Please note that page numbers are not accurate for the e-book edition.
Aetna, xii, 123–25, 126, 127, 128, 130, 136
Affleck, Ben, 103
Afran, Bruce, 135
African-American DNA Roots Project, 175n45
African American Lives, 83, 95, 96, 97, 139, 145–46, 184n4
African Ancestry, Inc.: Certificate of Ancestry, 66, 102, 143, 160; DNA diasporas, networks, 145–47, 154, 158; DNA testing partnerships of, 151; Farmer-Paellmann case, 126–38; as grassroots activism, 32, 39–40; history of, 21, 63–67, 97, 181n48, 181n50; overview, xi–xii, 11, 20, 172n10; presentations, 33–35; reparations activism by (see reparations); results, reliability of, 76, 84–88, 90–91, 153; testing of, 21, 150, 152–53, 158, 181–82n50. See also Kittles, Rick A.; MatriClan; Paige, Gina; PatriClan
African Burial Ground, 54, 77, 165, 177n11; advisory council on, 54; African Burial Ground National Monument, 43, 165; biocultural data, 56; biological racing, 48–52, 55, 58, 178n24, 178n28; coroner’s method, 45, 46; craniometric analysis, 55–56; dental morphology, 56–57; excavation methods, 44–47, 122; genetic analysis in, 43–44; haplogroups, 58; historical impact of, 21–22; identity restoration, 51–52, 64–67; macroethnic affiliations, 61–62; molecular genetic assessment, 57–63, 180n32; politics of excavation, 45–48, 50–52, 178n28; politics of research, 63–67; race vs. ethnicity, 51, 178n28; recontextualization, 55; remains, handling of, 47–48, 54; researching of remains, 45, 48–52, 54, 55, 58–60, 122, 176n2, 178n24, 178n28; sacredness of, 45–46, 163–64. See also African Ancestry, Inc.; Descendants of the African Burial Ground
African DNA (company), 63, 95
African Lineage Database, 66–67, 79, 84, 146, 181–82n50
Afro-American Historical and Genealogical Society (AAHGS), x, xi, 11, 78, 81, 142–43, 157
Alfonsin, Raúl, 31
All Our Kin (Stack), 142
Ancestry by DNA, 66
Ancestry.com, 10, 158, 172n10
Ancestry Reconnection Program, 154–55
ancient genes (aDNA), 44, 59–60, 176n2
Ancient One (Kennewick Man), 17, 174n39, 176n2
Anderson, Mark, 89–90
Angola, 61, 99, 144–45
Appadurai, Arjun, 8
Archer, Anthony, 150–52
Argentina, 9, 17, 20–21, 28–32, 38, 40, 108, 109
Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team, 31
ARK Jammers, 154
Asante, Molefi, 37
The Autobiography of Malcolm X (Haley), x, 69
Ayittey, George, 155–56
Ball, Edward, 103–4
Barnes, Denise Rolark, 154
Baron, Archie, 89
Bellantoni, Nicholas, 1
Berry, Mary Frances, 185n8
biological racing, 48–52, 55, 58, 178n24, 178n28
Biondi, Martha, 126, 132, 185n5
biosociality, 89
Black Genealogy (Blockson), x, 123–24
Black Manifesto, 117–18, 186n18
Black Panther Party, 186n17
Blair, Tony, 13
Blakey, Michael, 47–50, 52, 53–58, 62–63, 64, 178n24, 179n4, 180n32. See also African Burial Ground
Blockson, Charles L., x, 123–24
Brath, Elombe, 46
Braun, Lundy, 178n27
BRCA 1/BRCA 2, 28
Brown, Carlton, 160
Brown, Christopher Leslie, 149
Brown, Jacqueline Nassy, 145, 147
Brown Brothers Harriman, 128
Brown v. Board of Education, 166
Brubaker, Rogers, 141
Build, Brother, Build (Sullivan), 148
burials, burial sites. See African Burial Ground
Bush, George H. W., 125, 149
Bush, George W., 98, 147
California, 119, 186–87n23
Cameron, Neil, 88–89, 91
Campbell, Emory, 104, 105
Campbell, Glen C., 48
Cannick, Jasmyne, 100–102
Capers, Willie, 121
Carlotto, Estela Barnes de, 28–29, 32
Carlotto, Laura, 28–29
Carter, Jimmy, 125
“The Case for Reparations” (Coates), 118
Cato v. United States, 119
Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca, 29, 175n2
cemeteries. See African Burial Ground
ceremony of remembrance, 23, 102–6
Certificate of Ancestry, 66, 102, 143, 160
Church of Latter-day Saints, Harlem temple, 36
Civil Liberties Act Amendments of 1992, 125
Civil Liberties Act of 1988, 119
Clinton, Bill, 13, 147, 155
Coates, Ta-Nehisi, 118–19, 120, 138, 139
Coca-Cola, 155
