Notes

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE NOTES

CFA	Charles Francis Adams Jr.
CWH	Civil War History
ENH	Edward Needles “Ned” Hallowell
GTG	George T. Garrison
JAA	John A. Andrew
JHG	James Henry Gooding
LC	Library of Congress
LHD	Lewis Henry Douglass
MHS	Massachusetts Historical Society
NA	National Archives, Washington
NBPL	New Bedford Public Library
NPH	Norwood Penrose “Pen” Hallowell
NYHS	New-York Historical Society
NYPL	New York Public Library
OR	The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies
RGS	Robert Gould Shaw
WAA	New York Weekly Anglo-African

PROLOGUE

1. Charles B. Fox, Record of the Service of the Fifty-Fifth Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry (Cambridge, MA, 1868), 68–72.

2. Liberator, March 31, 1865; Harriet Alonso, Growing Up Abolitionist: The Story of the Garrison Children (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002), 176.

3. Douglas R. Egerton, Death or Liberty: African Americans and Revolutionary America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 94–95.

4. New York Journal of Commerce, August 24, 1864; Cleveland Plain Dealer, March 6, 1863.

5. Congressional Globe, 37th Cong., 3rd Sess., 74.

6. Louis P. Masur, Lincoln’s Hundred Days: The Emancipation Proclamation and the War for the Union (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012), 223; New York Journal of Commerce, August 24, 1864; Earl Mulderink, New Bedford’s Civil War (New York: Fordham University Press, 2012), 103; Bruce Levine, The Fall of the House of Dixie: The Civil War and the Social Revolution That Transformed the South (New York: Random House, 2013), 161.

7. Congressional Globe, 37th Cong., 3rd Sess., 85; Henry Pearson, The Life of John A. Andrew (Boston, 1904), 2:79.

8. Chandra Manning, What This Cruel War Was Over: Soldiers, Slavery, and the Civil War (New York: Knopf, 2007), 90, 95; Congressional Globe, 37th Cong., 2nd Sess., 242–243.

9. Chicago Times, in Augusta Daily Constitutionalist, April 4, 1863; Richard Abbott, “Massachusetts and the Recruitment of Southern Negroes, 1863–1865,” CWH 16 (1968): 206; Detroit Free Press, in New Haven Columbian Register, February 21, 1863.

10. JHG to New Bedford Mercury, April 18, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom: A Black Soldier’s Civil War Letters from the Front, ed. Virginia Adams (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1991), 13.

CHAPTER ONE

1. Charles B. Fox to Feroline Fox, August 7, 1863, Fox Papers, MHS; GTG to Helen Garrison, August 3, 1863, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College; Declaration for Invalid Pension, April 17, 1882, Henry Jarvis File, Pension Office, NA; John Smith, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA.

2. JHG to New Bedford Mercury, August 9, 1863, in Adams, On the Altar of Freedom, 47.

3. Nicholas Said, Register of Signatures of Depositors in Branches of the Freedman’s Savings and Trust Company, May 23, 1871, Tallahassee, Florida, NA; “A Native of Bornoo,” Atlantic Monthly (October 1867): 487; Nicholas Said, The Autobiography of Nicholas Said, A Native of Bournou, Eastern Soudan, Central Africa (Memphis, 1873), 9, 35–37.

4. J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, A History of West Africa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970), 217; Louis Brenner, The Shehus of Kukawa: A History of the al-Kanemi Dynasty of Bornu (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), 12–13, 60–61; Richmond Palmer, The Bornu Sahara and Sudan (London, 1936), 270; John Wright, Libya, Chad, and the Central Sahara (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1989), 97; Said, Autobiography, 39–43; in “Native of Bornoo” (488), either Said or the interviewer spelled the town name as “Kashna.” It may today be Katsina, Nigeria.

5. Said, Autobiography, 44–57; “Native of Bornoo,” 488–490.

6. “Native of Bornoo,” 490–491; Said, Autobiography, 65–73, 111–112, 121–122; Caroline Finkel, Osman’s Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire (New York: Basic Books, 2006), 441, 452–453; Said, Autobiography, 122–123.

7. “Native of Bornoo,” 485, 491–492; Edward Crankshaw, The Shadow of the Winter Palace: Russia’s Drift to Revolution (New York: Da Capo Press, 1976), 131–132; Said, Autobiography, 124. Said’s military papers list his height as five feet, seven inches, and note his “dark” complexion and hair color. See Nicholas Said, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA. His colonel during the war, Norwood Penrose Hallowell, described Said’s tattoos in his book The Negro as a Soldier in the War of the Rebellion (Boston, 1897), 3.

8. “Native of Bornoo,” 491–492; Said, Autobiography, 125–146; Pennsylvania Washington Reporter, December 30, 1863; NPH (The Negro as a Soldier, 3) reported that “his linguistic ability was very marked.”

9. “Native of Bornoo,” 492–494.

10. Said, Autobiography, 185–186. Said misidentified the owner of the hotel as “Marshall Hughes, a model Christian.” On proprietor Robert Marsh Hughes, see The Whole Proceedings on the Queen’s Commission of Oyer and Terminer and Gaol Delivery (London, 1861), 748.

11. “Native of Bornoo,” 494; Said, Autobiography, 186–189; Copies of Lists of Passengers Arriving at Ports on the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, 1820–1873, Series M575, Record Group 85, NA. Although Said’s travels sound almost too fantastic to be true, where it is possible to check the stories he presented prove to be accurate. The ship’s passenger list included not only Said but Isaac Jacob Rochussen, age twenty-seven, and his wife Catherine.

12. New Albany Daily Ledger, January 6, 1860; New York Commercial Advertiser, January 5, 1860; Washington Constitution, January 6, 1860; Said, Autobiography, 189; WAA, February 25, 1860.

13. New York Commercial Advertiser, January 9, 1860, May 16, 1860; Said, Autobiography, 189–197; Providence Evening Press, January 7, 1860; “Native of Bornoo,” 494; Said, Autobiography, 197–200.

14. “Native of Bornoo,” 495; Said, Autobiography, 200–202. The Washington National Intelligencer (December 11, 1852) noted that “the brig Concord” sailed between Buffalo and Detroit; the Trenton State Gazette (April 24, 1860) placed a “Rev. George Duffield” at a Constitutional Union Party rally; the New York Herald (January 15, 1853) listed the “Steamer Egitto” as sailing from Constantinople to Trieste; and in Nicholas Said, Regimental Descriptive Book (1863, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA), it is confirmed that at the time of his enlistment Said was living in Detroit. On voting restrictions in Michigan, see Dana Weiner, Race and Rights: Fighting Slavery and Prejudice in the Old Northwest, 1830–1870 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2013), 45–46.

15. Petition of Cynthia Ann Downing Smith, April 15, 1882, and General Affidavit of Ester A. Perkins, May 14, 1892, both in John M. Smith File, Pension Office, NA; John Smith, 1850 Federal Census, Brunswick, Cumberland, Maine, Roll M432–251, Page 236B, Image 172, NA; Cynthia Ann Smith, 1850 Federal Census, Roll M432–251, Page 209B, Image 118, NA; John Smith, Consolidated List of Civil War Draft Registration Records, Record Group 110, NA; John Smith, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA. John M. Smith’s father never appeared in state or federal census records.

16. New York Gazette, April 1, 1811; Frederick Douglass’ Paper, February 16, 1855; New York Herald, May 12, 1854; Peter Vogelsang, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Peter Vogelsang, 1840 Federal Census, New York City, Roll 306, Page 229, NA; Peter Vogelsang, U.S. Civil War Draft Registration Records, Record Group 110, NA; Carla Peterson, Black Gotham: A Family History of African Americans in Nineteenth-Century New York City (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011), 166–168; Julie Winch, A Gentleman of Color: The Life of James Forten (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 277.

17. Peter Swails, 1860 Federal Census, Elmira, New York, Roll M653–730, Page 457, Image 79, NA; Stephen A. Swails, 1860 Federal Census, Cooperstown, New York, Roll M653–841, Page 665, NA. On Keyes’s hotel, see Albany Evening Journal, July 11, 1862.

18. In Daniel M. Morse, 1860 Federal Census, Cooperstown, New York (Roll M653–841, Page 657, Image 654, NA), Morse is identified as a “merchant” and Sarah Thompson is listed as a “servant” and “mulatto,” the same descriptions used for Kate Swails, Stephen’s sister; Joseph Husbands, 1850 Federal Census, Otsego County, New York, Roll M432–579, Page 272B, Image 552, NA; Joseph Husbands, 1855 New York State Census, New York State Archives, Albany; Daily Albany Argus, September 28, 1868. The Charleston Courier (December 8, 1867) identified Swails as “white,” and the San Francisco Bulletin (February 24, 1870) called him “a light quadroon.”

19. Elmira City Directory, Elmira, 1863, 144. Although the allegations published in the Daily Albany Argus on September 28, 1868, were both partisan and racist, the charge that he impregnated and “abandoned” a “colored girl . . . by the name of Thompson, by whom he had a child,” was essentially sustained by the New York Weekly Anglo-African, which reported on May 7, 1864, that “Mrs. Lieut. Swails” of “Cooperstown” was living in “her mother’s house in Elmira” during the war. Stephen Swails Jr., age thirty (and so born in 1862), appeared in the 1892 New York State Census as living in Buffalo and working as a “Hosteler.” In Minnie Swails, 1880 Federal Census, Elmira, New York (Roll 817, Page 446A, Image 471), Minnie, age seventeen, is listed as living in Elmira with her mother, here named Sarah Jackson, a forty-two-year-old black “laundress,” and her brother Stephen A. Swails Jr. On December 1, 1900, Mary McKinley testified that Sergeant Stephen Swails had never been married before his 1866 marriage to Susan Swails, but as a lifetime resident of Charleston, McKinley was hardly in a position to know about Swails’s New York years. See her deposition in Stephen Swails File, Pension Office, NA.

20. Stephen Fox, The Guardian of Boston: William Monroe Trotter (Boston: Atheneum, 1970), 3–4; James Monroe Trotter, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Cleveland Gazette, March 5, 1892; Robert Thomas, 1860 Federal Census, Athens, Ohio, Roll M653–934, Page 237, Image 478, NA. On Reverend Gilmore’s school, see Washington National Era, April 27, 1848.

21. James M. Gooding, 1850 Federal Census, New Bern, North Carolina, Roll M432–626, Page 299B, NA; James Henry Gooding, Admissions, 1837–1866, Association for the Benefit of Colored Orphans, NYHS, 78; An Index to Marriage Bonds Filed in the North Carolina State Archives, Raleigh, 1977, no page; Marriage Certificate, September 28, 1862, in JHG File, Pension Office, NA.

22. William Seraile, Angels of Mercy: White Women and the History of New York’s Colored Orphan Asylum (New York: Fordham University Press, 2011), 32–33.

23. Newark Daily Advertiser, January 13, 1846; Winch, A Gentleman of Color, 277; Boston Emancipator and Republican, September 15, 1847.

24. James Henry Gooding, Admissions, 1837–1866, Association for the Benefit of Colored Orphans, NYHS, 78; Albert Westlake, 1850 Federal Census, Wood-bridge, New Jersey, Roll M432–455, Page 52B, NA; New Bedford Directory, 10th ed. (New Bedford, 1865), 70.

25. Kathryn Grover, The Fugitive’s Gibraltar: Escaping Slaves and Abolitionism in New Bedford, Massachusetts (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001), 265–272; Eric Dolin, Leviathan: The History of Whaling in America (New York: Norton, 2007), 213–215.

26. W. Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: African American Seamen in the Age of Sail (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 5, 178; Dolin, Leviathan, 224; JHG, Seamen’s Protection Papers, July 18, 1856, NBPL.

27. Bark Sunbeam, Crew List, NBPL; New Bedford Whaleman’s Shipping List and Merchants’ Transcript, July 22, 1856; Dolin, Leviathan, 223; Herman Melville, Moby Dick, or, The Whale (Norwalk, CT: Easton Press, 1977), 34.

28. Bolster, Black Jacks, 177; New Bedford Whaleman’s Shipping List and Merchants’ Transcript, June 17, 1856, June 24, 1856.

29. Bark Sunbeam, Log, June 17, 1859, August 7, 1856, August 5, 1856, August 10, 1856, August 27, 1859, NBPL; Bark Sunbeam, Accounts, NBPL; Adams, On the Altar of Freedom, 128.

30. Bark Sunbeam, Log, June 18, 1857, October 18, 1856, August 7, 1858, NBPL; New Bedford Whaleman’s Shipping List and Merchants’ Transcript, November 11, 1856, December 2, 1856, July 28, 1857, January 5, 1858, July 13, 1858, November 1, 1859, November 29, 1859, February 14, 1860, February 21, 1860, May 8, 1860; Boston Daily Evening Traveler, March 8, 1860; Boston Courier, March 16, 1860; Bark Sunbeam, Crew List, NBPL.

31. Boston Courier, December 22, 1859; New Bedford Whaleman’s Shipping List and Merchants’ Transcript, December 27, 1859, June 12, 1860, December 4, 1860; New York Commercial Advertiser, May 24, 1860; New York Herald, October 19, 1860; New London (Connecticut) Daily Chronicle, December 1, 1860; Black Eagle, Log, December 10, 1860, December 14, 1860, January 4, 1861, February 12, 1861, March 20, 1861, New Bedford Whaling Museum; Black Eagle, Log, April 29, 1861, November 3, 1861. Historian W. Jeffrey Bolster (communication to author, September 16, 2014) notes that not only was “it possible that a man of color commanded a whaleship in 1861” but “twenty years or so later, it would have been unremarkable.”

32. Ellen Allen Gooding, Death Record, April 24, 1903, Massachusetts Vital Records, 1840–1911, New England Genealogical Society, Boston; Charlotte Pierce Adams, Death Record, August 18, 1867, ibid.; JHG, Massachusetts Marriage Records, 1840–1911, ibid.; Rhode Island Vital Extracts, 1836–1850 (Providence, 1912), 241; Charles Edward Allen, 1850 Federal Census, Roll M432–309, Page 222A, Image 26, NA; New Bedford Whaleman’s Shipping List and Merchants’ Transcript, June 2, 1857, October 29, 1861; New Bedford Directory, 10th ed. (New Bedford, 1865), 26; Crew List, Richard Mitchell, February 1862, NBPL; Boston Daily Evening Traveler, February 3, 1862, May 7, 1862, June 23, 1862; Salem Register, July 17, 1862; Boston Daily Advertiser, August 16, 1862, September 16, 1862.

33. Case of Ellen Gooding, April 22, 1864, in JHG File, Pension Office, NA; Marriage Certificate, September 28, 1862, ibid. On Reverend James D. Butler, see The Sailor’s Magazine for the Year Ending 1859 (New York, 1859), 114.

34. William Carney, Registry of Death, March 24, 1909, New Bedford, William Carney File, Pension Office, NA; Boston Evening Transcript, October 30, 1863; Liberator, November 6, 1863; William Still, The Underground Railroad (Philadelphia, 1872), 315–316.

35. Grover, Fugitive’s Gibraltar, 253–254; 329, note 120; Liberator, November 6, 1863; Philadelphia Press, November 4, 1863; Edwin B. Jourdain, Affidavit, August 11, 1909, William Carney File, Pension Office, NA.

36. Albany Evening Journal, August 23, 1862; Dudley Cornish, The Sable Arm: Black Troops in the Union Army, 1861–1865 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1987 [1956]), 6; James Horton, “Defending the Manhood of the Race: The Crisis of Citizenship in Black Boston at Midcentury,” in Hope and Glory: Essays on the Legacy of the 54th Massachusetts Regiment, ed. Martin Blatt, Thomas J. Brown, and Donald Yacovone (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001), 18–19; Newark Daily Advertiser, September 11, 1861.

CHAPTER TWO

1. New York Herald, July 28, 1871.

2. ENH to NPH, March 31, 1858, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College.

3. William Penrose Hallowell, Record of a Branch of the Hallowell Family, Including the Longstreet, Penrose, and Norwood Branches (Philadelphia, 1893), 64; Richard Miller, Harvard’s Civil War: The History of the Twentieth Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry (Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England, 2005), 14; NPH, Selected Letters and Papers of N. P. Hallowell (Peterborough, 1896), 84–85.

4. Hallowell, Hallowell Family, 64; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 3; Carol Faulkner, Lucretia Mott’s Heresy: Abolition and Women’s Rights in Nineteenth-Century America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), 175; Boston Herald, April 12, 1914; Miller, Harvard’s Civil War, 14; Russell Duncan, Where Death and Glory Meet: Colonel Robert Gould Shaw and the 54th Massachusetts Infantry (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1999), 53.

5. James Brewer Stewart, Wendell Phillips: Liberty’s Hero (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986), 214; Miller, Harvard’s Civil War, 13; NPH, Selected Letters, 67.

6. Joan Waugh, Unsentimental Reformer: The Life of Josephine Shaw Lowell (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 23–26; Duncan, Death and Glory, 4; Peter Burchard, One Gallant Rush: Robert Gould Shaw and His Brave Black Regiment (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1965), 4–5.

7. Joan Waugh, “The Shaw Family and the Fifty-Fourth Massachusetts Regiment,” in Hope and Glory, ed. Blatt et al., 56–57; Lorien Foote, Seeking the One Great Remedy: Francis George Shaw and Nineteenth-Century Reform (Athens: University Press of Georgia, 2000), 40; Burchard, One Gallant Rush, 4–5.

8. Burchard, One Gallant Rush, 6–7, 10–11; Duncan, Death and Glory, 10–11, 14, 18–19; Waugh, “Shaw Family,” 61–63; New York Age, June 6, 1891.

9. Burchard, One Gallant Rush, 24–25; Liberator, November 9, 1860; On John Shaw’s hotel in Nassau, see New York Herald, January 28, 1860.

10. RGS to Susanna Shaw, April 5, 1861, in Blue-Eyed Child of Fortune: The Civil War Letters of Colonel Robert Gould Shaw, ed. Russell Duncan (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994), 71.

11. Alonso, Growing Up Abolitionist, 156; Miller, Harvard’s Civil War, 16–17.

12. Francis Brown, Harvard University in the War of 1861–1865 (Boston, 1886), 149; New York Evening Post, July 24, 1863; RGS to Sarah Shaw, April 18, 1861, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 73; RGS to Sarah Shaw, April 20, 1861, in Letters: RGS (no editor) (Cambridge, 1864), 10.

