005); “Teen Pregnancy” (2008).
4. Moran (2000).
5. Quotes from the Social Security Act, Section 510 (42 U.S.C. 710).
6. Quote from Kolawole (2008).
7. Stein (2010).
8. Quote from Kim & Rector (2008), p. 2.
9. 1997 meta-analysis: Franklin et al. (1997).
10. Trenholm et al. (2008).
11. Kohler et al. (2008).
12. Kirby (2007); quote from p. 115. New study on abstinence: Jemmott, Jemmott, & Fong (2010).
13. Klerman (2004). Details about Lameesha Lee from Schultz (2001).
14. Quotes from Lameesha Lee and Jean Workman: Schultz (2001), p. B1; quote about the formal evaluation of the North Carolina program: Brown et al. (1998), p. 12.
15. Study that tested the Colorado Dollar-A-Day program: Stevens-Simon et al. (1997); quote from p. 980.
16. For research on the psychological correlates of teen pregnancy, see Bonell et al. (2005); Fletcher et al. (2007); Harden et al. (2006).
17. For information about the Teen Outreach Program, and discussions of its effectiveness, see: http://wymancenter.org/teens/teen-outreach/; Allen & Philliber (2001); Allen et al. (1997).
18. O’Donnell et al. (2002).
19. Hahn et al. (1994).
20. Schirm et al. (2006).
CHAPTER 6: SCARED CROOKED
1. Crime statistics are from the U.S. Department of Justice’s Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention; mortality statistics are from the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
2. The quote from Todd Walker is from Marshall (2007). The quote from Tyris Bamba is from Hill (2007).
3. Quote from Eicher (1999), p. F-05; Finckenauer & Gavin (1999).
4. Petrosino, Turpin-Petrosino, & Finckenauer (2000).
5. Wilson & Lassiter (1982).
6. Weis & Toolis (2007).
7. For descriptions of the Cambridge-Somerville Youth Study and its long-term effects, see Powers & Witmer (1972), McCord (1978, 2003), and Ross & Nisbett (1991).
8. Dishion, McCord, & Poulin (1999).
9. Tierney, Grossman, & Resch (1995); Grossman & Tierney (1998); Grossman & Rhodes (2002).
10. Olds (2006).
11. Greenberg & Kusché (2006); Domitrovich, Cortes, & Greenberg (2007).
12. Olweus (2005); Limber (2006).
13. Henggeler et al. (2009); Henggeler, Sheidow, & Lee (2007).
14. Sexton & Alexander (2002).
15. Chamberlain (2003); Leve & Chamberlain (2005).
16. Allen et al. (1997); O’Donnell et al. (1999).
17. Quotes from O’Donnell et al. (1999), p. 34.
18. Keizer, Lindenberg, & Steg (2008); Braga & Bond (2008).
CHAPTER 7: EVERYBODY’S DOING IT… OR ARE THEY?
1. This American Life episode: Koenig & Glass (2009). Drinking statistics at Penn State: http://live.psu.edu/story/23655
2. Statistics from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (http://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/quickstats/binge_drinking.htm) and Wechsler and Nelson (2008). Evidence that drinking is increasing on college campuses: Hingson, Wenxing, & Weitzman (2009).
3. The statistics are from the National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; the CDC Teen Drivers Fact Sheet (http://www.cdc.gov/MotorVehicleSafety/Teen_Drivers/teendrivers_factsheet.html); and from the Monitoring the Future national survey of teens (Johnston et al., 2009).
4. Winerip (1998); Guest (2005); Wood (2008).
5. http://dare.com/kids/pages/dare_world/dw_about_frame.htm
6. Rosenbaum & Hanson (1998); West & O’Neal (2004); U.S. General Accounting Office (2003). A couple of studies have shown modest positive effects of D.A.R.E. participation on reported cigarette smoking or alcohol use, but neither of these studies randomly assigned students to participate in the D.A.R.E. program or not (Ahmed et al., 2002; Zagumny & Thompson, 1997). Annual costs of D.A.R.E.: Shepard (2001).