Collingwood, Luke, 2, 171n4
Collins, Francis, 13
color-blind racism, 15–16
Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act (HR 40), 118
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 116
Conyers, John, 118
Cooper, Alan, 59
coroner’s method, 45, 46
country marks, 51, 55, 178n28
criminal justice, 7, 11, 40, 49, 82, 164
Davey, James, 139
Davis, Dena, 16
Davis, Gray, 186–87n23
The Debt: What America Owes to Blacks (Robinson), 120, 126
De la Cuadra, Alicia Zubasnabar de, 32
desaparecidos (disappeared), 9, 21, 28–32
Descendants of the African Burial Ground, 21, 25, 45–46, 50
Dickerson, Isaiah, 113
Dinkins, David, 47, 54
direct-to-consumer (DTC) genetic testing, xi, 4–5, 11, 20, 21, 24, 43, 66, 73–74, 76, 146, 181n48, 183n13
“the disappeared,” 9, 21, 28–32
DNA analysis. See genetic ancestry testing
DNA cousin(s), 93
DNA diasporas, networks: affiliations, forging of, 24, 141, 142–45; Arusha declaration, 150–51; concepts of, 141–42; diasporic resources, 145–47; dual citizenship, 24, 150–55; genetic testing in, 23, 141–47, 150–51, 153; heritage tourism trips, 24, 154–55; homecoming trips, 22, 24, 102–6, 142–45; kinship, 93–94, 141–42; organizational efforts, 147–50; symbols of, 87–88
DNA mystique, 4
DNAPrint Genomics, 75–76, 78
DNA spillover, 80–81
Dodson, Howard, 54
door of no return, 133
dual citizenship, 24, 106, 146, 150–52
Dunbar, Rockmond, 160
Duster, Troy, 12, 13, 14
Easterbrook, Frank H., 135
Ebola, 24, 146
Ely, Bert, 175n45
Erdrich, Louise, 16–17
Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty and Pension Association, 113–15, 185n8
Faces of America, 16, 96, 139
Fagan, Edward, 127, 188n26
Family Tree DNA, 66, 73–74, 78, 172n10
Farmer-Paellmann, Deadria, 23, 107–8, 117, 121–24, 125, 126, 127–28, 129–33, 135, 137, 139
Farmer-Paellmann v. FleetBoston: appeal, 135–36; defendants, 115; dismissal of, 128–29, 134–35; genetic testing in, 108–9, 128–40; injuries to plaintiffs, 125, 132, 137–38, 140; jurisdiction, 136; legacy, 138–40; legal basis, 112, 119, 123–25, 132–34; linked fate principle, 138; litigation strategy, 117, 120, 124–29, 132, 136; plaintiffs response to dismissal, 129–30; remedies sought, 127, 128, 136; standing doctrine, 128–32, 134–37; statute of limitations, 136. See also reparations
financial restitution. See reparations
Finding Your Roots, 11, 96, 97, 103
First African Baptist Church (Philadelphia), 54
First Baptist Church (South Orange, New Jersey), 148
FleetBoston. See Farmer-Paellmann v. FleetBoston
Forman, James, Sr., 117–18
Fortun, Michael, 41
founding families, 9, 17–20, 175n43, 175n45
Francis, Miriam, 46
Froment, Alain, 56
Gans, Herbert, 5
Garvey, Julius, 160–62, 192n1
Garvey, Marcus, 24, 114–15, 160–62, 185n8
Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., 11, 16, 63, 83, 95–96, 139
GenBank, 61
General Motors, 149
General Services Administration (GSA), 43, 45–48, 54, 56, 59, 62
genetic ancestry testing: aspirations, 77–80, 89–91; common humanity, 12–15; development of, 69–73, 182n8; direct-to-consumer (DTC), xi, 4–5, 11, 20, 21, 24, 43, 66, 73–74, 76, 146, 181n48, 183n13; DNA as communal property, 16–17; ethnic-lineage analysis, 74; founding families, 9, 17–20, 175n43, 175n45; identity restoration, 5–6, 12–15, 22–25, 44, 69–73, 77–80, 84–88, 182n8; limitations of, 163–66; overview, x–xiii; politics of, 13, 15–17, 157–58; racial-composite analysis, 74–75, 77–79; racial hierarchies, 14–15; reliability of, 84–88; resources, 10, 20, 66, 75–76; root seeking strategies, 73–76, 183n13; and Venture Smith, 1–7; social justice, 15–16, 25; social life of DNA, 7–8; social power of DNA, 3–7, 172n10; spatiotemporal analysis, 74–75, 78–80; trust in results of, 84–88, 101–2. See also specific applications
genetic determinism, 12–14, 17
genetic genealogy. See genetic ancestry testing
genetic kinship, 93–94, 101, 141–45