13. RGS to Susanna Shaw, April 28, 1861, in Letters: RGS, 20; RGS to Frank Shaw, April 23, 1861, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 77; RGS to Sarah Shaw, April 26, April 27, and April 29, 1861, ibid., 82–85; RGS to Josephine Shaw, April 30, 1861, ibid., 88.

14. Walter Stahr, Seward: Lincoln’s Indispensable Man (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012), 298; RGS to Sarah Shaw, May 2, 1861, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 90–91.

15. Burchard, One Gallant Rush, 37; Duncan, Death and Glory, 30; RGS to Sarah Shaw, May 19, 1861, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 101.

16. Duncan, Death and Glory, 44; RGS to Sarah Shaw, June 9, 1861, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 106–107; RGS to Sarah Shaw, July 13, 1861, ibid., 113; RGS to Susanna Shaw, August 15, 1861, ibid., 128.

17. Hallowell, Hallowell Family, 70–72; Brown, Harvard University in the War, 167; RGS to Sarah Shaw, June 9, 1861, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 106–107; George A. Bruce, The Twentieth Regiment of Volunteer Infantry (Boston, 1906), 10–11.

18. Alfred Roe, The Twenty-Fourth Massachusetts Regiment (Worchester, 1907), 21; NPH, Selected Letters, 23; Bruce, Twentieth Regiment, 6–13.

19. Baltimore The South, October 25, 1861; Stephen Sears, George B. McClellan: The Young Napoleon (New York: Ticknor and Fields, 1988), 121.

20. Miller, Harvard’s Civil War, 66–67; New York Commercial Advertiser, October 24, 1861.

21. Miller, Harvard’s Civil War, 71–72; Report, Colonel Edward Hinks, October 23, 1861, OR, Series I, Vol. 5, 312–313; Sears, McClellan, 121.

22. NPH, Selected Letters, 3–4, 11.

23. Sears, McClellan, 121; Report, Colonel Edward Hinks, October 23, 1861, OR, Series I, Vol. 5, 314; NPH, Selected Letters, 10; Philadelphia Inquirer, October 24, 1861; Boston Daily Evening Traveler, October 26, 1861.

24. Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: Norton, 2010), 169–170; Hans Trefousse, Ben Butler: The South Called Him Beast! (New York: Octagon Books, 1957), 79; Benjamin Butler to Simon Cameron, July 30, 1861, in Private and Official Correspondence of Gen. Benjamin Butler, ed. Benjamin Butler and Jesse Marshall (Norwood, 1917), 1:185–188.

25. General Affidavit, Peter Drummond, April 3, 1894, Henry Jarvis File, Pension Office, NA; Henry and Mary Jane Jarvis, Marriage License, December 26, 1872, ibid.; Henry Jarvis to State of Massachusetts, September 15, 1868, ibid.; Henry Jarvis interview, in M. F. Armstrong and Helen Ludlow, Hampton and Its Students (New York, 1874), 110–111. Although the interviewers transcribed Jarvis’s language in what appears to be stereotypical slave dialect, the young Hampton students were black. Their transcription perhaps reflects their class status or urban background.

26. Adam Goodheart, 1861: The Civil War Awakening (New York: Vintage Books, 2011), 335; Jarvis interview, in Armstrong and Ludlow, Hampton and Its Students, 111–113.

27. Miller, Harvard’s Civil War, 96–97; Amherst Farmer’s Cabinet, December 19, 1861.

28. Miller, Harvard’s Civil War, 98; Fox, Fifty-Fifth Regiment, 98; James Oakes, The Radical and the Republican: Frederick Douglass, Abraham Lincoln, and the Triumph of Antislavery Politics (New York: Norton, 2007), 147.

29. Edward Kirkland, Charles Francis Adams Jr.: The Patrician at Bay (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), 8–10; Martin Duberman, Charles Francis Adams (New York, 1961), 214–215; CFA to Abigail Brooks Adams, July 9, 1861, in A Cycle of Adams Letters, ed. Worthington Ford (Boston, 1920), 1:18–19.

30. CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., June 10, 1861, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 1:9–10; CFA, An Autobiography (Cambridge, 1916), 11, 123–124.

31. Kirkland, Adams, 24–25; CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., November 26, 1861, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 1:72–73; Henry Adams to CFA, December 28, 1861, ibid., 94.

32. CFA to Henry Adams, December 19, 1861, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 1:86–87; CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., November 26, 1861, ibid., 1:72; Brown, Harvard in the War, 87; CFA, Autobiography, 125–126, 137–138.

33. CFA to Henry Adams, January 3, 1862, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 1:97–98; CFA to Henry Adams, January [10?], ibid., 103.

34. CFA to Abigail Brooks Adams, February 2, 1862, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 1:111–112; CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., March 11, 1862, ibid., 1:117–118; CFA to Henry Adams, April 6, 1862, ibid., 1:126–127.

35. CFA to Henry Adams, April 2, 1862, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 1:129–130.

36. Stephen Ash, Firebrand of Liberty: The Story of Two Black Regiments That Changed the Course of the Civil War (New York: Norton, 2008), 22; CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., July 28, 1862, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 1:169–170; CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., August 10, 1862, ibid., 1:174–175.

37. Stephen Sears, To the Gates of Richmond: The Peninsula Campaign (New York: Ticknor and Fields, 1992), 305; New York Herald, July 28, 1871; NPH, Selected Letters, 13–14.

38. Walter Poor to George Fox, September 9, 1861, Walter Poor Papers, NYHS; Amelia Holmes to Emily Hallowell, February 1, 1863, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College; Lydia Maria Child to Sarah Shaw, June 9, 1862, Shaw Family Papers, NYPL.

39. CFA, Autobiography, 142–143; CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., July 16, 1862, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 1:164–165.

40. John David Smith, “Let Us All Be Grateful That We Have Colored Troops That Will Fight,” in Black Soldiers in Blue: African American Troops in the Civil War Era, ed. John David Smith (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 9; Glenn Brasher, The Peninsula Campaign and the Necessity of Emancipation: African Americans and the Fight for Freedom (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012), 73–74; Foner, Fiery Trial, 214.

41. Amherst Farmer’s Cabinet, July 17, 1862; Barre (Massachusetts) Gazette, July 18, 1862; “An Act to Suppress Insurrection,” July 17, 1862, in U.S. Statutes at Large (Washington, 1863), 12:589–592; Masur, Lincoln’s Hundred Days, 75.

42. Philip Paludan, The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1994), 146–147; W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America (New York, 1935), 96; “An Act to Define the Pay of Certain Officers,” in U.S. Statutes at Large, 12:594–600; Herman Belz, “Law, Politics, and Race in the Struggle for Equal Pay During the Civil War,” CWH 22 (1976): 210–211.

43. Scott Reynolds and Carol Sheriff, A People at War: Civilians and Soldiers in America’s Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 192; John David Smith, Lincoln and the U.S. Colored Troops (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2013), 20.

44. James McPherson, Crossroads of Freedom: Antietam (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 70; RGS to Frank Shaw, August 11, 1862, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 228; Miller, Harvard’s Civil War, 165.

45. Stephen Sears, Landscape Turned Red: The Battle of Antietam (New York: Ticknor and Fields, 1983), 176–177; RGS to Frank Shaw, September 21, 1862, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 241–242.

46. NPH, Selected Letters, 16.

47. CFA, Autobiography, 152–153; CFA to Abigail Brooks Adams, September 25, 1862, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 1:189.

48. Sears, Landscape Turned Red, 228; Charles Russell Lowell to Anna Lowell, September 19, 1862, in Life and Letters of Charles Russell Lowell, ed. Edward Emerson (Boston, 1907), 224–225; Brown, Harvard in the War, 168, NPH, Selected Letters, 15; Miller, Harvard’s Civil War, 174–177.

49. NPH, Selected Letters, 16–19.

50. Ibid., 19; Miller, Harvard’s Civil War, 179.

51. Boston Evening Transcript, September 22, 1862; Philadelphia Inquirer, September 25, 1862; Salem Register, September 22, 1862; Report, Norman Hall, September 20, 1862, OR, Series 1, Vol. 19, 321–322; Report, Napoleon Dana, September 30, 1862, ibid., 319–320.

52. Duncan, Death and Glory, 40; Burchard, One Gallant Rush, 65; RGS to Susanna Shaw, September 28, 1862, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 249.

53. RGS to Annie Haggerty, November 23, 1862, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 261; RGS to Sarah Shaw, November 21, 1862, ibid., 259; RGS to Josephine Shaw, October 13, 1862, Shaw Family Papers, NYPL.

54. McPherson, Crossroads of Freedom, 138–139; John Hope Franklin, The Emancipation Proclamation (New York: Doubleday, 1963), 46–47; Vitor Izeckson, Slavery and War in the Americas: Race, Citizenship, and State Building in the United States and Brazil, 1861–1870 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2014), 106–107.

55. Ronald White, A. Lincoln: A Biography (New York: Random House, 2009), 542; Walter Poor to George Fox, September 9, 1861, Walter Poor Papers, NYHS; RGS to Sydney Gay, August 6, 1861, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 122–123; RGS to Frank Shaw, August 3, 1862, ibid., 224.

56. Brasher, Peninsula Campaign, 55–56; London Spectator, December 13, 1862, reprinted in the Liberator, January 9, 1863.

57. Barre (Massachusetts) Gazette, October 11, 1861; Masur, Lincoln’s Hundred Days, 117–118; Izeckson, Slavery and War, 108.

58. Liberator, March 6, 1863; Weiner, Race and Rights, 219.

59. Margot Minardi, Making Slavery History: Abolitionism and the Politics of Memory in Massachusetts (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 167.

60. Foner, Fiery Trial, 230; Cornish, Sable Arm, 78 Noah Trudeau, Like Men of War: Black Troops in the Civil War, 1862–1865 (Edison: Castle Books, 1998), 13–14; Amherst Farmer’s Cabinet, August 27, 1863. Although the First Kansas today claims to be the earliest regiment of black soldiers, it was raised without federal authorization. In 1864 the unit became the Seventy-Ninth Infantry USCT.

61. CFA, Autobiography, 147; RGS to Frank Shaw, December 30, 1862, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 272.

62. P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816–1865 (New York: Octagon Books, 1961), 247; Liberator, December 26, 1862; Salem Observer, December 20, 1862; Atchison (Kansas) Freedom’s Champion, September 20, 1862.

CHAPTER THREE

1. Oakes, The Radical and the Republican, 175–176; Masur, Lincoln’s Hundred Days, 245; Franklin, Emancipation Proclamation, 101.

2. Cornish, Sable Arm, 161; Manning, What This Cruel War, 108; Jefferson Davis, General Order No. 111, December 24, 1862, OR, Series II, Vol. 5, 797.

3. Liberator, January 16, 1863; WAA, January 17, 1863; “Bill to Authorize Black Soldiers,” in The Papers of Thaddeus Stevens, ed. Beverly Palmer (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997), 1:354–355; Hans Trefousse, Thaddeus Stevens: Nineteenth-Century Egalitarian (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 130; Masur, Lincoln’s Hundred Days, 222.

4. New Haven Columbian Register, February 21, 1863; Masur, Lincoln’s Hundred Days, 222–223; Allen Bogue, “William Parker Cutler’s Congressional Diary,” CWH 33 (1987): 329; Alexander Stevens, Speech of February 2, 1863, in Papers of Stevens, ed. Palmer, 1:357.

5. Cornish, Sable Arm, 99; Liberator, February 13, 1863; Foner, Fiery Trial, 250.

6. John Forbes to JAA, January 22, 1863, Andrew Papers, MHS; Liberator, January 30, 1863, May 6, 1864; JAA to Edwin Stanton, February 3, 1863, in Freedom: Series II: The Black Military Experience: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861–1867, ed. Ira Berlin, Joseph P. Reidy, and Leslie S. Rowland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 336.

7. John Forbes to JAA, February 2, 1863, Andrew Papers, MHS; John Forbes to JAA, January 30, 1863, NPH Papers, MHS.

8. JAA to Francis Shaw, January 30, 1863, Andrew Papers, MHS.

9. Ibid.; JAA to RGS, January 30, 1863, Andrew Papers, MHS.

10. RGS to Annie Haggerty, February 4, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 283.

11. Ibid., 285–286; RGS to Francis Shaw, February 8, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 286–287.

12. RGS to Annie Haggerty, February 8, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 285–286; Waugh, “Shaw Family,” 67; Duncan, Death and Glory, 56.

13. William Struthers to Morris Hallowell, March 17, 1863, NPH Papers, MHS; JAA to Francis Shaw, February 6, 1863 (two letters of that date), ibid.; JAA to RGS, February 7, 1863, Andrew Papers, MHS.

14. JAA to Edwin Stanton, February 9, 1863, Andrew Papers, MHS; ENH and RGS, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Special Order, William Schouler, April 15, 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry Papers, NA; Liberator, February 20, 1863, June 5, 1863; Douglass’ Monthly, March 1863, 815; Jane Maher, Biography of Broken Fortunes: Wilkie and Bob, Brothers of William, Henry, and Alice James (New York: Archon, 1986), 31, 35.

15. RGS to Sarah Shaw, February 20, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 289–290; RGS to Annie Haggerty, February 16, 1863, ibid., 287; Charles Russell Lowell to Anna Lowell, February 4, 1863, in Letters of Lowell, ed. Emerson, 233–234; RGS to Elizabeth Lyman, February 20, 1863, Lyman Family Papers, MHS.

16. Richard Abbott, “Massachusetts and the Recruitment of Southern Negroes,” CWH 14 (1968): 198; Cornish, Sable Arm, 107; Joseph E. Stevens, 1863: The Rebirth of a Nation (New York: Bantam, 1999), 113.

17. Liberator, May 1, 1863; David Blight, Frederick Douglass’ Civil War: Keeping Faith in Jubilee (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989), 158; Pearson, Andrew, 2:82; Luis Emilio, History of the Fifty-Fourth Regiment (Boston, 1894), 11; Charles Russell Lowell to H. L. Higginson, February 15, 1863, in Letters of Lowell, ed. Emerson, 235.

18. RGS to Sarah Shaw, February 20, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 290; Duncan, Death and Glory, 62; Gary Collison, Shadrach Minkins: From Fugitive Slave to Citizen (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 130–133.

19. John Mercer Langston, From the Plantation to the Capitol (Hartford, 1894), 201.

20. William Cheek and Aimee Cheek, John Mercer Langston and the Fight for Black Freedom, 1829–65 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 391; David Gerber, Black Ohio and the Color Line, 1860–1915 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976), 33–34; David Tod to John Mercer Langston, May 16, 1863, in Freedom: Series II, ed. Berlin et al., 336.

21. George Stearns to Frederick Douglass, August 8, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC; Douglass’ Monthly, April 1863, 820; Frederick Douglass to Gerrit Smith, June 19, 1863, Smith Papers, Syracuse University.

22. New Bedford Republican Standard, February 19, 1863; Ezra Greenspan, William Wells Brown: An African American Life (New York: Norton, 2014), 397; WAA, February 28, 1863; Mulderink, New Bedford’s Civil War, 102.

23. WAA, April 18, 1863; Philadelphia Inquirer, March 31, 1863; Liberator, April 17, 1863, April 24, 1863.

24. Blight, Douglass’ Civil War, 160; Camden Democrat, March 28, 1863; Boston Daily Evening Traveler, January 1, 1863; Boston Herald, January 2, 1863.

25. New-York Tribune, February 6, 1863; Boston Herald, February 8, 1863; Lowell Daily Citizen and News, February 10, 1863, February 16, 1863; Washington (Pennsylvania) Reporter, February 18, 1863.

26. Douglass’ Monthly, March 1863, 808, April 1863, 818; Liberator, March 13, 1863; WAA, March 7, 1863; Hartford Courant, March 7, 1863; New York Evening Post, March 5, 1863; New-York Tribune, March 5, 1863; Baltimore Sun, March 6, 1863.

27. Portland Daily Eastern Argus, March 6, 1863; Harrisburg Weekly Patriot and Union, March 26, 1863, April 2, 1863; Cleveland Plain Dealer, February 24, 1863.

28. Duncan, Death and Glory, 60; Liberator, June 26, 1863; WAA, April 4, 1863; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, March 3, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 4.

29. Cornish, Sable Arm, 235; Julie Griffiths Crofts to Frederick Douglass, April 13, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC.

30. George L. Stearns to Frederick Douglass, March 24, 1863, Smith Papers, Syracuse University; Frederick Douglass to Gerrit Smith, March 6, 1863, ibid.; Charles Remond Douglass, Birth Record, Vital Records of Lynn, Massachusetts, to the Year 1850 (Boston, 1904), 131; Charles Douglass, Regimental Descriptive Book, April 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Cleveland Gazette, October 11, 1902; WAA, May 16, 1863, erroneously listed Charles Douglass as a sergeant and Stephen Swails as a corporal; the elder man held the higher rank.

31. Rochester City Directory (Rochester, 1861), 123; LHD to Amelia Loguen, March 31, 1863, Walter O. Evans Collection, Savannah; WAA, April 11, 1863; LHD, Regimental Descriptive Book, March 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA: Frederick Douglass, 1860 Federal Census, Rochester, NY, Roll M653–784, Page 300, Image 299, NA. In his biography, McFeely writes that Charles and Lewis “found themselves vulnerable to their father’s newest great cause,” a statement that erases all agency from these two adult men; William S. McFeely Frederick Douglass (New York: Norton, 1991), 223.

32. William Carney and JHG, Regimental Descriptive Book, March 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; JHG, Consolidated Lists of Civil War Draft Registration Records, Record Group 110, NA; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 19; WAA, May 9, 1863; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 9; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, March 7, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 5. Stevens, 1863, 112–114, remarks that the New Bedford men were “disillusioned by what they saw,” as there “was nothing to eat, and no one seemed to have any idea of where they should go,” a statement flatly contradicted by Gooding’s March 7 letter. Diedrich erroneously claims that for “months, the Massachusetts 54th remained without uniforms or proper shoes,” a fiction she evidently learned from the film Glory; Maria Diedrich, Love Across Color Lines: Ottilie Assing and Frederick Douglass (New York: Hill and Wang, 1999), 248.

33. Stephen Swails, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Duncan, Death and Glory, 68; Margaret Washington, Sojourner Truth’s America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 305; Peter Vogelsang, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; RGS to Francis Shaw, April 24, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 325.

34. George Alexander, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; WAA, May 2, 1863, May 9, 1863; Joseph Barge to Blanche K. Bruce, February 17, 1876, Bruce Papers, Howard University Library.