7. Quote from Rosenwald (2004).
8. Evaluation of the Take Charge of Your Life program: http://www.dare.com/home/Resources/documents/RevisedLGIwebposting2.pdf
9. Botvin & Griffin (2004); Spoth et al. (2008).
10. Sussman et al. (2002); Valente et al. (2007).
11. Chou et al. (1998); Pentz et al. (2002); MacKinnon et al. (1991).
12. Perkins (2003); Perkins et al. (2005).
13. Poster reprinted by permission, University of Virginia, Office of Health Promotion.
14. DeJong et al. (2006, 2009).
15. Doumas et al. (2009); Neighbors et al. (2004).
16. The study on electricity use: Schultz et al. (2007).
17. Study on alcohol use at Stanford: Berger & Rand (2008).
18. Chou et al. (1998); Pentz et al. (2002); MacKinnon et al. (1991); Turrisi et al. (2009).
19. Griffin et al. (2004).
20. Heatherton & Sargent (2009); Pechmann & Shih (1999); Wills et al. (2008).
CHAPTER 8: SURELY THEY WON’T LIKE ME—OR WILL THEY?
1. “African Americans at Jamestown.”
2. Quotes from John-Hall (2009) and Graham (2009).
3. Turner, Ross, Galster, & Yinger (2002).
4. Golenbock (2001).
5. The quotes are from The Angry Eye, Golenbock (2001). Quoted by permission, Elliott and Elliott Eyes, Inc.
6. Von Bergen, Soper, & Foster (2002); Pendry, Driscoll, & Field (2007); Paluck (2006); Lynch (1997).
7. Oskamp & Jones (2000).
8. The study with the third graders was reported by Weiner & Wright (1973).
9. This study was reported by Byrnes & Kiger (1990).
10. This study was reported by Stewart et al. (2003).
11. Bigler (1999); Paluck & Green (2009); Stephan, Renfro, & Stephan (2004).
12. Allport (1979/1954), pp. 481–482.
13. Pettigrew & Tropp (2006).
14. Schofield (1995); Stephan (1978).
15. Aronson & Patnoe (1997).
16. Cooper & Slavin (2004); Roseth, Johnson, & Johnson (2008).
17. Brewer & Miller (1988); Brown & Hewstone (2005); Dixon, Tropp, Durrhiem, & Tredoux (2010); Gaertner & Dovidio (2000); Paluck & Green (2009).
18. Shelton & Richeson (2005, 2006).
19. Mallett, Wilson, & Gilbert (2008); Vorauer (2001).
20. Mallett & Wilson (2010).
21. Study on cross-group friendships: Page-Gould, Mendoza-Denton, & Tropp (2009).
22. Vaughan & Rogers (2000); Bandura (2002); Paluck (2009).
CHAPTER 9: IT’S ABOUT ME, NOT MY GROUP
1. Planty et al. (2008); Hanushek & Rivkin (2008).
2. Nisbett (2009).
3. Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968); Jussim & Harber (2005); Raudenbush (1984).
4. These statistics are from the United States Census Bureau: DeNavas-Walt, Proctor, & Smith (2010).
5. See Nisbett (2009) for a review of this evidence.
6. Fryer (2010); Dee (2010).
7. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families (January 2010); Ludwig & Miller (2007); Deming (2009); Pianta et al. (2010).
8. The Abecedarian Project: see Campbell et al. (2002). The Perry Preschool Program: See Schweinhart et al. (2005). For a review of these and other early childhood intervention programs, see Knudsen et al. (2006); Nisbett (2009); Pianta et al. (2010).
9. Buckley & Schneider (2007).
10. Ongoing experimental test of KIPP schools: http://www.mathematica-mpr.com/education/kipp.asp. Nonexperimental studies: Woodworth et al. (2008).
11. Dobbie & Fryer (2009).
12. Brown & Day (2006); quotes are from p. 981.
13. On stereotype lift: Walton & Cohen (2003).
14. Yeung & von Hippel (2008).
15. Aronson & McGlone (2009); Schmader, Johns, & Forbes (2008); Steele (2010).
16. College attendance figures are from the 2000 United States Census. Retrieved June 2, 2009, from: http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-26.pdf
17. African Americans and high blood pressure: Blascovich et al. (2001). Dropout rates: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2010). Minority students who stay in school value academics: Major & Schmader (1998). Quote from Steele (2010), p. 111.