Genetics 101, 34–35
Gene Tree, 66
Genographic Project, 74–75
George, Matthew, 59, 179n4
Gerber, David, 73
Glanton, Dahleen, 139–40
Global African Reunion, 155, 158–59, 162
Goldberg, Whoopi, 145–46
Gomez, Michael, 51
Gondobay Manga Foundation, 24, 105–6
Gone With the Wind, 70
Goodman, Alan, 56–57, 179n4
Gordon-Reed, Annette, 18
Gould, Stephen Jay, 51
Greenberg, Judith, 123
Greenlea, Stephanie, 15–16
Greensboro, South Carolina, 21, 38, 39, 40
Greensboro Massacre (1979), 21, 39
Greensboro Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 38–41
Halbwachs, Maurice, 73, 76
Haley, Alex, ix–x, 22, 69–73, 77, 79, 88, 94, 95, 96–97, 124, 139. See also Roots
halo effect, 82
haplotypes/haplogroups, 19, 58–59, 62, 74–75, 76, 79, 87, 175n43
Harrington, Ayo, 46, 63–64
Hastie, Winslow, 105
Hemings, Sally, 18–19, 34, 90, 174n42, 176n2
Henry, Milton, 117
Henry, Richard, 117. See also Obadele, Imari
heritage tourism trips, 10, 24, 105, 154–55
Hines, Abel, 125
Historic Conservation and Interpretation, 45, 47
homecoming trips, 23, 102–6, 142–45
Hopkins, Kevin, 133–34
House, Callie, 113, 114, 123, 185n8
Howard, Oliver Otis, 111
Howard’s Circular 15, 111
Howard University, 11–12, 48–49, 50–52, 53, 54, 55–56, 57–59, 64, 80, 97, 122, 151, 154, 179n4
HR 40 (Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act), 118
HR 11119, 114
Human Genome Diversity Project (HGDP), 109, 175n2
Human Genome Project, 7, 12–14, 43, 109, 175n2
human leukocyte antigens (HLA), 30–31
identity restoration: African Burial Ground National Monument, 51–52, 64–67; awareness, functions of, 95–97; genetic testing and, 5–6, 12–15, 20–25, 41, 69–73, 77–80, 87–94, 182n8; homecoming trips, 23, 100–106, 142–45; as human right, 133, 137–38; legal recognition, 133–34, 166; lost history reclamation, 120; personal reveals, 100–102, 146–47, 158–62; symbolism of, 162–63
Illinois, 127, 186–87n23
imprecise pedigree paradox, 93, 145
Innocence Project, 82, 108, 123
Isaiah Washington’s Passport to Sierra Leone, 106
Jackson, Andrew, 110–11
Jackson, Bruce A., 19, 86, 175n45
Jackson, Coralynne Henry, 1, 6
Jackson, Fatimah, 58, 62, 63–65, 179n4
Jackson, Jesse, 147
Japanese Americans, 119, 125
Jefferson, Thomas, 18–20, 34, 90, 174n42, 175n43
Jena Six, 16
Jobling, Mark, 60, 89
Johnson v. McAdoo, 114, 119
Journal of Black Studies, 37
J. P. Morgan Chase, xii, 127, 129–30
junk DNA, 60
Kabbah, Ahmad Tejan, 104
Kaestle, Frederika, 174n39
Kearse, Bettye, 19, 86
Keita, Shomarka Omar Yahya, 56, 179n4
Kennedy, John F., 116
Kennewick Man, 17, 174n39, 176n2
King, Bernice, 160, 161
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 158, 160, 162
King, Martin Luther, III, 158, 160–62, 192n1
King, Mary-Claire, 28–34, 175n2
kinkeeping, 71, 72
kinship, 5, 19, 24, 32, 37, 76, 85, 93–94, 100–101, 138, 141–42, 145, 152–53, 156
Kittles, Rick A., and African Ancestry, xi–xii, 22, 33, 44, 65–66, 84, 97, 102, 131–32, 143, 144; and African Burial Ground research, 60–65, 122, 179n4; and ancestry “reveals,” 159–61; career of, 21; education of, 32–33; and Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, 130–31; and genetic ancestry analysis, 11–12, 23, 28, 133, 146, 159; and Alondra Nelson, 159–60; and Nobel Prize nomination, 132–33; on reparations, 131; as scientific entrepreneur/cultural advocate, 20, 33–37, 78, 80, 83–84, 90, 99, 107, 133; youth of, 32. See also African Ancestry, Inc.; Farmer-Paellmann v. FleetBoston
Ku Klux Klan, 39
La Asociación Civil Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo, 9, 28–32
Ladner, Joyce, 139
LaRoche, Cheryl J., 49
Las Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo, 9, 20, 28–32
Lawrence-Lightfoot, Sara, 96
Leakey, Louis S. B., 53
Leon H. Sullivan Foundation, 24, 25, 147, 150–59; Arusha declaration, 150–51; Leon Sullivan Summit, 147, 150–53, 155, 157–58. See also Sullivan, Leon H.