35. Liberator, March 20, 1863, April 3, 1863; RGS to Charles Morse, March 12, 1863, Shaw Collection, MHS; RGS to Sarah Shaw, March 12, 1863, in Letters: RGS, 271; Boston Daily Evening Traveler, March 11, 1863; New Haven Columbian Register, March 14, 1863; LHD to Amelia Loguen, April 8, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC; RGS to Sarah Shaw, March 17, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 309.

36. Lincoln Stone, Report of the Surgeon-General, Fifty-Fourth Regiment, NPH Papers, MHS; LHD to Amelia Loguen, April 8, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC.

37. Pearson, Andrew, 2:84; Edwin Redkey, “A Profile of the Fifty-Fourth Massachusetts Regiment,” in Hope and Glory, ed. Blatt et al., 22–24.

38. WAA, March 28, 1863, May 9, 1863; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, April 6, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 9; RGS to Charles Morse, February 24, 1863, Shaw Collection, MHS.

39. RGS to Charles Morse, February 21, 1863, Shaw Collection, MHS; RGS to Francis Shaw, February 25, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 300; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 2, 10; RGS to Amos Lawrence, March 25, 1863, Lawrence Papers, MHS.

40. Boston Daily Evening Traveler, March 11, 1863; LHD to Amelia Loguen, April 8, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC; RGS to Annie Haggerty, February 23, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 296; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, March 18, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 6.

41. WAA, May 9, 1863; Stevens, 1863, 114; Liberator, February 13, 1863, June 5, 1863. Diedrich, Love Across Color Lines, 248, incorrectly insists that the Fifty-fourth’s “weapons were ridiculously outmoded.”

42. NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 9; Smith, Lincoln and the U.S. Colored Troops, 50; Duncan, Death and Glory, 73–74; WAA, March 28, 1863.

43. JHG to New Bedford Mercury, March 24, 1863, April 3, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 7, 10.

44. Ira Berlin, Generations of Captivity: A History of African American Slaves (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003), 257; WAA, May 2, 1863; William Jackson to R. G. Pierce, May 28, 1863, Massachusetts 54th Infantry Papers, NA; LHD to Amelia Loguen, April 8, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, March 18, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 6.

45. JHG to New Bedford Mercury, August 16, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 50. Although Gooding wrote these sentiments after Shaw’s death, they correspond with his earlier assessment of his colonel’s ability and political courage.

46. RGS to Francis Shaw, March 30, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 316; Charles Russell Lowell to RGS, May 23, 1863, in Letters of Lowell, ed. Emerson, 242.

47. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 23; Maher, Broken Fortunes, 32; LHD to Amelia Loguen, April 15, 1863, Evans Collection, Savannah.

48. LHD to Amelia Loguen, March 3, 1863, May 9, 1863, May 20, 1863, Evans Collection, Savannah; WAA, May 20, 1863.

49. Foote, One Great Remedy, 98; RGS to Elizabeth Lyman, February 20, 1863, Lyman Family Papers, MHS; RGS to Francis Shaw, April 5, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 321; RGS to Sarah Shaw, April 14, 1863, ibid., 323; RGS to Sarah Shaw, April 17, 1863, ibid., 324; Waugh, Unsentimental Reformer, 71; RGS to Henry James, May 4, 1863, Shaw Family Telegrams, NYHS; RGS to Annie Haggerty Shaw, May 9, 1863, ibid.; RGS to Ogden Haggerty, May 8, 1863, ibid.; RGS to Charles Morse, July 3, 1863, Shaw Collection, MHS.

50. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 24; William Schouler, Special Order No. 267, May 27, 1863, and Special Order No. 336, June 24, 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry Papers, NA; NPH, 1863, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; RGS to Susanna Shaw, May 7, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed Duncan, 329; RGS to Francis Shaw, May 11, 1863, ibid., 329; RGS to John Murray Forbes, June 3, 1863, ibid., 338.

51. ENH, Regimental Descriptive Book, April 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 1; William Lloyd Garrison to Fanny Garrison, September 18, 1862, Anti-Slavery Collection, Boston Public Library; William Lloyd Garrison to GTG, June 11, 1863, in Letters of William Lloyd Garrison, ed. Walter Merrill (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), 5:160; Donald Williams, Prudence Crandall’s Legacy: The Fight for Equality (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2014), 273; Lucy McKim to Wendell Phillips Garrison, April 27, 1863, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College.

52. Michael Meier, “Lorenzo Thomas and the Recruitment of Blacks,” in Black Soldiers in Blue, ed. Smith, 259; Smith, “Let Us All Be Grateful,” in ibid., 28; Abbott, “Recruitment of Southern Negroes,” 200; Izeckson, Slavery and War, 110; Weiner, Race and Rights, 221; Ian Spurgeon, Soldiers in the Army of Freedom: The 1st Kansas Colored (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2014), 248; Cornish, Sable Arm, 130–131.

53. Grover, Fugitive’s Gibraltar, 279; Cornish, Sable Arm, 161–162; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 6.

54. Douglass’ Monthly, April 1863, 844; Joseph Glatthaar, Forged in Battle: The Civil War Alliance of Black Soldiers and White Officers (New York: Free Press, 1989), 203; Liberator, May 15, 1863; RGS to Sarah Shaw, April 7, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 321; WAA, March 28, 1863.

55. Worcester National Aegis, May 2, 1863; Albany Evening Journal, April 28, 1863; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 31; Charles Russell Lowell to Josephine Shaw, May 24, 1863, in Letters of Lowell, ed. Emerson, 246; RGS to JAA, April 6, 1863, Andrew Papers, MHS; JAA to Edwin Stanton, April 1, 1863, in Freedom: Series II, ed. Berlin et al., 131.

56. RGS to Charles Morse, July 3, 1863, Shaw Collection, MHS; LHD to Amelia Loguen, May 20, 1863, and May 27, 1863, Evans Collection, Savannah.

57. Duncan, Death and Glory, 84; RGS to Sarah Shaw, May 18, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 332; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, May 20, 1863, and May 24, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 21–24; Pearson, Andrew, 2:86–87.

58. WAA, May 23, 1863; Liberator, May 22, 1863; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, May 18, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 23; RGS to Francis Shaw, May 22, 1863, in Letters: RGS, 289; RGS to Sarah Shaw, May 18, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 332.

59. Pearson, Andrew, 2:88; Jacqueline Jones, Saving Savannah: The City and the Civil War (New York: Knopf, 2008), 176.

60. Liberator, June 5, 1863, June 26, 1863, July 31, 1863; WAA, June 6, 1863; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 31.

61. WAA, June 13, 1863; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 7; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 32; Lydia Maria Child to Francis Shaw, March 21, 1876, Shaw Family Papers, NYPL; Maher, Broken Fortunes, 37–38.

62. Pearson, Andrew, 2:89; Liberator, June 5, 1863, December 22, 1865; Douglass’ Monthly, May 1863, 838.

63. Frederick Douglass to Gerrit Smith, June 19, 1863, Smith Papers, Syracuse University; RGS to Charles Morse, July 3, 1863, Shaw Collection, MHS; RGS to Annie Haggerty Shaw, June 1, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 335.

CHAPTER FOUR

1. RGS to Annie Haggerty Shaw, June 1, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 335; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 35; LHD to Amelia Loguen, June 18, 1863, Evans Collection, Savannah; McFeely, Douglass, 225, describes the DeMolay as “an unpromising transport ship,” a characterization at odds with that given by Shaw and Emilio.

2. RGS to Annie Haggerty Shaw, June 1, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 335; Telegraph, David Hunter to W. W. Davis, June 6, 1863, in Letters Sent, Department of the South, Record Group 393, NA; David Hunter to John Moore, June 6, 1863, ibid.

3. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 37–38; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, June 8, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 26–27. Gooding erred on the date in noting that they debarked the DeMolay on the morning of June 5. Both Shaw and Emilio indicate that it was the previous day.

4. A. D. Smith to JAA, June 18, 1863, Andrew Papers, MHS; Kate Clifford Larson, Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman (New York: Ballantine, 2004), 203; LHD to Amelia Loguen, June 18, 1863, Evans Collection, Savannah.

5. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 38; RGS to Sarah Shaw, June 6, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 339; Thomas Wentworth Higginson to Louisa Higginson, June 5, 1863, in The Complete Civil War Journal and Selected Letters of Thomas Went-worth Higginson, ed. Christopher Looby (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 283; Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Cheerful Yesterdays (Boston, 1900), 257; Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Army Life in a Black Regiment (Cambridge, 1900), 304–305.

6. Walter Fraser, Charleston! Charleston! The History of a Southern City (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989), 262; Edward Ball, Slaves in the Family (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1998), 338; Report on the Attacks on Forts Sumter, Moultrie, and Wagner, 1863, Henry Wilson Hubbell Collection, NYHS.

7. Liberator, February 6, 1863; RGS to Sarah Shaw, June 6, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 339; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 4–5; Ash, Firebrand of Liberty, 53; Edward Pierce to JAA, July 3, 1863, Andrew Papers, MHS.

8. Thomas Wentworth Higginson to Louisa Higginson, June 5, 1863, in Civil War Journal, ed. Looby, 283; Thomas Wentworth Higginson to Mary Higginson, June 10, 1863, ibid., 284; Trudeau, Men of War, 122–123; RGS to Clemence Haggerty, June 17, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 350.

9. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 38.

10. RGS to Clemence Haggerty, June 17, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 350; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, April 18, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 13; A. D. Smith to JAA, June 11, 1863, Andrew Papers, MHS.

11. RGS to Charles Morse, July 3, 1863, Shaw Collection, MHS; RGS to Sarah Shaw, June 6, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 339; RGS to Francis Barlow, June 20, 1863, Shaw Family Papers, NYHS.

12. WAA, June 27, 1863; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 41; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, June 14, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 29; RGS to Annie Haggerty Shaw, June 12, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 342.

13. RGS to Annie Haggerty Shaw, June 12, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 342–343; E. Merton Coulter, “Robert Gould Shaw and the Burning of Darien, Georgia,” CWH 5 (1959): 370; Amherst Farmer’s Cabinet, June 25, 1863; RGS to Charles Morse, July 3, 1863, Shaw Collection, MHS; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, June 14, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 29.

14. RGS to Annie Haggerty Shaw, June 12, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 342–343; RGS to Francis Barlow, June 20, 1863, Shaw Family Papers, NYPL; Keith Wilson, “In the Shadow of John Brown,” in Black Soldiers in Blue, ed. Smith, 324.

15. Wilson, “In the Shadow of John Brown,” 323; George Stephens to WAA, July 4, 1863; Larson, Bound for the Promised Land, 217.

16. JHG to New Bedford Mercury, June 22, 1863, and June 26, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 31, 64; LHD to Amelia Loguen, June 18, 1863, Evans Collection, Savannah.

17. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 44; Lowell Daily Citizen and News, July 2, 1863; Worcester National Aegis, July 4, 1863; Brenda Wineapple suggests that Hunter was relieved as commander of the Department of the South because of Shaw’s protests of Montgomery’s tactics, which Hunter did in fact endorse. The decision to replace Hunter with Gillmore was made on June 3, however, eight days before the raid at Darien; Wineapple, White Heat: The Friendship of Emily Dickinson and Thomas Wentworth Higginson (New York: Knopf, 2008), 136.

18. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 45; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, June 14, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 30; Catherine Clinton, Fanny Kemble’s Civil Wars (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 183; RGS to Charles Morse, July 3, 1863, Shaw Collection, MHS; LHD to Amelia Loguen, September 28, 1864, Evans Collection, Savannah.

19. Washington National Intelligencer, July 8, 1863; RGS to Francis Shaw, June 22, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 357; RGS to Sarah Shaw, June 25, 1863, ibid., 359; Edward Pierce to JAA, July 3, 1863, Andrew Papers, MHS; RGS to Charles Russell Lowell, June 20, 1863, Shaw Family Papers, NYPL. Frederick Douglass was also confused as to the exact location of St. Simons Island, telling Gerrit Smith that “Lewis my son is now in Florida”; see his letter of June 19, 1863, Smith Papers, Syracuse University.

20. RGS to JAA, July 2, 1863, in Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 47–48; Liberator, April 8, 1864; RGS to Francis Shaw, July 1, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 366; RGS to Clemence Haggerty, July 1, 1863, ibid., 367–368.

21. Pearson, Andrew, 2:98–99; Glatthaar, Forged in Battle, 170; Cornish, Sable Arm, 185; Herman Belz, “Law, Politics, and Race,” CWH 22 (1976): 199; JAA to William Schouler, April 25, 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry Papers, NA; Liberator, May 6, 1864; Cornish, Sable Arm, 187.

22. Journals of Charlotte Forten Grimké, ed. Brenda Stevenson (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 490–491; RGS to Sarah Shaw, July 3, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 372; Ash, Firebrand of Liberty, 91–92.

23. RGS to Sarah Shaw, July 4, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 373; Laura Towne, Letters and Diary of Laura Towne (Cambridge, 1912), 114; Journals of Grimké, ed. Stevenson, 492–493. Duncan, Death and Glory, 102–103, 169 suggests an “affair” between Shaw and Charlotte Forten. Duncan writes: “Shaw spent nearly a week in her company, often seeing her day and night. His four-day letter to his mother dated July 3–6 indicates his infatuation.” Apart from Forten’s ongoing relationship with Seth Rogers, her journals indicate that she and Shaw met only three times, always in the company of numerous other people. As Thomas Brown observed in a perceptive book review of Death and Glory, Duncan’s hints of an affair are “highly sensational,” and Brown correctly notes that far from being evidence of “his infatuation,” the letter of July 3–6 that Shaw wrote to his mother was one he asked her to forward to Annie; Thomas Brown, South Carolina Historical Magazine 101 (2000): 77.

24. James Bowen, Massachusetts in the War, 1861–1865 (Springfield, 1889), 354; RGS to Annie Haggerty Shaw, July 13, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 383.

25. RGS to George Strong, July 6, 1863, in Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 49.

26. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 50; Stephen Wise, Gate of Hell: Campaign for Charleston Harbor, 1863 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994), 53.

27. Report, Quincy Adams Gillmore, February 26, 1864, Department of the South, Record Group 393, NA; Wise, Gate of Hell, 9; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 52.

28. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 52. With the lowlands somewhat drained, what was known as Legare Island is no longer as recognizable. Terry’s main camp stood near what is now aptly named Yankee Drive, and its southern edge is now State Road 10-432.

29. E. Milby Burton, The Siege of Charleston, 1861–1865 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1970), 155–156; Stevens, 1863, 307; Springfield (Massachusetts) Republican, January 10, 1887; Janesville (Wisconsin) Daily Gazette, July 20, 1863; Wise, Gate of Hell, 72; R. S. Ripley to W. F. Nance, July 10, 1863, OR, Series I, Vol. 28, 368; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 53.

30. Lorenzo Lyon to father, July 14, 1863, Lyon Family Papers, NYHS; Burton, Siege of Charleston, 157–158; Report, Joseph Abbott, August 16, 1863, OR, Series I, Vol. 28, 364; Wise, Gate of Hell, 78; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 54.

31. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 55–56.

32. Cornish, Sable Arm, 151; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, July 20, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 36; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 58.

33. LHD to Frederick and Anna Douglass, July 20, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC; Peter Vogelsang to WAA, August 22, 1863; WAA, August 1, 1863.

34. George Stephens to WAA, July 21, 1863; Peter Vogelsang to WAA, August 22, 1863; Surgeon’s Affidavit, November 10, 1879, Peter Vogelsang File, Pension Office, NA; Peter Vogelsang, Regimental Descriptive Book, Company Muster Roll, July and August 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA.

35. Peter Vogelsang to WAA, August 22, 1863; LHD to Frederick and Anna Douglass, July 20, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC; George Stephens to WAA, July 21, 1863; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, July 20, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 37.

36. Peter Vogelsang to WAA, August 22, 1863; WAA, November 14, 1863; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, July 20, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 37; Redkey, “Profile of the Fifty-Fourth,” 27; George Stephens to WAA, July 21, 1863.

37. WAA, August 1, 1863; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 62; Trudeau, Men of War, 76; P. G. T. Beauregard to Samuel Cooper, July 17, 1863, OR, Series II, Vol. 6, 125.

38. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 63; Liberator, August 7, 1863; RGS to Annie Haggerty Shaw, July 15, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 385; Maher, Broken Fortunes, 40; LHD to Frederick and Anna Douglass, July 20, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC.

39. Maher, Broken Fortunes, 40–41; Glatthaar, Forged in Battle, 136.

40. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 64–65; Worcester Massachusetts Spy, August 5, 1863; RGS to Annie Haggerty Shaw, July 17, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 386; LHD to Frederick and Anna Douglass, July 20, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC.

41. RGS to Annie Haggerty Shaw, July 17, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 386; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 62.

42. Seraile, Angels of Mercy, 70; Manning, What This Cruel War, 116–117; Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War (Boston: Little, Brown, 1953), 242–243; Martin Blatt, “Glory: Hollywood History and Popular Culture,” in Hope and Glory, ed. Blatt et al., 223; Stevens, 1863, 308; Foote, One Great Remedy, 116.

43. George Stephens and Peter Vogelsang to WAA, August 22, 1863.

44. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 65–68; Stevens, 1863, 308.

CHAPTER FIVE

1. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 70–71; Springfield (Massachusetts) Republican, January 10, 1887; Wise, Gate of Hell, 16–17.

2. Wise, Gate of Hell, 59–61; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 11; Amherst Farmer’s Cabinet, August 6, 1863; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 67, 70.

3. Trudeau, Men of War, 74; Report, Quincy Adams Gillmore, February 26, 1864, Department of the South, Record Group 393, NA.

4. Amherst Farmer’s Cabinet, July 23, 1863; New York Times, July 18, 1863; Lorenzo Lyon to father, July 13, 1863, Lyon Family Papers, NYHS.

5. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 68; Burchard, One Gallant Rush, 132; Eon Smith to Truman Seymour, July 17, 1863, Department of the South, Letters Sent, Record Group 393, NA; George Washington Williams, A History of the Negro Troops in the War of the Rebellion (New York, 1888), 194; Iredell Jones to father, July 20, 1863, in Southern Historical Society Papers, ed. J. William Jones (Richmond, 1884), 12:37.

6. Glatthaar, Forged in Battle, 137; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 68; Report, Quincy Adams Gillmore, February 26, 1864, Department of the South, Record Group 393, NA.

7. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 72; Worcester Massachusetts Spy, August 5, 1863.

8. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 72; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, July 20, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 38; Iredell Jones to father, July 20, 1863, in Southern Historical Society Papers, ed. Jones, 12:37; Worcester Massachusetts Spy, August 5, 1863.

9. Alec Johnson to Burt Wilder, July 25, 1813, Burt Wilder Papers, Cornell University; RGS to Francis Shaw, July 18, 1863, in Blue-Eyed Child, ed. Duncan, 387; Larson, Bound for the Promised Land, 220; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 73, 77.

10. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 76–77; Catherine Clinton, Harriet Tubman: The Road to Freedom (New York: Little, Brown, 2004), 176; Trudeau, Men of War, 81.

11. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 77; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, July 20, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 38; Maher, Broken Fortunes, 43, incorrectly attributes this speech to Truman Seymour.

12. JHG to New Bedford Mercury, July 20, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 38; Liberator, September 11, 1863.

13. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 68–70; Report, ENH, November 7, 1863, OR, Series II, Vol. 28, 362.

14. Report, Joseph Abbott, August 16, 1863, OR, Series I, Vol. 28, 365; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 70. JHG to New Bedford Mercury, July 20, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 38, wrote that Shaw picked up the state flag, but he was not in a position to do so. John Wall and then William Carney carried the national flag, so Shaw must have briefly advanced the regimental colors.

15. NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 11; Report, Quincy Adams Gillmore, February 26, 1864, Department of the South, Record Group 393, NA; LHD to Frederick and Anna Douglass, July 20, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC; LHD to Amelia Loguen, July 20, 1863, Carter G. Woodson Papers, LC; Liberator, August 28, 1863.

16. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 81; Maher, Broken Fortunes, 44; Worcester Massachusetts Spy, August 5, 1863; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 13–14.

17. Worcester Massachusetts Spy, August 5, 1863; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, July 20, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 38; Liberator, August 28, 1863.

18. Wise, Gate of Hell, 106; Lorenzo Lyon to father, July 20, 1863, Lyon Family Papers, NYHS.

19. Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War, 16; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 83; WAA, August 1, 1863; Report, ENH, November 7, 1863, OR, Series II, Vol. 28, 362.

20. Wise, Gate of Hell, 107; Report, Quincy Adams Gillmore, February 26, 1864, Department of the South, Record Group 393, NA; LHD to Frederick and Anna Douglass, July 20, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 11–13; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 84, 91.

21. Boston Journal, December 29, 1892; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 13–14; Liberator, August 28, 1863; George Washington Williams, A History of Negro Troops in the War of the Rebellion (New York, 1888), 199; William Carney to State of Massachusetts, December 6, 1864, William Carney File, Pension Office, NA.

22. Liberator, August 7, 1863, August 28, 1863; Amherst Farmer’s Cabinet, August 6, 1863.

23. Maher, Broken Fortunes, 46; Lorenzo Lyon to father, July 20, 1863, Lyon Family Papers, NYHS; George Stephens to WAA, August 8, 1863.

24. Larson, Bound for the Promised Land, 220.

25. Burton, Siege of Charleston, 168; Howard Westwood, Black Troops, White Commanders, and Freedmen During the Civil War (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1992), 92; Quincy Adams Gillmore to Commanding Officer, Confederate Force, July 19, 1863, Department of the South, Letters Sent, Record Group 393, NA; Washington (Pennsylvania) Reporter, August 19, 1863.

26. James Guthrie, Camp-Fires of the Afro-American (Philadelphia, 1899), 467; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 15; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 98. The Morris Island–based correspondent for the New-York Tribune was evidently the first to report the “nigger” comment, in the July 30 edition. See Liberator, August 7, 1863.

27. Burton, Siege of Charleston, 114; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 101; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 15. On burial pits, see Drew Gilpin Faust, This Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War (New York: Knopf, 2009), 70–74.

28. William Scott to Margaret Scott, July 24, 1863, Margaret Scott Collection, NYHS; Worcester Massachusetts Spy, August 5, 1863; Quincy Adams Gillmore to James Dahlgren, July 19, 1863, Department of the South, Letters Sent, Record Group 393, NA. General Hagood later placed the conference two days earlier, on July 22, and he also claimed that Putnam’s body was returned. In fact, it was never recovered. See Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 101.

29. JHG to New Bedford Mercury, July 24, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 41; JAA to Edwin Stanton, September 26, 1863, Department of the South, Letters Received, Record Group 393, NA; LHD to Frederick and Anna Douglass, July 20, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC; Charles Russell Lowell to Anna Lowell, July 26, 1863, in Letters of Lowell, ed. Emerson, 284–285; Amherst Farmer’s Cabinet, July 30, 1863; Journals of Grimké, ed. Stevenson, 494, 497.

30. Ogden Haggerty to Charles Haggerty, July 24, 1863, and Ogden Haggerty to JAA, July 29, 1863, Shaw Telegrams, NYHS; JAA to Mrs. Ogden Haggerty, July 30, 1863, ibid.; WAA, July 26, 1863; Casualty Sheet, RGS, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA.

31. Worcester Massachusetts Spy, July 29, 1863; Boston Transcript, reprinted in Liberator, July 31, 1863; Liberator, August 7, 1863; Report, Quincy Adams Gillmore, February 26, 1864, Department of the South, Record Group 393, NA; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 16.

32. JHG to New Bedford Mercury, July 24, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 42; New Orleans Tribune, November 5, 1865.

33. Liberator, October 9, 1863.

34. WAA, August 1, 1863, February 6, 1864; Report, ENH, November 7, 1863, OR, Series II, Vol. 28, 362; Liberator, July 31, 1863, August 28, 1863.

35. Wise, Gate of Hell, 232–233; Abraham Palmer, The History of the Forty-Eighth Regiment, New York State Volunteers (Brooklyn, 1885), 17.

36. WAA, August 1, 1863; Washington (Pennsylvania) Reporter, August 19, 1863; Glatthaar, Forged in Battle, 140; New Haven Palladium, July 27, 1863.

37. Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War, 16–17; Report, R. S. Ripley, July 22, 1863, OR, Series I, Vol. 28, 373.

38. Liberator, August 7, 1863; Westwood, Black Troops, 92; Liberator, August 7, 1863.

39. Ball, Slaves in the Family, 338–339; William Scott to Margaret Scott, July 24, 1863, Margaret Scott Collection, NYHS; Iredell Jones to father, July 20, 1863, in Southern Historical Society Papers, ed. Jones, 12:37; Burton, Siege of Charleston, 167.

40. Liberator, July 31, 1863; Manchester Daily Mirror, July 27, 1863; Paul Escott, Lincoln’s Dilemma: Blair, Sumner, and the Republican Struggle over Racism and Equality in the Civil War Era (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2014), 158; Boston Transcript, reprinted in Liberator, August 7, 1863; Clinton, Tubman, 178.

41. Washington (Pennsylvania) Reporter, August 19, 1863.

42. New York Herald, reprinted in WAA, August 1, 1863; Cleveland Gazette, March 19, 1892; Escott, Lincoln’s Dilemma, 158; Masur, Lincoln’s Hundred Days, 227.

43. Liberator, July 31, 1863; Boston Daily Advertiser, August 21, 1863.

44. Charles Russell Lowell to John Forbes, August 4, 1863, in Letters of Lowell, ed. Emerson, 293–294; Charles Russell Lowell to Henry Higginson, September 14, 1863, ibid., 304; CFA Jr. to Charles Francis Adams, July 22, 1863, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 2:52–53.

45. Manning, What This Cruel War, 122.

46. Liberator, September 4, 1863; Ulysses Grant to Abraham Lincoln, August 23, 1863, Lincoln Papers, LC.

47. Foner, Fiery Trial, 251; Liberator, August 21, 1863; Cornish, Sable Arm, 156; Martin Delany to Edwin Stanton, December 15, 1863, in Freedom: Series II, ed. Berlin et al., 101.

48. Blight, Douglass’s Civil War, 160; Amherst Farmer’s Cabinet, February 25, 1864; Liberator, July 1, 1864.

49. Frederick Douglass, Life and Times (New York: Scribner’s, 1962), 342; Trudeau, Men of War, 87.

CHAPTER SIX

1. Alexia Helsley, Beaufort (Charleston, SC: History Press, 2005), 112; J. M. Woodward, Surgeon General’s Office, June 14, 1881, Peter Vogelsang File, Pension Office, NA; Journals of Grimké, ed. Stevenson, 495. No. 6 General Hospital still stands and is now numbered 411 Craven Street.

2. Peter Vogelsang to WAA, August 22, 1863.

3. S. J. Plympton to H. Gordon, September 8, 1863, Department of the South, Letters Sent, Record Group 393, NA; Helsley, Beaufort, 112; A Woman Doctor’s Civil War: Esther Hill Hawks’ Diary, ed. Gerald Schwartz (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1984), 50; Peter Vogelsang to WAA, August 22, 1863.

4. Esther Hill Hawks’ Diary, ed. Schwartz, 50; Liberator, August 7, 1863; LHD to Amelia Loguen, August 15, 1863, Evans Collection, Savannah; Larson, Bound for the Promised Land, 221.

5. Esther Hill Hawks’ Diary, ed. Schwartz, 51; Liberator, July 31, 1863, August 7, 1863.

6. William Carney to State of Massachusetts, December 6, 1864, William Carney File, Pension Office, NA; Journals of Grimké, ed. Stevenson, 495–497.

7. William Carney to State of Massachusetts, December 6, 1864, William Carney File, Pension Office, NA; William Carney, Regimental Descriptive Book, Company Muster Roll, September 1863 to June 1864, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Certificate of Disability for Discharge, July 21, 1864, ibid.; J. H. Hoadley to ENH, December 6, 1863, Massachusetts 54th Papers, NA; Horatio Bates to JAA, April 25, 1863, ibid.

8. Esther Hill Hawks’ Diary, ed. Schwartz, 54; Worcester Massachusetts Spy, August 5, 1863. Hawks provided only the rank and surname of the man who spoke these words, but of the five men named Morgan in the regiment, only John Morgan held the rank of sergeant.

9. Asa Tyler, 1860 Federal Census, Onondaga County, New York State, Roll M653–829, Page 535, Image 326, NA; Esther Hill Hawks’ Diary, ed. Schwartz, 50–51. Reason, the only black person on the Tyler farm, lived with Asa, age seventy-eight, Asa’s wife, and their three grandchildren.

10. Esther Hill Hawks’ Diary, ed. Schwartz, 52–53. Hawks mistakenly believed that Cyrus was killed at Wagner, but Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 385, lists him as dying on July 16 on James Island. On William’s fate, see U.S. Register of Colored Troop Deaths During the Civil War, 122–123, Record Group 94, NA. For Henry Krunkleton, see Federal Census of 1860 and 1870 (where his surname is spelled Crunkleton), Franklin, Pennsylvania, Roll M653–1112, Page 626, Image 91, and Allegheny Ward 2, Allegheny, Pennsylvania, Roll M593–1290, Page 125B, Image 252.

11. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 83, 329; Glatthaar, Forged in Battle, 164.

12. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 333; Maher, Broken Fortunes, 48–49.

13. Journals of Grimké, ed. Stevenson, 498; William Davis to Commanding Officer, August 6, 1863, Massachusetts 54th Papers, NA.

14. ENH, Regimental Descriptive Book, August 1, 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Morris Hallowell to General Thomas, August 1, 1863, Massachusetts 54th Papers, NA; ENH, Medical Certificate, August 1, 1863, ibid.

15. Amelia Holmes to Emily Hallowell, August 5, 1863, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College; Journals of Grimké, ed. Stevenson, 503.

16. ENH, Regimental Descriptive Book, August 1, 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Morris Hallowell to General Thomas, August 1, 1863, Massachusetts 54th Papers, NA; ENH, Medical Certificate, August 1, 1863, ibid.; ENH to John Forbes, August 6, 1863, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College.

17. LHD to Amelia Loguen, August 15, 1863, and August 27, 1862, Evans Collection, Savannah.

18. Charles Douglass to Frederick Douglass, September 18, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC; James McCune Smith, Certification, October 6, 1863, in Massachusetts 54th Papers, NA; WAA, September 26, 1863. On the residents of the Brooks House, see WAA, March 7, 1863. “New arrivals” included abolitionist “William Wells Brown of Massachusetts, Leo Lloyd of Liberia, [and] the Reverend W. T. Catto of New Haven.”

19. Frederick Douglass to Gerrit Smith, October 10, 1863, Gerrit Smith Papers, Syracuse University Library. Diedrich, Love Across Color Lines, 254, in an unconvincing attempt to invent an affair between Frederick Douglass and German journalist Ottilie Assing, imagines a scenario in which Anna remained in Rochester, while “it was Ottilie who often accompanied Douglass on his daily trips to the army hospital [sic]; to her he returned in the evenings,” despite the fact that Frederick surely took a room at the Brooks House. Diedrich’s creative fiction includes this passage: “For Assing, these weeks of care and fear were an invaluable chance to prove to Douglass that her love was not limited to him alone, was not purely self-centered, but extended to his family. For three precious weeks of extreme emotional challenge, in which his son’s life was at stake, Assing could slip into the role of mother and nurse, adviser and listener, friend and lover.” Astonishingly, Diedrich’s sole citation for this scenario is the above letter to Gerrit Smith, which never once mentions Assing.

20. WAA, November 13, 1863, December 5, 1863; LHD, Certificate of Disability for Discharge, March 2, 1864, Lewis Douglass, Regimental Descriptive Book, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA. The surgeon’s report found “Scrotal Abscess gangrenous in its character. There is now a fistulous opening in Perineum with discharge of pus.”

21. Nathan Sprague, General Affidavit, June 28, 1905, Sprague File, Pension Office, NA; Rosetta Douglass-Sprague, General Affidavit, February 20, 1905, ibid.; LHD, General Affidavit, September 13, 1906, ibid.; Charles Douglass, General Affidavit, September 17, 1906, ibid.; Charles Douglass to Frederick Douglass, December 20, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC; Julie Griffiths Crofts to Frederick Douglass, February 19, 1864, ibid.

22. LHD to Amelia Loguen, January 31, 1864, Evans Collection, Savannah.

23. LHD to Amelia Loguen, May 20, 1864, September 28, 1864, and March 26, 1865, Evans Collection, Savannah.

24. Foote, One Great Remedy, 90–91.

25. Ibid., 130; Joan Waugh, “‘It Was a Sacrifice We Owed’: The Shaw Family,” in Hope and Glory, ed. Blatt et al., 68–70.

26. Carol Bundy, The Nature of Sacrifice: A Biography of Charles Russell Lowell Jr. (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2005), 345, 456–472; Letters of Lowell, ed. Emerson, 36–37, 68; Waugh, Unsentimental Reformer, 83; Alec Johnson to Burt Wilder, July 25, 1913, Burt Wilder Papers, Cornell University.

27. Boston Herald, November 27, 1904; Cleveland Gazette, March 23, 1907.

28. Westwood, Black Troops, 11, 87.

29. Charles Sumner to Abraham Lincoln, May 20, 1863, Lincoln Papers, LC; Richmond Whig, April 3, 1863; Massachusetts Citizens to JAA, June 18, 1863, Lincoln Papers, LC; JAA to Abraham Lincoln, June 18, 1863, ibid.; WAA, July 4, 1863; Liberator, May 22, 1863.

30. Johnson Hagood to William Nance, July 16, 1863, OR, Series II, Vol. 6, 123; Forwarded, William Nance, July 16, 1863, ibid., 124; P. G. T. Beauregard to Samuel Cooper, July 17, 1863, ibid., 125; P. G. T. Beauregard to Samuel Cooper, July 21, 1863, ibid., 134.

31. Westwood, Black Troops, 89; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 405; Ira Berlin, Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South (New York: Pantheon, 1974), 137.

32. ENH to E. W. Smith, December 13, 1863, OR, Series II, Vol. 6, 775; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 397–401.

33. Milledge Bonham to P. G. T. Beauregard, July 22, 1863, OR, Series II, Vol. 6, 139–140; James Seddon to P. G. T. Beauregard, July 22, 1863, ibid., 139.

34. P. G. T. Beauregard to James Seddon, July 23, 1863, OR, Series II, Vol. 6, 145; P. G. T. Beauregard to Milledge Bonham, July 29, 1863, ibid., 159; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 403; JAA to Abraham Lincoln, July 27, 1863, Lincoln Papers, LC; Francis Shaw to Abraham Lincoln, July 31, 1863, ibid.

35. Hannah Johnson to Abraham Lincoln, July 31, 1863, in Freedom: Series II, ed. Berlin et al., 582–583. Johnson never identified her son, and no soldier with that surname listed his residence as Buffalo, which was the home of sixteen soldiers. Three Johnsons were from New York State. Alexander Johnson lived in Elmira, B. S. Johnson was from Mount Morris, and James Johnson was from Owego, near Binghamton. All three survived Wagner. In 1860 a fifty-year-old black woman named Hannah Johnson was working as a servant in Buffalo’s Hotel Continental. See Federal Census of 1860, Niagara, New York State, Roll M653–822, Page 143, Image 152.

36. Abraham Lincoln, General Order No. 252, OR, Series II, Vol. 6, 163.

37. Roger Pickenpaugh, Captives in Blue: The Civil War Prisoners of the Confederacy (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2013), 192; Milledge Bonham to James Seddon, August 8, 1863, in OR, Series II, Vol. 6, 190; James Seddon to Milledge Bonham, August 9, August 14, 1863, ibid., 191, 202; James Seddon to Jefferson Davis, August 23, 1863, ibid., 194; Jefferson Davis to James Seddon, August 25, 1863, ibid., 194.

38. Raleigh Daily Progress, July 24, 1863; Richmond Dispatch, August 5, 1864; Westwood, Black Troops, 92; Wise, Gate of Hell, 126.

39. Westwood, Black Troops, 96; Henry Worthington, 1860 Federal Census, Defiance, Ohio, Roll M653–947, Page 306, Image 63, NA. Archibald Worthington appeared in the 1850 census, at which time he was thirty and Henry was three, but not in the 1840 census. Kirk, Counsel, and Harrison do not appear in the federal census for any year.

40. Liberator, May 4, 1865; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 405–406.

41. Liberator, May 4, 1865; The Private Journal of Henry William Ravenel, ed. Arney Childs (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1947), 182; Savannah Republican, September 25, 1863; Wise, Gates of Hell, 126.

42. Gideon Welles to Edwin Stanton, August 3, 1863, in OR, Series II, Vol. 6, 171; Ethan Hitchcock to Edwin Stanton, August 3, 1863, ibid.; Liberator, March 11, 1864; Charles Russell Lowell to Aunt Ellen, September 16, 1863, in Letters of Lowell, ed. Emerson, 305.