18. Adolescence as a good time to intervene: Eccles (2004).
19. On mindsets: Dweck (2006). The Texas intervention study: Good, Aronson, & Inzlicht (2003). The study in the New York school: Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck (2007).
20. On self-affirmation theory: Steele (1988); Sherman & Cohen (2006).
21. Cohen, Garcia, Purdie-Vaughns, Apfel, & Brzustoski (2009).
22. Walton & Cohen (2011).
23. Inzlicht & Ben-Zeev (2000).
CHAPTER 10: SUSTAINED CHANGE
1. Study on negations in headlines: Wegner, Wenzlaff, Kerker, & Beattie (1981).
2. Quote from Vonnegut (1975), p. v.
AFTERWORD
1. Sieff, K. (August 18, 2013). In Afghanistan, redeployed U.S. soldiers still coping with demons of post-traumatic stress. Washington Post. Retrieved March 16, 2014, from: http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/in-afghanistan-redeployed-us-soldiers-still-coping-with-demons-of-post-traumatic-stress/2013/08/18/27c18e96-0058-11e3-8294-0ee5075b840d_story.html; Litz, B. T., & Schlenger, W. E. (2009). PTSD in service members and new veterans of the Iraq and Afghanistan wars: A bibliography and critique. PTSD Research Quarterly 20, 1–7. Retrieved March 16, 2014, from: http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/newsletters/research-quarterly/V20N1.pdf.
2. Description of CSF: Cornum, R., Matthews, M. D., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Comprehensive soldier fitness: Building resiliency in a challenging institutional context. American Psychologist 66, 4–9; see also csf2.army.mil. Critics: Eidelson, R., Pilisuk, M., & Soldz, S. (2011). The dark side of comprehensive soldier fitness. American Psychologist, 66, 643–644; Smith, S. L. (2013). Could comprehensive soldier fitness have iatrogenic consequences? A commentary. Journal of Behavioral Health Services and Research, 40, 242–246. Review of the program on which CSF is based: Brunwasser, S. M., Gillham, J. E., & Kim, E. S. (2009). A meta-analytic review of the Penn Resiliency Program’s effect on depressive symptoms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77, 1042–54. doi:10.1037/a0017671.
3. Early evidence about effectiveness of CSF: Denning, L. A., Meisnere, M., & Warner, K. E. (Eds.) (2014). Preventing psychological disorders in service members and their families: An assessment of programs. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Retrieved March 17, 2014, from: http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=18597.
4. Kolata, G. (February 2, 2014). Method of study is criticized in group’s health policy tests. New York Times. Retrieved February 17, 2014, from: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/03/health/effort-to-test-health-policies-is-criticized-for-study-tactics.html?_r=0.
5. Haynes, L., Service, O., Goldacre, B., & Torgerson, D. (2012). Test, learn, adapt: Developing public policy with randomized controlled trials. United Kingdom Cabinet Office, Behavioral Insights Team. Retrieved April 12, 2014, from: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/62529/TLA-1906126.pdf; see also https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/behavioural-insights-team.
6. Harackiewicz, J. M., Canning, E. A., Tibbetts, Y., Giffen, C. J., Blair, S. S., Rouse, D. I., & Hyde, J. S. (2013). Closing the social-class achievement gap for first-generation students in undergraduate biology. Journal of Educational Psychology. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0034679. Stephens, N. M., Hamedani, M. G., & Destin, M. (2014). Closing the social-class achievement gap: A difference-education intervention improves first-generation students’ academic performance and all students’ college transition. Psychological Science. Psychological Science published online February 19, 2014. doi: 10.1177/0956797613518349. Quote from p. 3.
7. Brooks, A. W. (2013). Get excited: Reappraising pre-performance anxiety as excitement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. doi: 10.1037/a0035325.
8. Kross, E., Bruehlman-Senecal, E., Park, J., Burson, A., Dougherty, A., Shablack, H., Bremner, R., Moser, J., & Ayduk, O. (2014). Self-talk as a regulatory mechanism: how you do it matters. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106, 304–24.
9. Finkel, E. J., Slotter, E. B., Luchies, L. B., Walton, G. M., & Gross, J. J. (2013). A brief intervention to promote conflict reappraisal preserves marital quality over time. Psychological Science, 24, 1595–1601.