43. McFeely, Douglass, 228.

44. Douglass’s Monthly, August 1863; Douglass, Life and Times, 347; Foner, Fiery Trial, 255.

45. Liberator, November 27, 1863; Westwood, Black Troops, 100.

46. Amelia Nelson, Claim, Daniel Nelson File, Pension Office, NA; Sarah Vorhies, Claim, Isaac Vorhies File, ibid.

47. Sarah Dorsey, Claim, Isaac Dorsey Jr. File, Pension Office, NA; John Mackey, Claim, Wesley Ryal File, ibid.

48. Jarvis interview, in Armstrong and Ludlow, Hampton and Its Students, 111–113.

49. Trudeau, Men of War, 275.

50. Jesse Swails, Consolidated Lists of Civil War Draft Registrations, 1863–1865, NM-65, Entry 172, Records of the Provost Marshal General’s Bureau, Record Group 110, NA; Boyd’s Elmira and Corning City Directory (Elmira, 1874), 236; Stephen Swails, Quartermaster’s Office, September 22, 1863, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Stephen Swails, Company Muster Roll, November-December 1863, ibid.; Liberator, April 8, 1864; WAA, May 7, 1864. Minnie Swails, 1880 Federal Census, Elmira, New York, Roll 817, Page 446A, Image 0471, lists Minnie as being seventeen, placing her birth sometime in 1863.

51. Nina Silber, Daughters of the Union: Northern Women Fight the Civil War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 64; David Demus, 1870 Federal Census, Montgomery, Franklin, Pennsylvania, Roll M593–1346, Page 418A, Image 196; Edwin Jourdain, Affidavit, William Carney File, Pension Office, NA; Maria Margaret Vogelsang, April 15, 1872, Register of Signatures of Depositors in the Freedman’s Savings and Trust Company, NA; William Dupree, Affidavit, James Trotter File, Pension Office, NA; CFA, Autobiography, 164.

52. Faust, This Republic of Suffering, 103–104; Lydia Maria Child to Sarah Shaw, June 9, 1862, and May 1, 1863, Shaw Family Papers, NYHS; LHD to Amelia Loguen, April 8, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC.

53. WAA, April 30, 1864; Liberator, May 6, 1864.

54. Judith Giesberg, Army at Home: Women and the Civil War on the Northern Home Front (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 185; Liberator, April 8, 1864; WAA, August 27, 1864; Trudeau, Men of War, 253; ENH to JAA, November 3, 1863, Regimental and Company Books, Massachusetts 54th, NA; Morris Hallowell to JAA, November 4, 1863, Andrew Papers, MHS; Cornish, Sable Arm, 188.

55. Mulderink, New Bedford’s Civil War, 113–114; WAA, August 6, 1864, August 13, 1864; Grover, Fugitive’s Gibraltar, 278.

56. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 28; WAA, April 2, 1864.

CHAPTER SEVEN

1. Bowen, Massachusetts in the War, 684; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 108; Burt Wilder to W.N., May 24, 1863, Burt Wilder Papers, Cornell University; Joshua Dunbar, Nicholas Said, John Smith, and Henry Jarvis, Regimental Descriptive Book, June 1863, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Jarvis interview, in Armstrong and Ludlow, Hampton and Its Students, 109–110.

2. Langston, From the Plantation, 204; WAA, June 13, 1863, July 6, 1863; Mulderink, New Bedford’s Civil War, 112–113; Liberator, August 7, 1863.

3. NPH, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 98–100; Liberator, July 3, 1863; WAA, June 20, 1863.

4. Maher, Broken Fortunes, 60; Donald Yacovone, “The Fifty-Fourth Massachusetts Regiment, the Pay Crisis, and the ‘Lincoln Despotism,’” in Hope and Glory, ed. Blatt et al., 42; Fox, Guardian of Boston, 5.

5. NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 7–8; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 110–112.

6. Samuel Flora, John Brown, Donald Cardoron, and Joseph Crooks, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA.

7. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 110; Alonso, Growing Up Abolitionist, 164; William Jackson to Edward Pierce, July 18, 1863, Massachusetts 55th Papers, NA.

8. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 2.

9. Boston Evening Transcript, July 15, 1863; Boston Recorder, July 17, Washington (Pennsylvania) Reporter, December 30, 1863; WAA, November 12, 1864; Nicholas Said, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863 Massachusetts 55th Infantry, NA.

10. John Smith, Consolidated Lists of Civil War Draft Registration Records, Record Group 110, NA; Edward Wild to Headquarters, October 15, 1863, John M. Smith, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; John M. Smith File, Pension Office, NA.

11. Edward Wild to Headquarters, October 15, 1863, John M. Smith, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; James Thurber to Alfred Hartwell, October 15, 1863, ibid.

12. Charles R. Douglass, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Henry Littlefield to Edward Smith, September 13, 1863, Massachusetts 54th Papers, NA.

13. Charles Douglass to Frederick Douglass, September 8, 1863, and September 18, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC; Frederick Douglass to Gerrit Smith, June 19, 1863, Smith Papers, Syracuse University.

14. Charles Douglass to Frederick Douglass, July 6, 1863, Douglass Papers, LC.

15. Redkey, “Profile of the Fifty-Fourth,” 22–23; Unknown to Adjutant General Schoular, August 19, 1863, Shaw Telegrams, NYHS; Warren Freeman, William Freeman, Charles Bateman, William Henry Morris, Evan Carrington, Charles Cassell, Jerome Cross, Samuel Flora, Joseph Crooks, Luke Foutz, and James Hamilton, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA.

16. WAA, June 12, 1863.

17. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 7; Cornish, Sable Arm, 253.

18. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 7; Alonso, Growing Up Abolitionist, 164–165; William Lloyd Garrison to GTG, August 6, 1863, in Letters, ed. Merrill, 5:167; GTG to Helen Garrison, August 3, 1863, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College; WAA, August 22, 1863.

19. WAA, August 22, 1863; Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, July 23, 1863, Fox Papers, MHS; GTG to Helen Garrison, August 3, 1863, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College.

20. Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, July 29, 1863, and July 30, 1863, Fox Papers, MHS; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 9–10. On New Bern during the war years, see Catherine Bishir, Crafting Lives: African American Artisans in New Bern, North Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), chap. 4.

21. Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, July 30, 1863, July 31, 1863, August 10, 1863, and August 2, 1863, Fox Papers, MHS; WAA, January 30, 1864; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, August 9, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 47.

22. Report, Bernard Beust, August 25, 1863, Department of the South, Letters Received, Record Group 393, NA; NPH, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; GTG to William Garrison, December 10, 1863, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College; Boston Daily Advertiser, August 21, 1863.

23. Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, August 16, 1863, and August 19, 1863, Fox Papers, MHS; WAA, August 22, 1863.

24. GTG to Wendell Garrison, August 12, 1864, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College; GTG to William Garrison, February 10, 1864, ibid.

25. JHG to New Bedford Mercury, October 17, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 72; JHG, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Peter Vogelsang, Field and Staff Muster Rolls, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; General Order No. 66, ENH, December 1, 1863, ibid.; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 135.

26. Liberator, August 21, 1863, October 2, 1863; Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, September 3, 1863, and September 26, 1863, Fox Papers, MHS; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, August 30, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 54.

27. J. A. Burns to M. S. Littlefield, September 5, 1863, Regimental and Company Books, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, Vol. 1, NA; Henry Hooper to J. A. Burns, October 23, 1863, ibid.

28. Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, January 26, 1864, Fox Papers, MHS; GTG to William Garrison, January 29, 1864, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College.

29. William Scott to Margaret Scott, July 30, 1863, and August 11, 1863, Margaret Scott Collection, NYHS; Cornish, Sable Arm, 245; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, July 24, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 40.

30. Burton, Siege of Charleston, 172; Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, September 8, 1863, Fox Papers, MHS; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, August 23, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed, Adams, 51–52.

31. Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, August 12, 1863, and August 20, 1863, Fox Papers, MHS; Washington National Intelligencer, August 26, 1863; Amherst Farmer’s Cabinet, August 27, 1863; GTG to Helen Garrison, August 7, 1863, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College.

32. Liberator, September 18, 1863, July 15, 1864; Charles Hill to unknown, August 29, 1863, Thomas William Faulds Collection, NYHS.

33. Stevens, 1863, 316; Fraser, Charleston, 264–265; Earl Hess, Field Armies and Fortifications in the Civil War: The Eastern Campaigns, 1861–1864 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 270; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 11; Gustavas Fox to Virginia Fox, August 21, 1863, Gustavas Fox Collection, NYHS; Journal of Ravenel, ed. Childs, 181.

34. Wise, Gate of Hell, 140; Report, John McConihe, August 18, 1863, OR, Series I, Vol. 28, 366; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 110.

35. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 111; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 11–12; Alonso, Growing Up Abolitionist, 166; Liberator, September 18, 1863.

36. NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 19–20; Amherst Farmer’s Cabinet, August 6, 1863, August 20, 1863.

37. Liberator, September 18, 1863; WAA, November 14, 1863; Mulderink, New Bedford’s Civil War, 112.

38. GTG to William Garrison, January 29, 1864, Garrison Family Papers, Smith Library; Liberator, September 18, 1863.

39. Wise, Gate of Hell, 202; Liberator, September 18, 1863; Richmond Enquirer, September 8, 1863; Richmond Whig, September 8, 1863.

40. Maher, Broken Fortunes, 66; Wise, Gate of Hell, 203; WAA, October 10, 1863; Report, James Ashcroft, September 13, 1863, Department of the South, Letters Received, Record Group 393, NA; Liberator, September 18, 1863.

41. Stevens, 1863, 317; Liberator, September 18, 1863; Augusta Chronicle, September 10, 1863; Charleston Mercury, September 10, 1863.

42. JHG to New Bedford Mercury, September 9, 1863, and October 24, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 56, 71; Richmond Dispatch, September 8, 1863; Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, September 25, 1863, and October 15, 1863, Fox Papers, MHS.

43. Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, September 7, 1863, Fox Papers, MHS; Jesse Frémont to John Greenleaf Whittier, February 14, 1864, in The Letters of Jesse Benton Frémont, ed. Pamela Herr (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 372; Liberator, September 18, 1863, October 2, 1863; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, September 9, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 56; WAA, January 30, 1864.

44. Request, Parkers Brown, December 17, 1863, Department of the South, Letters Received, Record Group 393, NA; Foote, One Great Remedy, 120; Susie King Taylor, Reminiscences of My Life in Camp (Boston, 1902), 31.

45. Liberator, September 18, 1863; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, November 21, 1863, and December 12, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 82, 90.

46. Quincy Adams Gillmore to Alfred Terry, August 2, 1863, Department of the South, Letters Sent, Record Group 393, NA; Liberator, September 18, 1863; Report, James Beecher, September 13, 1863, Department of the South, Letters Received, Record Group 393, NA; WAA, August 22, 1863.

47. Liberator, September 16, 1864; Smith, Lincoln and the U.S. Colored Troops, 56.

48. Report, James Beecher, September 13, 1863, Department of the South, Letters Received, Record Group 393, NA; S. L. McHenry to Edward Wild, August 19, 1863, Massachusetts 54th Papers, NA; Special Order No. 28, Edward Wild, September 1, 1863, ibid.

49. JHG to Abraham Lincoln, September 28, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 118–120.

50. Houston Tri-Weekly Telegraph, November 25, 1863; Philadelphia Inquirer, October 1, 1863; Washington Daily National Republican, October 2, 1863; Lancaster Daily Inquirer, October 6, 1863; General Order No. 105, Quincy Adams Gillmore, November 25, 1863, NPH Papers, MHS; WAA, January 23, 1864.

51. WAA, August 22, 1863; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, August 9, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 48–49.

52. Cornish, Sable Arm, 187; H. N. Sheldon to Burt Wilder, February 23, 1913, Burt Wilder Papers, Cornell University; Pearson, Andrew, 2:100–102; Liberator, November 20, 1863; WAA, December 12, 1863.

53. Pearson, Andrew, 2:103–104; Yacovone, “The Pay Crisis,” 41; William Dupree to Burt Wilder, February 23, 1910, Burt Wilder Papers, Cornell University; Theodore Tilton to Boston Journal, December 15, 1863, in A Grand Army of Black Men: Letters from African American Soldiers in the Union Army, ed. Edwin Redkey (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 235; ENH to NPH, November 23, 1863, NPH Papers, MHS.

54. Liberator, April 8, 1864; WAA, January 30, 1864; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 17; GTG to William Garrison, December 10, 1863, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College.

55. Liberator, January 29, 1864; WAA, January 12, 1864; Philadelphia Christian Recorder, January 2, 1864, in Grand Army of Black Men, ed. Redkey, 46.

56. JHG to New Bedford Mercury, November 21, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 82–83.

57. JAA to James Congdon, December 20, 1863, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 122–123; ENH to JAA, November 23, 1863, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College.

58. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 17; GTG to William Garrison, January 21, 1864, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College; Maher, Broken Fortunes, 64; Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, August 14, 1863, Fox Papers, MHS.

59. Trefousse, Stevens, 140; Pearson, Andrew, 2: 104; Congressional Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess., 466, 481; Liberator, February 12, 1864.

60. Stephen Swails to E. D. Townsend, January 14, 1864, in Freedom: Series II, ed. Berlin et al., 377.

61. Special Order No. 408, E. D. Townsend, September 11, 1863, Massachusetts 54th Papers, NA; NPH to E. D. Townsend, October 25, 1863, ibid.; NPH, Medical Certificate, October 9, 1863, ibid.; NPH, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA.

62. JAA to NPH, November 9, 1863, NPH Papers, MHS; Liberator, November 27, 1863; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 14; GTG to William Garrison, June 14, 1864, and to Helen Garrison, June 7, 1864, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College; Practicing Medicine in a Black Regiment: The Civil War Diary of Burt G. Wilder, ed. Richard Reid (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2010), 97.

63. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 20; Civil War Diary of Wilder, ed. Reid, 99; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 143; ENH to NPH, December 10, 1863, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College; John Posey to Mathias Embry, December 27, 1863, in Voices of the 55th: Letters from the Massachusetts 55th Volunteers, ed. Noah Trudeau (Dayton: Morningside, 1996), 55.

64. Manning, What This Cruel War, 147; Stevens, 1863, 412; Request, A. G. Bennett, December 18, 1863, Department of the South, Letters Received, Record Group 393, NA; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, January 2, 1864, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 96–97.

65. JHG to New Bedford Mercury, January 2, 1864, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed., Adams, 96–97; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 148.

CHAPTER EIGHT

1. Report, ENH, February 3, 1864, Department of the South, Letters Received, Record Group 393, NA; ENH to JAA, February 5, 1864, Massachusetts 54th Papers, NA; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 150; Quincy Adams Gillmore to Henry Halleck, March 7, 1864, OR, Series I, Vol. 5, 276.

2. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 151–152; C. M. Duren, “The Occupation of Jacksonville, February 1864, and the Battle of Olustee: Letters of C. M. Duren,” Florida Historical Quarterly 32 (1954): 262; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, February 28, 1864, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 112–113.

3. JHG to New Bedford Mercury, February 28, 1864, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 113; Norwich Aurora, February 26, 1864.

4. William Burger to ENH, February 11, 1864, Department of the South, Letters Sent, Record Group 393, NA; Quincy Adams Gillmore to ENH, February 9, 1864, ibid.; JHG to New Bedford Mercury, February 28, 1864, in On the Altar of Freedom, ed. Adams, 113; WAA, March 5, 1864.

5. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 22; William Burger to James Montgomery, February 11, 1864, OR, Series I, Vol. 35, 474; Duren, “Occupation of Jacksonville,” 264; WAA, April 9, 1864; Trudeau, Men of War, 135.

6. GTG to William Garrison, February 10, 1864, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College.

7. Richard White to Philadelphia Christian Recorder, April 2, 1864, in Voices, ed. Trudeau, 73; WAA, April 9, 1864; Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, February 16, 1864, Fox Papers, MHS.

8. John M. Smith File, Pension Office, NA; John Smith, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Edward Wild to Headquarters, October 15, 1863, ibid.; James Thurber to Alfred Hartwell, October 15, 1863, ibid.; Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, February 18, 1864, Fox Papers, MHS.

9. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 116, 118; John Wesley Cork, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Spencer Lloyd, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1863, ibid.

10. Charges and Specifications, John Wesley Cork, Spencer Lloyd, and John M. Smith, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA. John M. Smith File, Pension Office, NA, identified Hammond as “a widow woman.”

11. Statement of J. D. Hodges, February 18, 1864, John Wesley Cork, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA.

12. Charges and Specifications, John Wesley Cork, Spencer Lloyd, and John M. Smith, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, February 18, 1864, Fox Papers, MHS.

13. Boston Post, March 7, 1864; Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, February 18, 1864, Fox Papers, MHS.

14. Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, February 19, 1864, Fox Papers, MHS; Boston Herald, March 4, 1864; Boston Traveler, March 2, 1864; Boston Post, March 3, 1864, March 7, 1864; John Smith, Casualty Sheet, February 18, 1864, in Massachusetts 55th Papers, NA; Spencer Lloyd, Casualty Sheet, February 18, 1864, ibid.

15. New York Herald, March 2, 1864; Boston Post, March 7, 1864; Portland Daily Eastern Argus, March 4, 1864; WAA, March 26, 1864; Milwaukee Sentinel, March 14, 1864; Esther Hill Hawks’ Diary, ed. Schwartz, 61.

16. Glatthaar, Forged in Battle, 118; Diane Miller Sommerville, Rape and Race in the Nineteenth-Century South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 148; Faye E. Dudden, Fighting Chance: The Struggle over Woman Suffrage and Black Suffrage in Reconstruction America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 3.

17. Quincy Adams Gillmore to Henry Halleck, March 7, 1864, OR, Series I, Vol. 5, 276; Arthur Bergeron, “The Battle of Olustee,” in Black Soldiers in Blue, ed. Smith, 137.

18. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 157; Levine, House of Dixie, 170.

19. Report, ENH, March 1, 1864, OR, Series I, Vol. 35, 315; New York Evening Post, February 29, 1864; Philadelphia Christian Recorder, April 9, 1864; Joseph Wilson, The Black Phalanx (Hartford, 1890), 266.

20. Hartford Daily Courant, March 2, 1864; Report, ENH, March 1, 1864, OR, Series I, Vol. 35, 315; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 157.

21. Report, ENH, March 1, 1864, OR, Series I, Vol. 35, 315; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 163; Liberator, March 4, 1864; Amherst Farmer’s Cabinet, March 10, 1864. The Baltimore Sun, February 29, 1864, erroneously reported that Seymour’s troops faced 15,000 Confederates.

22. Report, ENH, March 1, 1864, OR, Series I, Vol. 35, 315; Amherst Farmer’s Cabinet, March 10, 1864; Liberator, March 18, 1864; Bergeron, “The Battle of Olustee,” 141–142; Robert Broadwater, The Battle of Olustee, 1864: The Final Union Attempt to Seize Florida (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2006), 121.

23. Broadwater, Battle of Olustee, 121–122; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 165; Trudeau, Men of War, 150; Amherst Farmer’s Cabinet, March 10, 1864.

24. Report, Loomis Langdon, March 25, 1864, OR, Series I, Vol. 35, 317; Broadwater, Battle of Olustee, 126; Trudeau, Men of War, 148; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 168; Report, ENH, March 1, 1864, OR, Series I, Vol. 35, 315; WAA, April 2, 1864.

25. Bergeron, “Battle of Olustee,” 143; WAA, March 26, 1864.

26. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 169; Stephen Swails File, Pension Office, NA; Stephen Swails, Casualty Sheet, February 20, 1864, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, Massachusetts 54th Infantry, NA; Report, ENH, March 1, 1864, OR, Series I, Vol. 35, 315.

27. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 172–173; Amherst Farmer’s Cabinet, March 10, 1864; Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, February 22, 1864, Fox Papers, MHS; WAA, April 2, 1864.

28. Report, ENH, March 1, 1864, OR, Series I, Vol. 35, 315; WAA, March 26, 1864, May 28, 1864; Maher, Broken Fortunes, 68; Duren, “Occupation of Jacksonville,” 270; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 24; Hartford Daily Courant, March 2, 1864; Liberator, March 4, 1864.

29. Philadelphia Christian Recorder, April 9, 1864; WAA, March 26, 1864; Richmond Whig, February 20, 1864; Smith, Lincoln and the U.S. Colored Troops, 79; Trudeau, Men of War, 151.

30. Baltimore Sun, February 29, 1864; Washington National Intelligencer, March 1, 1864; Charleston Courier, February 23, 1864; Hartford Connecticut Courant, March 5, 1864.

31. Cornish, Sable Arm, 268–239; Liberator, March 18, 1864; Worcester National Aegis, March 19, 1864; Amherst Farmer’s Cabinet, March 10, 1864; Hartford Connecticut Courant, March 4, 1864; Salem Observer, March 5, 1864.

32. WAA, April 16, 1864.

33. Esther Hill Hawks’ Diary, ed. Schwartz, 63.

34. Stephen Swails, Casualty Sheet, February 20, 1864, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, Massachusetts 54th Infantry, NA; Reports, Quartermaster’s Office, March 13, 1864, and April 15, 1864, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, Massachusetts 54th Infantry, NA.

35. WAA, May 7, 1864, April 23, 1863; Stephen Swails, Company Muster Roll, 1864, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, Massachusetts 54th Infantry, NA; Richard Allison to Stewart Taylor, October 1864, ibid.; War Department Memorandum, January 1883, in Freedom: Series II, ed. Berlin et al., 582–583.

36. War Department Memorandum, January 1883, in Freedom: Series II, ed. Berlin et al., 582–583; Duren, “Occupation of Jacksonville,” 282.

37. New Bedford Republican Standard, April 28, 1864; WAA, April 23, 1864; James Henry Gooding, Casualty Sheet, February 20, 1864, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, Massachusetts 54th Infantry, NA.

38. William Marvel, Andersonville: The Last Depot (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 41–43.

39. Pickenpaugh, Captives in Blue, 126; Williams, History of Negro Troops, 305; Liberator, December 30, 1864.

40. U.S. Congress, Trial of Henry Wirz: Letter from the Secretary of War (Washington, 1867), 174, 178, 280, 408, 526. Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War, 207, erroneously suggested that black prisoners were generally better off than whites, as they “would not be penned up in such a notorious prison slaughterhouse as Andersonville.”

41. U.S. Congress, Trial of Henry Wirz, 408; James Henry Gooding, Casualty Sheet, July 19, 1864, in Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, Massachusetts 54th Infantry, NA. William Marvel, Andersonville, 155, without mentioning Gooding by name, says that he was the only officer from the Fifty-fourth captured at Olustee.

42. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 179; Liberator, March 8, 1864; Charles Fox to Feroline Fox, February 1, 1864, Fox Papers, MHS; GTG to Helen Garrison, June 7, 1864, and to William Garrison, June 14, 1864, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College.

43. Yacovone, “Pay Crisis,” 44, 48; Special Order No. 234, John Foster, June 7, 1864, Department of the South, Letters Sent, Record Group 393, NA.

44. GTG to Helen Garrison, June 7, 1864, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College.

45. ENH to E. D. Judd, March 23, 1864, Regimental and Company Books, Massachusetts 54th Infantry, Vol. 1, NA; John Foster to Henry Halleck, July 7, 1864, OR, Series I, Vol. 35, 168; John Anderson to Alfred Hartwell, June 17, 1864, Department of the South, Letters Sent, Record Group 393, NA; “Private letter,” April 8, 1864, endorsed by JAA, Lincoln Papers, LC; WAA, February 13, 1864, April 23, 1864.

46. WAA, April 16, 1864, April 27, 1864; James Monroe Trotter to Edward Kinsey, March 13, 1864, in Voices, ed. Trudeau, 71.

47. C. F. Atkinson, Grant’s Campaigns of 1864 and 1865 (London, 1908), 362.

48. WAA, July 9, 1864; Charge of Mutiny, June 16, 1864, Wallace Baker, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, Massachusetts 55th Infantry, NA. Baker’s induction papers list him as “5 feet 4½ inches high.”

49. Glatthaar, Forged in Battle, 115–118; Boston Herald, June 28, 1864; WAA, July 9, 1864.

50. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 139; WAA, July 9, 1864, July 30, 1864; Boston Daily Advertiser, June 27, 1864; Indianapolis Freeman, June 24, 1911; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 18; Liberator, July 29, 1864.

51. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 86–89; Liberator, May 27, 1864; Abraham Lincoln to JAA, February 18, 1864, Lincoln Papers, LC; JAA to Abraham Lincoln, May 27, 1864, ibid.; Alonso, Growing Up Abolitionist, 168; ENH to JAA, June 4, 1864, Regimental and Company Books, Massachusetts 54th Infantry, Vol. 1, NA.

52. Edward Bates to Abraham Lincoln, April 23, 1864, Lincoln Papers, LC; Belz, “Law, Politics, and Race,” 207; Liberator, May 6, 1864, May 13, 1864, May 27, 1864.

53. Glatthaar, Forged in Battle, 174; Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War, 202; Edwin Stanton to Abraham Lincoln, June 17, 1864, Lincoln Papers, LC; Cincinnati Daily Gazette, August 7, 1871; New Orleans Tribune, August 23, 1864, October 19, 1864; Liberator, February 26, 1864, May 13, 1864.

54. Liberator, August 12, 1864; Abraham Lincoln to Edward Bates, June 24, 1864, Lincoln Papers, LC; Edward Bates to Edwin Stanton, June 20, 1864, ibid.; Pearson, Andrew, 119; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 18–19.

55. James Monroe Trotter to Edward Kinsey, July 18, 1864, in Voices, ed. Trudeau, 123; WAA, April 30, 1864, August 6, 1864; Liberator, October 4, 1864, July 8, 1864.

56. Alonso, Growing Up Abolitionist, 171; GTG to William Garrison, June 14, 1864, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College.

57. Trudeau, Men of War, 257; Report, ENH, June 11, 1864, Department of the South, Letters Received, Record Group 393, NA.

58. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 30; George Walker to Burt Wilder, October 1914, Burt Wilder Papers, Cornell University; James Monroe Trotter to Edward Kinsey, July 18, 1864, in Voices, ed. Trudeau, 122.

59. W. S. Brown to Burt Wilder, March 25, 1895, Burt Wilder Papers, Cornell University; Trudeau, Men of War, 262–263.

60. George Walker to Burt Wilder, October 1914, Burt Wilder Papers, Cornell University; Liberator, July 22, 1864, July 26, 1864; WAA, August 13, 1864.

61. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 227–228; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 34; Liberator, November 25, 1864; ENH, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, Massachusetts 54th Infantry, NA; LHD to Amelia Loguen, September 28, 1864, Evans Collection, Savannah; LHD to Frederick Douglass, August 22, 1864, Douglass Papers, LC.

62. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 37; James Monroe Trotter to Edward Kinsey, November 21, 1864, in Voices, ed. Trudeau, 156; WAA, November 12, 1864; Liberator, November 11, 1864.

63. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 227–228; Thomas Robinson to ENH, November 2, 1864, OR, Series I, Vol. 35, 323; Rufus Saxton to John Foster, September 8, 1864, ibid., 278; ENH to Stuart Taylor, October 5, 1864, Regimental and Company Books, Massachusetts 54th Infantry, Vol. 1, NA; Stephen Swails, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, Massachusetts 54th Infantry, NA; Manning, What This Cruel War, 185; ENH to Morris Hallowell, December 2, 1864, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College.

64. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 236; Alonso, Growing Up Abolitionist, 172.

65. ENH to Hannah Hallowell, November 28, 1864, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College.

66. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 238; Trudeau, Men of War, 320.

67. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 41; Alonso, Growing Up Abolitionist, 173; Savannah Republican, December 3, 1864; Philadelphia Weekly Times, May 10, 1884.

68. Savannah Republican, December 3, 1864; Philadelphia Weekly Times, May 10, 1884; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 243; James Monroe Trotter to Edward Kinsey, December 18, 1864, in Voices, ed. Trudeau, 165.

69. Andrew Smith, autobiographical sketch, June 1913, Burt Wilder Papers, Cornell University; Jordon Bobson to Burt Wilder, May 14, 1917, ibid.; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 244; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 43; Savannah Republican, December 3, 1864; Liberator, December 16, 1864, December 30, 1864.

70. Trudeau, Men of War, 326; James Monroe Trotter to Edward Kinsey, December 18, 1864, in Voices, ed. Trudeau, 165; Savannah Republican, December 3, 1864.

71. George Walker to Burt Wilder, October 1914, Burt Wilder Papers, Cornell University; Jarvis interview, in Armstrong and Ludlow, Hampton and Its Students, 109–110; Henry Jarvis File, Pension Office, NA; Henry Jarvis, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, Massachusetts 55th Infantry, NA; WAA, December 24, 1864.

72. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 45; Trudeau, Men of War, 329–330; WAA, December 24, 1864, February 4, 1865; Henry Jarvis, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, Massachusetts 55th Infantry, NA; Jarvis interview, in Armstrong and Ludlow, Hampton and Its Students, 109–110; James Monroe Trotter to Edward Kinsey, December 18, 1864, in Voices, ed. Trudeau, 165.

73. William Scott to Burt Wilder, November 21, 1914, Burt Wilder Papers, Cornell University; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 24; Trudeau, Men of War, 329; ENH to Hannah Hallowell, December 4, 1864, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College.

74. Liberator, December 16, 1864; Alonso, Growing Up Abolitionist, 174; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 262.

CHAPTER NINE

1. WAA, January 9, 1864.

2. Pearson, Andrew, 2:91; Stevens, 1863, 255.

3. Noah Trudeau, “Proven Themselves in Every Respect to Be Men: Black Cavalry in the Civil War,” in Black Soldiers in Blue, ed. Smith, 277.

4. WAA, December 19, 1863; GTG to William Garrison, January 21, 1864, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College; Massachusetts in the Rebellion (Boston, 1866), 488; Liberator, May 13, 1864.

5. CFA, Autobiography, 163–164; CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., January 16, 1864, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 2:117–118; CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., October 31, 1863, ibid., 2:99–100; CFA to Abigail Brooks Adams, August 27, 1864, ibid., 2:186; CFA to William Wardell, January 8, 1864, CFA, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, 1st Massachusetts Cavalry, NA; Special Order No. 26, E. D. Townsend, January 18, 1864, ibid.

6. Charles R. Douglass, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, 5th Massachusetts Cavalry, NA; Frederick Douglass Jr., Scrapbook, Evans Collection, Savannah.

7. Liberator, May 13, 1864; WAA, May 7; Trudeau, “Black Cavalry,” 283, 287.

8. Trudeau, “Black Cavalry,” 298; Kirkland, Adams, 29; CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., November 2, 1864, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 2:215; WAA, June 4, 1864.

9. CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., November 2, 1864, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 2:215.

10. Edward Bartlett to father, November 26, 1864, Bartlett Papers, MHS; Charles Douglass to Frederick Douglass, May 31, 1864, Douglass Papers, LC; Nick Salvatore, We All Got History: The Memory Books of Amos Webber (New York: Crown, 1996), 133; WAA, July 30, 1864.

11. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 740; Trudeau, Men of War, 221; New York Herald, June 29, 1864.

12. Edward Bartlett to Martha, November 30, 1864, Bartlett Papers, MHS; Charles Douglass to Frederick Douglass, May 31, 1864, Douglass Papers, LC.

13. Smith, “Let Us All Be Grateful,” 56; New York Times, June 26, 1864; WAA, June 25, 1864.

14. Smith, “Let Us All Be Grateful,” 56; New York Times, June 26, 1864; WAA, June 25, 1864, July 9, 1864, July 23, 1864; New York Herald, June 29, 1864; Boston Herald, June 21, 1864.

15. WAA, June 25, 1864; New York Times, June 26, 1864.

16. Smith, “Let Us All Be Grateful,” 56.

17. CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., December 31, 1864, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 2:240; CFA to Abigail Brooks Adams, August 12, 1864, ibid., 2:175; CFA to S. E. Chamberlain, September 1, 1864, CFA, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, 5th Massachusetts Cavalry, NA.

18. CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., November 2, 1864, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 2:217–219; CFA to Henry Adams, September 18, 1864, ibid., 2:194; CFA, Autobiography, 166.

19. Edward Bartlett to father, November 26, 1864, Bartlett Papers, MHS; WAA, July 16, 1864.

20. CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., August 5, 1864, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 2:172–173; CFA to Henry Adams, July 22, 1864, ibid., 2:168.

21. CFA to Abigail Brooks Adams, August 27, 1864, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 2:186–187; CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., August 20, 1864, ibid., 2:182; CFA to Henry Adams, September 18, 1864, ibid., 2:196.

22. CFA to Abigail Brooks Adams, August 27, 1864, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 2:186–187; CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., November 2, 1864, ibid., 2:219; CFA to Henry Adams, September 23, 1864, ibid., 2:199.

23. CFA, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, 5th Massachusetts Cavalry, NA; Charles Douglass, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1864, 5th Massachusetts Cavalry, NA; Charles Douglass to Frederick Douglass, September 15, 1864, and October 17, 1864, Douglass Papers, LC. William McFeely, Douglass, 235, writes that “Douglass was in Lincoln’s debt for Charles’s discharge,” but there is no evidence that Frederick asked for his son to be sent home, or that Lincoln intervened with the War Department in Charles’s behalf.

24. Boston Traveler, March 14, 1864; Liberator, April 15, 1864; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 193–194, 233; John Foster to JAA, November 18, 1864, in Freedom: Series II, ed. Berlin et al., 343.

25. ENH to William Burger, June 1, 1864, Massachusetts 54th Paper, NA; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 33; James Monroe Trotter to Francis Garrison, August 2, 1864, in Voices, ed. Trudeau, 141; WAA, July 24, 1864.

26. ENH to JAA, February 24, 1864, Regimental and Company Books, 54th Massachusetts, Vol. I, NA; WAA, June 4, 1864.

27. Edward Bates to Abraham Lincoln, April 23, 1864, Lincoln Papers, LC; Liberator, May 13, 1864; James Monroe Trotter to Francis Garrison, August 2, 1864, in Voices, ed. Trudeau, 141; WAA, July 30, 1864.

28. William Burger to Alexander Schimmelfennig, December 7, 1864, Department of the South, Letters Sent, Record Group 393, NA; Special Orders No. 4 and 11, Leonard Perry, December 10, 1864, December 19, 1864, OR, Series I, Vol. 44, 682, 765; Report, Charles Trowbridge, December 21, 1864, ibid., 451.

29. Report, ENH, December 21, 1864, OR, Series I, Vol. 44, 450; Report, Charles Trowbridge, December 21, 1864, ibid., 451; Report, P. G. T. Beauregard, December 22, 1864, ibid., 449.

30. ENH to Hannah Hallowell, December 26, 1864, and ENH to Emily Hallowell, December 31, 1864, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College; Maher, Broken Fortunes, 52.

31. Organization of Troops in the Department of the South, December 31, 1864, OR, Series I, Vol. 44, 855; WAA, January 4, 1865.

32. Special Order No. 44, Leonard Perry, January 27, 1865, OR, Series I, Vol. 47, 141; John Marszalek, Sherman: A Soldier’s Passion for Order (New York: Free Press, 1992), 334; Whittington Johnson, Black Savannah, 1788–1864 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1996), 172–173.

33. Salem Register, January 26, 1865; James Monroe Trotter to Edward Kinsey, January 29, 1865, in Voices, ed. Trudeau, 180.

34. Boston Traveler, January 23, 1865; Salem Register, January 26, 1865; Boston Evening Transcript, January 23, 1865; Liberator, January 27, 1865; Stephen Swails, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1865, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Special Order, William Burger, January 15, 1865, ibid.

35. Leonard Perry to ENH, February 1, 1865, OR, Series I, Vol. 47, 203; Liberator, February 24, 1865; Leonard Perry to ENH, February 6, 1865, ibid., 325; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 273.

36. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 273–275; ENH to Emily Hallowell, February 17, 1865, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College.

37. Liberator, February 24, 1865; Fraser, Charleston, 268; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 829.

38. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 277–279.

39. Fraser, Charleston, 269; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 56.

40. Bernard Powers, Black Charlestonians: A Social History, 1822–1885 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1994), 68; Levine, House of Dixie, 262; Liberator, April 14, 1865; New Orleans Tribune, March 19, 1865; Salem Register, March 9, 1865; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 56–57.

41. Trudeau, Men of War, 357–358; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 284–285.

42. Liberator, April 7, 1865; Salem Register, March 9, 1865.

43. Unsigned letter to William Burger, June 22, 1865, Regimental and Company Books, 54th Massachusetts, Vol. 1, NA.

44. Leonard Perry to ENH, February 28, 1865, March 2, 1865, March 4, 1865, OR, Series I, Vol. 47, 618, 658–659; George Hodges to C. H. Thomas, March 1, 1865, Department of the South, Letters Sent, Record Group 393, NA; George Hodges to John Hatch, February 28, 1865, ibid.; ENH to Emily Hallowell, March 26, 1865, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College; Journal of Ravenel, ed. Childs, 212–215, 220.

45. Special Orders, No. 74, William Burger, March 24, 1865, OR, Series I, Vol. 47, 17; Special Orders, No. 74, Quincy Adams Gillmore, March 24, 1865, Department of the South, Letters Sent, Record Group 393, NA; Robert Gourdine to Burt Wilder, December 30, 1918, Wilder Papers, Cornell University; George Garrison Diary (extract), March 2, 1865, ibid.; Liberator, March 31, 1865; WAA, March 25, 1865; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 61, 66–67.

46. Edward Bartlett to family, December 25, 1864, Bartlett Papers, MSH; CFA to Henry Adams, January 1, 1865, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 2:243; WAA, February 18, 1865.

47. Foner, Fiery Trial, 328; Nelson Lankford, Richmond Burning: The Last Days of the Confederate Capital (New York: Penguin, 2002), 144; Edward Bartlett to R. S. Ripley, March 29, 1865, Bartlett Papers, MHS; Trudeau, Men of War, 419.

48. Trudeau, Men of War, 420–421; Manning, What This Cruel War, 213; WAA, April 22, 1865.

49. WAA, April 22, 1865; Trudeau, Men of War, 423; Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War, 331; Edward Bartlett to brother, April 3, 1865, Bartlett Papers, MHS; Liberator, April 14, 1865.

50. Liberator, April 14, 1865; Rembert Patrick, The Fall of Richmond (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1960), 68; Ernest Furgurson, Ashes of Glory: Richmond at War (New York: Knopf, 1996), 337; CFA, Autobiography, 166; CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., April 10, 1865, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 2:261–262; Charles Francis Adams Sr. to CFA, April 28, 1865, ibid., 265.

51. Liberator, April 14, 1865; Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War, 332; Lankford, Richmond Burning, 122.

52. Trudeau, Men of War, 412; John Boles, Black Southerners, 1619–1869 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983), 197; Samuel Clayton to Jefferson Davis, January 10, 1865, OR, Series IV, Vol. 3, 1010; Charleston Mercury, January 13, 1865; Bruce Levine, Confederate Emancipation: South Plans to Free and Arm Slaves During the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 126–127.

53. CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., April 10, 1865, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 2:263–264; LHD to Amelia Loguen, March 26, 1865, Evans Collection, Savannah; Liberator, January 20, 1865; WAA, June 17, 1865.

CHAPTER TEN

1. Richmond Enquirer, February 11, 1865; Emory Thomas, The Confederate Nation, 1861–1865 (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), 304; William Davis, Jefferson Davis: The Man and His Hour—A Biography (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 625.

2. ENH to NPH, April 3, 1865, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College; ENH to Hannah Hallowell, April 3, 1865, ibid.

3. Liberator, March 31, 1865; Alonso, Growing Up Abolitionist, 175; William Lloyd Garrison to Helen Garrison, April 15, 1865, in Letters, ed. Merrill, 270.

4. New-York Tribune, April 18, 1865; Henry Mayer, All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery (New York: St. Martin’s, 1998), 578; New York Times, April 17, 1865; Esther Hill Hawks’ Diary, ed. Schwartz, 130; Liberator, April 28, 1865.

5. Liberator, May 5, 1865; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 74; Fraser, Charleston, 273.

6. Report, ENH, April 26, 1865, OR, Series I, Vol. 47, 1036; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 294.

7. Report, ENH, April 26, 1865, OR, Series I, Vol. 47, 1036; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 296–298; Boston Traveler, May 17, 1865. Dr. Charles Briggs characterized Swails’s injury as “a flesh wound in the right arm, missile minié ball.” See Physician’s Affidavit, February 4, 1887, Stephen Swails File, Pension Office, NA.

8. Report, ENH, April 26, 1865, OR, Series I, Vol. 47, 1036; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 301–302.

9. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 302–303; Edward Stevens, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1865, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA.

10. Report, ENH, April 26, 1865, OR, Series I, Vol. 47, 1037; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 303–304; Trudeau, Men of War, 394.

11. Report, ENH, April 26, 1865, OR, Series I, Vol. 47, 1037; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 308; Report, Edward Potter, May 6, 1865, ibid., 1028; Report, Frank Goodwin, April 29, 1865, ibid., 1038; Boston Traveler, May 17, 1865; ENH to Hannah Hallowell, April 27, 1865, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College.

12. ENH to unknown, April 29, 1865, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College; Report, Edward Potter, May 6, 1865, OR, Series I, Vol. 47, 1031; General Orders, Leonard Perry, May 5, 1865, ibid., 408; Special Orders, E. Harris Jewett, May 5, 1865, ibid., 408.

13. Petitioners to Edwin Stanton, January 1865, in Freedom: Series II, ed. Berlin et al., 340–341.

14. Boston Herald, May 15, 1865; Stephen A. Swails, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1865, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Peter Vogelsang, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1865, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; WAA, February 4, 1865.

15. James Monroe Trotter, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1865, 55th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Peter Vogelsang, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1865, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Civil War Diary of Wilder, ed. Reid, 251; New Orleans Tribune, July 15, 1865; WAA, July 22, 1865, September 5, 1865.

16. Glatthaar, Forged in Battle, 209–210; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 311; ENH to sister, May 15, 1865, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College.

17. Liberator, July 25, 1865; Augusta Daily Constitutionalist, March 26, 1865; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 312–313. When the college moved to its present location in 1922, the square was renamed in honor of Francis Marion.

18. Robert Zalimas, “A Disturbance in the City: Black and White Soldiers in Postwar Charleston,” in Black Soldiers in Blue, ed. Smith, 368; Liberator, May 5, 1865; WAA, April 29, 1865; ENH to sister, May 6, 1865, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College.

19. Zalimas, “Disturbance in the City,” 363; Fraser, Charleston, 274–275; Liberator, June 24, 1865, July 25, 1865.

20. Providence Evening Press, March 3, 1865; WAA, April 29, 1865.

21. John McKivigan, Forgotten Firebrand: James Redpath and the Making of Nineteenth-Century America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008), 108; WAA, April 29, 1865.

22. Special Orders, George Pope, July 1, 1865, Stephen Swails, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1865, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Susan Swails, June 13, 1871, Registers of Signatures of Depositors in Branches of the Freedmen’s Savings and Trust Company, NA; Albert Aspinall, 1860 Federal Census, Ward 5, Charleston, South Carolina, Roll M653–1216, Page 379, Image 392, NA.

23. JHG, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1865, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; ENH to William Dale, May 1, 1865, Regimental and Company Books, Massachusetts 54th, Vol. 1, NA; Charles Hill to William Thomas, August 3, 1865, William Thomas Collection, NYHS; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 120–121.

24. Liberator, April 4, 1865; WAA, May 27, 1865. In 1989 the remains of nineteen soldiers from the Fifty-fifth, who had died during the fall 1863 siege, were discovered buried on Folly Island and reinterred at Beaufort’s National Cemetery with full military honors.

25. Journal of Ravenel, ed. Childs, 246; Liberator, July 28, 1865; Charges and Specifications Preferred Against Private Alfred Lee, July 29, 1865, Compiled Military Service Records of Volunteer Union Soldiers Who Served with the U.S. Colored Troops, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA.

26. Andrew Smith, Autobiographical Sketch, June 1913, Burt Wilder Papers, Cornell University. Writing almost fifty years after the event, Smith spelled the deserter’s name as Peleit, but Alfred Pelette was the only soldier in the Fifty-fifth to have a surname close to Peleit.

27. Samuel Benton, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1865, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; ENH to L. B. Perry, June 19, 1865, 54th Massachusetts Papers, NA; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 77, 134, 142.

28. Zalimas, “Disturbance in the City,” 369; McKivigan, Forgotten Firebrand, 110.

29. Melinda Hennessey, “Racial Violence During Reconstruction,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 86 (1985): 102; Report, W. T. Bennett, July 15, 1865, in 54th Massachusetts Papers, NA.

30. Zalimas, “Disturbance in the City,” 376; New Orleans Tribune, July 28, 1865; Report, W. T. Bennett, July 15, 1865, in 54th Massachusetts Papers, NA; WAA, July 29, 1865.

31. Zalimas, “Disturbance in the City,” 377–378.

32. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 79–80.

33. Alonso, Growing Up Abolitionist, 175; Julie Saville, The Work of Reconstruction: From Slave to Wage Laborer in South Carolina, 1860–1870 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 27; James Monroe Trotter to Edward Kinsey, July 1, 1865, in Voices, ed. Trudeau, 183.

34. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 81; Liberator, June 9, 1865, June 16, 1865, July 28, 1865.

35. Liberator, June 9, 1865, June 16, 1865, July 21, 1865, July 28, 1865; George Nye to Charles Fillebrown, August 19, 1865, Department of the South, Letters Received, Record Group 393, NA.

36. Journal of Ravenel, ed. Childs, 247; Isaac Dyer to Charles Fillebrown, August 1, 1865, Department of the South, Letters Received, Record Group 393, NA; John McGould to Charles Fillebrown, October 5, 1865, ibid.; WAA, May 27, 1865.

37. James Monroe Trotter to Edward Kinsey, July 1, 1865, in Voices, ed. Trudeau, 183; GTG to William Garrison, July 12, 1865, Garrison Family Papers, Smith College; A. J. Williams to George Hooker, December 5, 1865, Department of the South, Letters Received, Record Group 393, NA; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 82.

38. Journal of Ravenel, ed. Childs, 245.

39. James Bucher to L. B. Perry, July 25, 1865, Department of the South, Letters Received, Record Group 393, NA; Saville, Work of Reconstruction, 144, 148. There were six men with the surname of Johnson in the Fifty-fifth. This may have been Colonel John J. Johnson, the only officer of that name.

40. Liberator, June 16, 1865; Patrick, Fall of Richmond, 124–125.

41. Salvatore, We All Got History, 145; Charles Francis Adams Jr., Regimental Descriptive Book, 1865, 5th Massachusetts Cavalry, NA.

42. CFA to Charles Francis Adams Sr., May 2, 1865, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 2:267–269; CFA, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1865, 5th Massachusetts Cavalry, NA.

43. Salvatore, We All Got History, 149; Postscript, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 2:270; CFA, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1865, 5th Massachusetts Cavalry, NA; CFA, Autobiography, 166–167.

44. Ebenezer Woodward to John Q. Adams, June 28, 1865, CFA, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1865, 5th Massachusetts Cavalry, NA; Report, Aaron Hooker, July 30, 1865, ibid.; CFA to Edwin Stanton, July 21, 1865, ibid.; Special Order No. 413, E. D. Townsend, August 1, 1865, ibid.; Postscript, in Adams Letters, ed. Ford, 2:270; Charles Francis Adams Sr. to CFA, March 24, 1865, ibid., 259.

45. Liberator, June 2, 1865, December 1, 1865; William Lloyd Garrison to Wendell Phillips Garrison, May 25, 1865, in Letters, ed. Merrill, 5:276; ENH to Morris Hallowell, August 12, 1865, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College.

46. Liberator, June 25, 1865; ENH to Morris Hallowell, July 10, 1865, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College; WAA, July 22, 1865; Peter Vogelsang, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1865, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA.

47. ENH to sister, July 11, 1865, Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College; Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 317–318; Stephen A. Swails, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1865, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Stephen A. Swails File, Pension Office, NA.

48. Emilio, Fifty-Fourth, 318–320.

49. Ibid., 320–321; Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Massachusetts in the Army and Navy During the War of 1861–65 (Boston, 1895), 298–299. Redkey, “Profile of the Fifty-fourth,” 21, placed the total number of those serving in the Fifty-fourth at a slightly lower 1,357.

50. P. F. Oliver to Burt Wilder, August 16, 1915, Burt Wilder Papers, Cornell University; Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 83; Liberator, September 15, 1865; Newark Daily Advertiser, September 20, 1865.

51. Fox, Fifty-Fifth, 84; Liberator, September 29, 1865; Boston Evening Transcript, September 25, 1865; William Lloyd Garrison to Edwin Stanton, September 15, 1865, in Letters, ed. Merrill, 5:296; Higginson, Massachusetts in the Army, 300–301.

52. Salvatore, We All Got History, 149; Higginson, Massachusetts in the Army, 166–167.

53. New Orleans Tribune, October 4, 1865, October 19, 1865; Liberator, November 24, 1865.

CHAPTER ELEVEN

1. Donald Shaffer, After the Glory: The Struggles of Black Civil War Veterans (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004), 45–49.

2. ENH, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1865–1867, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA.

3. Hallowell, Record of a Branch of the Hallowell Family, 65; Voter Records, Medford, Massachusetts, Town and Vital Records, 1620–1988, MHS.

4. ENH, 1870 Federal Census, Medford, Middlesex, Massachusetts, Roll M593–629; Page 598B, Image 481, NA; Philadelphia Inquirer, July 28, 1871; Lowell Daily Citizen and News, July 28, 1871; Alexandria Gazette, July 28, 1871; Portland Daily Press, July 28, 1871; Boston Journal, July 28, 1871; Boston Daily Advertiser, July 28, 1871.

5. Amelia Holmes to Emily Hallowell, August 16, [1884?], Hallowell Family Papers, Haverford College; Charlotte Hallowell, 1900 Federal Census, Medford Ward 3, Middlesex, Massachusetts, Roll 663, Page 5A, NA; Charlotte and Emily Hallowell, Passport Applicants, 1795–1905, Roll 309, NA; Charlotte Hallowell, 1910 Federal Census, Medford Ward 3, Middlesex, Massachusetts, Roll T624–602, Page 6A, NA; Charlotte and Emily Hallowell, 1930 Federal Census, Medford, Middlesex, Massachusetts, Roll 924, Page 4A, Enumeration District 0316, Image 743.0, NA.

6. Lydia Maria Child to Frank Shaw, December 6, 1870, Shaw Family Papers, NYHS; Foote, One Great Remedy, 168–179; Waugh, “Shaw Family,” 74–75; Coulter, “Shaw and the Burning of Darien,” 372; New York Times, October 13, 1905, October 7, 1924.

7. Boston Herald, November 27, 1904, March 19, 1907, March 21, 1907, March 27, 1907; Cleveland Gazette, March 23, 1907.

8. Ellen Gooding, 1870 Federal Census, New Bedford Ward 6, Bristol, Massachusetts, Roll M593–605, Page 258A, NA; Alan Borden, Power of Attorney, April 22, 1864, James Henry Gooding File, Pension Office, NA; Widow’s Declaration for Army Pension, April 5, 1864, ibid.; Ellen Gooding, Death Record, Massachusetts Vital Records, 1840–1911, New England Historic Genealogical Society, Boston.

9. Shaffer, After the Glory, 122; Petition of Cynthia Ann Downing Smith, April 15, 1882, and Affidavit of Ester A. Perkins, May 14, 1892, John M. Smith File, Pension Office, NA.

10. Boston Evening Transcript, July 15, 1863; Said, Autobiography, 202–203.

11. Said, Autobiography, 203–205; Nicholas Said, Register of Signatures of Depositors in Branches of the Freedman’s Savings and Trust Company, May 23, 1871, Tallahassee, Florida, NA.

12. Schaffer, After the Glory, 31; Said, Autobiography, 185, 189. As noted in Chapter 1, notes 11 and 14, where verifiable—including the names and sailing routes of ships mentioned in his memoirs—Said’s account proves to be accurate.

13. Macon Weekly Telegraph, May 23, 1871; Savannah Daily Advertiser, July 1, 1871; Columbus Daily Enquirer, January 18, 1871.

14. Nicholas Said, 1880 Federal Census, Haywood County, Tennessee, Roll 1262, Page 232B, NA; Allan Austin, “Mohammed Ali Ben Said: Travels on Five Continents,” Contributions in Black Studies 12 (1994): 24, note 1. Fox’s copy of Fifty-Fifth, which contains the note about Said’s death, is in the MHS.

15. William Capelle, Affidavit, June 7, 1871, Henry Jarvis File, Pension Office, NA; James Williamson, Surgeon’s Certificate, August 24, 1867, ibid.; Henry Jarvis, Declaration for Original Invalid Pension, April 17, 1882, ibid.; George Smith, Affidavit, May 19, 1890, ibid.; Henry Jarvis to the State of Massachusetts, September 15, 1868, ibid. Jarvis’s leg was made by a company founded in 1846 by Benjamin Palmer, himself an amputee. The firm was one of five that provided artificial legs to Union veterans. See Guy Hasegawa, Mending Broken Bones: The Union and Confederate Programs to Supply Artificial Limbs (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2012), 88–89.

16. Mary Jane Jarvis, Affidavit, April 30, 1894, Henry Jarvis File, Pension Office, NA; Henry and Mary Jane Jarvis, Marriage License, December 26, 1872, ibid.; Jarvis interview, in Armstrong and Ludlow, Hampton and Its Students, 113–114.

17. Mary Jane Jarvis, Affidavit, May 19, 1890, Henry Jarvis File, Pension Office, NA; Georgianna Brooks, Affidavits, March 26, 1894, April 3, 1894, ibid.; Mary Jane Jarvis, Widow’s Claim for Pension, June 16, 190, ibid.; George Johnson, Affidavit, May 1, 1894, ibid.; American Red Cross, Finance Division, November 31, 1926, ibid.; Board of Health, Record of Deaths, March 12, 1894, ibid.; Mary Jane Jarvis, Application for Accrued Pension, Widows, March 30, 1894, ibid.

18. Kirkland, Adams, 32; CFA, Autobiography, 168.

19. Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 497; Duberman, Adams, 391; Mark Wahlgren Summers, The Ordeal of the Reunion: A New History of Reconstruction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014), 305.

20. Kirkland, Adams, 221; Paul C. Nagel, Descent from Glory: Four Generations of the John Adams Family (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), 301.

21. William H. Carney to R. G. Pierce, October 23, 1863, May 22, 1865, William Carney Papers, Camp Meigs Records, NBPL; Susanna Carney, Pension Request, January 15, 1908, William H. Carney File, Pension Office, NA; William H. Carney, 1870 Federal Census, New Bedford Ward 3, Bristol, Massachusetts, Roll M593–605, Page 110B, Image 225, NA.

22. Amos Webber, Physician’s Affidavit, July 28, 1893, and F. H. Hooper, Surgeon’s Certificate, June 12, 1888, William H. Carney File, Pension Office, NA; William H. Carney, 1900 Federal Census, New Bedford Ward 3, Bristol, Massachusetts, Roll 637, Page 15B, Enumeration District 0187. On the number of Massachusetts soldiers who did not survive the war, see William Schouler, A History of Massachusetts in the Civil War (Boston, 1868), 613.

23. Topeka Colored Citizen, April 7, 1898; William Carney, Regimental Descriptive Book, 1900, 54th Massachusetts Infantry, NA; Grover, Fugitive’s Gibraltar, 279.

24. Pawtucket (Rhode Island) Times, December 9, 1908; NPH, Selected Letters, 94; Registry of Death, New Bedford, Massachusetts, December 24, 1908, and Susanna Carney, Pension Request, January 15, 1909, William Carney File, Pension Office, NA.

25. Pawtucket (Rhode Island) Times, December 9, 1908; Augusta (Georgia) Chronicle, December 10, 1908; Topeka Plaindealer, January 1, 1909; Boston Herald, December 9, 1908; Chicago Broad Ax, December 17, 1908; NPH, Selected Letters, 94.

26. Susanna Carney, 1910 Federal Census, New Bedford Ward 4, Bristol, Massachusetts, Roll T624–579, Page 19B, Enumeration District 0199, NA; Clara Carney, U.S., Social Security Applications and Claims Index, 1936–2007, NA; Clara Carney, 1920 Federal Census, New Bedford Ward 4, Bristol, Massachusetts, Roll T625–686, Page 7A, Enumeration District 139, Image 366; Clara Carney, 1930 Federal Census, New Bedford, Bristol, Massachusetts, Roll 891, Page 2A, Enumeration District 0126, Image 840.0.

27. Hallowell, Record of a Branch of the Hallowell Family, 70; NPH, Selected Letters, 21; NPH, 1870 Federal Census, Medford, Middlesex, Massachusetts, Roll M593–629, Page 631A, Image 548, NA.

28. Boston Herald, April 12, 1914; NPH, Selected Letters, 73–74, 78.

29. NPH, Selected Letters, 74–77, 83.

30. Edward White, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes: Law and the Inner Self (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 33, 589; Benjamin Griffith Brawley, Social History of the American Negro (New York: Collier-Macmillian, 1921); Boston Journal, April 14, 1914; Springfield (Massachusetts) Republican, April 13, 1914, April 16, 1914; Boston Herald, April 12, 1914, April 13, 1914, April 15, 1914.

31. John Bowles, Affidavit, December 30, 1908, and William Dupree, Affidavit, August 20, 1908, James Trotter File, Pension Office, NA; Fox, Guardian of Boston, 9.

32. James Monroe Trotter, 1870 Federal Census, Boston, Ward 11, Suffolk, Massachusetts, Roll M93–647, Page 169B, Image 345, NA; James Monroe Trotter, Music and Some Highly Musical People (Boston, 1878), 4; Greenspan, Brown, 471; Fox, Guardian of Boston, 10.

33. Fox, Guardian of Boston, 11–12; Stephen Kantrowitz, More Than Freedom: Fighting for Black Citizenship in a White Republic, 1829–1889 (New York: Penguin, 2012), 416–417.

34. Amelia Loguen to Frederick Douglass, April 14, 1887, Douglass Papers, LC; Cleveland Gazette, March 5, 1892; Certificate of Death, February 26, 1892, James Monroe Trotter File, Pension Office, NA; NPH to William Monroe Trotter, March 1, 1910, in NPH, Selected Letters, 85–86; Douglas R. Egerton, The Wars of Reconstruction: The Brief, Violent History of America’s Most Progressive Era (New York: Bloomsbury, 2014), 332.

35. San Francisco Elevator, October 27, 1865. Peter Vogelsang, 1880 Federal Census, Brooklyn, New York (Roll 586, Page 504C, NA), listed Maria as approximately seventy, making her birth year 1810, but census takers were notoriously inaccurate in their guesses. When Maria opened an account with the Freedman’s Bank in 1872, she gave her birth year as 1816, making her two years younger than her husband. See Maria Margaret Vogelsang, April 15, 1872, Register of Signatures of Depositors in Branches of the Freedman’s Savings and Trust Company, NA.

36. Andrew Wender Cohen, Contraband: Smuggling and the Birth of the American Century (New York: Norton, 2015), 141–142.

37. New York Herald, November 10, 1885.

38. Lydia Maria Child to Francis Shaw, April 13, 1873, Shaw Family Papers, NYPL; New York Freeman, April 9, 1887; New York World, September 22, 1870, September 23, 1870; New York Herald, May 3, 1872.

39. Cohen, Contraband, 256; New-York Tribune, July 4, 1885; New York Herald, June 11, 1886; New York Freeman, April 9, 1887.

40. New York Freeman, April 9, 1887; Peter Vogelsang, Affidavit, November 10, 1879, Peter Vogelsang File, Pension Office, NA.

41. Susan Swails, Declaration for Widow’s Pension, June 4, 1900, Susan Swails, Deposition, November 7, 1900, Mary McKinley, December 1, 1900, and Harriet Aspinall, Deposition, August 11, 1900, Stephen Swails File, Pension Office, NA. On Seabrook, see Bernard E. Powers Jr., Black Charlestonians: A Social History, 1822–1885 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1994), 211.

42. Steven Swails, 1870 Federal Census, Williamsburg, South Carolina, Roll M593–1511, Page 78B, Image 160, NA; Gordon Jenkinson, Williamsburg District: A History of Its People and Places (Charleston: History Press, 2007), 88; Charleston Courier, December 8, 1867.

43. Daily Albany Argus, September 28, 1868; Cleveland Plain Dealer, October 12, 1868.

44. New-York Tribune, October 27, 1868; Harrisburg Weekly Patriot and Union, October 15, 1868.

45. Egerton, Wars of Reconstruction, 162; John Reynolds, Reconstruction in South Carolina, 1865–1877 (Columbia, 1903), 233; Chicago Pomeroy’s Democrat, March 8, 1873.

46. Walter Edgar, South Carolina: A History (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998), 399; William S. McFeely, Grant: A Biography (New York: Norton, 1981), 370–373; Boston Journal, March 28, 1873; Cleveland Plain Dealer, August 27, 1872; Augusta Chronicle, August 28, 1872; Auburn Daily Bulletin, March 28, 1873; New York Herald, March 28, 1873.

47. Charleston Courier, September 13, 1873, December 11, 1873; New-York Tribune, August 21, 1874; Alexandria Gazette, August 21, 1874; Chicago Pomeroy’s Democrat, March 8, 1873.

48. Thomas Holt, Black over White: Negro Political Leadership in South Carolina During Reconstruction (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977), 109; Chicago Daily Inter-Ocean, April 12, 1876; Cleveland Plain Dealer, April 12, 1876; Albany Evening Journal, April 12, 1876; Augusta Chronicle, April 13, 1876; New York Irish American Weekly, April 22, 1876; Charleston News and Courier, March 4, 1874; St. Albans (Vermont) Daily Messenger, October 14, 1878; Baltimore Sun, October 16, 1878.

49. New-York Tribune, October 30, 1878, November 20, 1878; Madison Wisconsin State Journal, November 26, 1878; Chicago Daily Inter-Ocean, October 23, 1878; Cincinnati Daily Gazette, October 15, 1878; Cincinnati Commercial Tribune, October 23, 1878. Stephen A. Swails Jr.’s birth and death dates are found in South Carolina Death Records, Columbia, South Carolina Department of Archives and History.

50. Troy Times, October 20, 1881; Concord New Hampshire Patriot and State Gazette, July 17, 1789; Boston Journal, July 16, 1879; Madison Wisconsin State Journal, July 22, 1879; Portland Daily Press, July 12, 1879; New-York Tribune, July 11, 1879; New York Globe, February 16, 1884; St. Paul Western Appeal, September 29, 1888.

51. Columbia The State, June 17, 1896, December 25, 1897, May 18, 1900; Charleston Courier, May 18, 1900, May 19, 1900; Surgeon’s Certificate, January 18, 1887; D. C. Scott, Affidavit, December 1, 1900; U.S. Pension Agency, October 31, 1900; R. D. Rollins, Report, County Treasurer, August 2, 1900, Stephen Swails File, Pension Office, NA. Summers, Ordeal of the Reunion, 320, remarks that Swails had a “stained reputation” without noting how partisan and often racist the charges were.

52. Frederick Douglass to Charles Sumner, April 29, 1865, in The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, ed. Philip S. Foner (New York: International, 1975), 4:165; LHD to Amelia Loguen, January 7, 1866, Evans Collection, Savannah; Charles Douglass to Frederick Douglass, February 10, 1866, Douglass Papers, LC. McFeely, Douglass, 235, mistakenly observes that Lewis encountered his cousin after being “stationed briefly, with a detachment of the Fifty-fourth,” in Maryland. The regiment was never stationed in Maryland, and Douglass had been mustered out because of his wounds two years before.

53. LHD to Frederick Douglass, October 29, 1866; Henry Waggoner to Frederick Douglass, August 27, 1866; Charles Douglass to Frederick Douglass, May 25, 1867; Charles Douglass to Frederick Douglass, February 24, 1868, Douglass Papers, LC.

54. LHD to Amelia Loguen, February 10, 1868, Evans Collection, Savannah.

55. Wilmington Daily Commercial, January 19, 1869; Lewis Douglass to Amelia Loguen, July 5, 1869, Evans Collection, Savannah; Charles Douglass, Deposition, October 20, 1908, LHD File, Pension Office, NA. The Loguen house at 293 East Genesee Street is no longer standing; the site is now occupied by a Rite Aid pharmacy.

56. Broadside, February 1869, Gerrit Smith Papers, Syracuse University; San Francisco Elevator, June 11, 1869, May 24, 1873; Washington Daily National Intelligencer, June 3, 1869; Jackson (Michigan) Daily Citizen, January 27, 1871; New-York Tribune, May 20, 1871; Washington Notes and News, December 12, 1871; Providence Evening Press, September 21, 1872; Washington Daily National Republican, September 19, 1872; Washington Bee, March 5, 1887.

57. Charles Douglass to Frederick Douglass, February 24, 1868, Douglass Papers, LC; LHD to Amelia Loguen Douglass, January 30, 1895, Evans Collection, Savannah; Charles Douglass, Deposition, October 20, 1908, Lewis Douglass File, Pension Office, NA; LHD, Declaration for Pension, February 11, 1907, ibid.; E. L. Bailey to Fannie Douglass, July 6, 1937, ibid.; Amelia Loguen Douglass, Certification of Death, August 8, 1936, ibid.; LHD, Certificate of Death, September 19, 1908, Washington Public Library.

58. Charles Douglass to Frederick Douglass, June 6, 1867, April 19, 1867, April 30, 1867, May 9, 1867, Douglass Papers, LC.

59. LHD to Amelia Loguen, July 17, 1869, Evans Collection, Savannah; Charles Douglass, 1870 Federal Census, Washington, Roll 593–127, Page 694B, Image 388, NA; Charles Douglass to Frederick Douglass, September 7, 1868, May 13, 1873, Douglass Papers, LC.

60. Egerton, Wars of Reconstruction, 147; Charles Douglass to Frederick Douglass, July 14, 1868, January 20, 1872, August 5, 1876, August 18, 1877, Douglass Papers, LC.

61. Charles Douglass to Frederick Douglass, April 26, 1887, Douglass Papers, LC; Charles Douglass, 1880 Federal Census, Washington, D.C., Roll 123, Page 379A, Image 0762, NA; Cleveland Gazette, October 11, 1902, June 13, 1908; Washington Bee, July 8, 1905, October 6, 1906.

62. Washington Bee, December 4, 1920; Boston Herald, November 25, 1920; St. Louis Clarion, December 18, 1920; Washington Colored American, December 19, 1903.

63. Paul Laurence Dunbar, Complete Poems (New York, 1922), 50–51.

EPILOGUE

1. Richard Reid, “USCT Veterans in Post–Civil War North Carolina,” in Black Soldiers in Blue, ed. Smith, 393; Cleveland Gazette, April 2, 1892.

2. Charleston Missionary Record, July 5, 1873; Barbara Gannon, The Won Cause: Black and White Comradeship in the Grand Army of the Republic (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011), 60, 89, 104–105.

3. Cornish, Sable Arm, 288; Steven Hahn, A Nation Under Their Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 92; Duncan, Death and Glory, 50; Smith, “Let Us All Be Grateful,” 8; Liberator, January 20, 1865; WAA, June 18, 1864.

4. Liberator, September 16, 1864, December 22, 1865; NPH, The Negro as a Soldier, 28.

5. New York Age, August 15, 1891, November 21, 1891; Cleveland Gazette, May 16, 1891, March 19, 1892.

6. Cleveland Gazette, March 28, 1891; San Francisco Elevator, May 7, 1869; Kansas City Rising Son, September 4, 1903; Wichita Colored Citizen, September 5, 1903.

7. Cleveland Gazette, October 17, 1891, December 5, 1891, May 6, 1893, August 22, 1896; Springfield (Massachusetts) Republican, January 18, 1916; Wilkes-Barre Times Leader, June 18, 1915.

8. Lydia Maria Child to Sarah Shaw, April 8, 1866, Shaw Family Papers, NYPL; Liberator, January 22, 1864, December 9, 1864; New Orleans Tribune, November 1, 1864; Charles Russell Lowell to Josephine Shaw, September 15, 1863, in Letters of Lowell, ed. Emerson, 304; Kathryn Greenthal, “Augustus Saint-Gaudens and the Shaw Memorial,” in Hope and Glory, ed. Blatt et al., 116; Liberator, August 21, 1863, December 22, 1865; Stephen Puleo, A City So Grand: The Rise of an American Metropolis, 1850–1900 (Boston: Beacon Press, 2010), 150; Thomas J. Brown, “The Peaceable War Memorial,” in The Civil War in Art and Memory, ed. Kirk Savage (Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 2016), 249.

9. Marilyn Richardson, “Taken from Life: Edward Bannister, Edmonia Lewis, and the Memorialization of the Fifty-Fourth Massachusetts Regiment,” in Hope and Glory, ed. Blatt et al., 94; Katie Kresser, “Power and Glory: Brahmin Identity and the Shaw Memorial,” American Art 20 (2006): 41; Liberator, October 9, 1863, September 4, 1863, November 20, 1863.

10. Greenthal, “Augustus Saint-Gaudens,” 117–118, 127; Thomas J. Brown, “Civic Monuments of the Civil War,” in Hope and Glory, ed. Blatt et al., 146; Kresser, “Power and Glory,” 42; Brown, “Peaceable War Memorial,” in Civil War in Art, ed. Savage, 249; Liberator, October 20, 1865, January 13, 1865.

11. Invitation to Luis Emilio, July 1, 1887, NPH Papers, MHS; Washington Bee, August 6, 1887.

12. New York Age, June 6, 1891; David Blight, “The Shaw Memorial,” in Hope and Glory, ed. Blatt et al., 90.

13. Kresser, “Power and Glory,” 47; Kirk Savage, “Race, Art, and the Shaw Memorial,” in Hope and Glory, ed. Blatt et al.,158, 164–165; Stephen T. Riley, “A Monument to Colonel Robert Gould Shaw,” Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society 75 (1963): 36.

14. Circular, May 20, 1897, NPH Papers, MHS; Circular, April 1, 1897, ibid.; Circular, May 26, 1897, ibid.; Waugh, “Shaw Family,” 53; Brown, “Civic Monuments of the War,” 152–153; Wichita National Reflector, May 15, 1897.

15. Boston Herald, June 1, 1897; Trudeau, Men of War, 467; Allen Flint, “Black Response to Colonel Shaw,” Phylon 45 (1984): 218; Waugh, “Shaw Family,” 53.

16. Cleveland Gazette, August 6, 1898.

17. Topeka Plaindealer, October 15, 1915; Cleveland Gazette, December 25, 1915; Springfield (Massachusetts) Republican, January 18, 1916; St. Paul Western Appeal, December 4, 1915.

18. Savannah Tribune, October 2, 1915; Topeka Plaindealer, January 15, 1915; Springfield (Massachusetts) Republican, April 20, 1915; Indianapolis Freeman, July 26, 1913, October 2, 1915, December 25, 1915.

19. Washington Bee, April 1, 1916, May 6, 1916; Trenton Evening Times, April 4, 1916; Boston Herald, July 16, 1916, July 19, 1916; Boston Journal, July 19, 1916.

20. St. Paul Western Appeal, January 25, 1919; Trenton Evening Times, January 19, 1917, August 19, 1917; Savannah Tribune, January 19, 1918; Gulfport Daily Herald, April 17, 1917; Omaha World Herald, May 29, 1918; Cleveland Plain Dealer, December 14, 1917; Chicago Broad Ax, April 6, 1918; Boston Herald, July 18, 1918; Arthur Barbeau and Florette Henri, The Unknown Soldiers: Black American Troops in World War I (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1974), 38.

21. Columbia The State, July 8, 1917; Augusta Chronicle, July 18, 1917; Charleston Courier, July 8, 1917.

22. Chicago Broad Ax, January 28, 1922, May 29, 1926; Gannon, The Won Cause, 76–77; Topeka Plaindealer, February 5, 1926; Springfield (Massachusetts) Republican, October 21, 1928.

23. Los Angeles Tribune, December 6, 1943; Trudeau, Men of War, 468; Redkey, “Profile of the Fifty-Fourth,” 33; Springfield (Massachusetts) Republican, August 1, 1941.

24. Liberator, February 16, 1865; Rawn James Jr., The Double V: How Wars, Protest, and Harry Truman Desegregated America’s Military (New York: Bloomsbury, 2013), 228.

25. Los Angeles Tribune, December 6, 1943; For Jobs and Freedom: Selected Speeches and Writings of A. Philip Randolph, ed. Andrew Kersten (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2015), 295.

26. Eric Lach, “Confederates Look to Win ‘Second Battle of Olustee’ in Florida,” TPM Muckraker, December 5, 2013; Lizette Alvarez, “Blue and Gray Still in Conflict at a Battle Site,” New York Times, January 16, 2014.

27. Niko Emack-Bazelais and Jennifer Smith, “Confederate Flag Hung from Boston Memorial for Black Soldiers,” Boston Globe, June 29, 2015.