Lindee, M. Susan, 4, 7, 12
Linnaeus, Carl, 14, 17
Lloyd’s of London, 123–24, 127
Maafa, 35–36. See also Middle Passage
Madison, James, 19–20, 86
Magnolia Plantation, 105
Magnolia Plantation Slave Cabin Project, 105
Maitland, Earl, 46
Malcolm X, 69, 73
Manion, Daniel A., 135
Maryland v. King, 82
Massally, Amadu, 103–5
Masters, Hope Sullivan, 150, 155–56, 161
MatriClan test, 20, 36, 66–67, 74, 82, 97, 98, 158. See also PatriClan test
Mayer, Carl, 135
Mbasogo, Teodoro Obiang Nguema, 155
McAdoo, William, 114
McCalla, Beaula, 89–93
Mende, 67, 76, 99, 106, 131, 143, 161
Middle Passage, 2, 5, 35, 51, 70, 102, 104, 133, 140, 141. See also Maafa
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), 2, 31, 34, 57–61, 66–67, 74–76, 78, 79, 84–85, 86, 87, 90, 99, 143, 146, 161
Moore, Audley (Queen Mother), 115–16, 117
Motherland: A Genetic Journey, 83, 88–90, 92, 95
Motherland Group, Motherland study, 88–89, 90–92, 93
Munford, Winston, 138
myDNAmix, 66, 75
A Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Venture . . . (Niles), 2, 171n3
Nash, Catherine, 93
National Coalition of Blacks for Reparations in America (N’COBRA), 116–17, 119, 123, 130
National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons, 31
National Genetic Data Bank, 31
National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (NHPA), 43, 46, 47
National Urban League, 158–59
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), 17–18, 174n39
Nazi Germany, 55, 125, 127, 188n26
N’COBRA (National Coalition of Blacks for Reparations in America), 116–17, 119, 123, 130
Nelkin, Dorothy, 4, 7, 12
Nelson, Alondra, research, 11–12, 33, 37, 91, 92, 97, 158–60
Neufeld, Peter, 82, 123
Niles, Elisha, 2–3
Nobile, Philip, 70
Norgle, Charles R., 128–30, 134–35
Obadele, Gaidi, 117
Obadele v. United States, 119
Ogletree, Charles, 116–17, 120, 126–27
Oneida Nation v. State of New York, 119
“One Student” campaign, 129–30
Opala, Joseph, 102–5
Organization of Tribal Unity, 23, 132–33
Paige, Gina, xi, 11, 22, 65–67, 86, 97, 98, 130–31, 143–47, 151–55, 159, 160, 161, 172n10. See also African Ancestry, Inc.; Kittles, Rick
Pan African Film Festival, 98
Pan-Africanism, 24, 87–88, 98, 142, 160. See also Garvey, Marcus
Paterson, David A., 46
PatriClan test, 20, 36, 66, 70, 74, 93, 97, 98, 181–82n50. See also MatriClan test
pedigree charts, 10
Perry, Warren, 1, 64, 179n4
Pfizer, 36
Poinar, Hendrik, 59
Polite, Thomalind Martine, 103–4
politics. See racial politics
polymorphisms, 34–35, 43, 60, 74
Posner, Richard, 135–36
racial-composite analysis, 74–75, 77–79, 89, 100
racialization, compelled, 51
racial politics: of excavation, 44–48, 50–52; of genetic ancestry testing, 13, 15–17, 20, 24, 77, 157–58; in Greensboro, South Carolina, 39; post-genome, 157–66; and “post-racial” politics, 119; of reparations, 109–10, 118–19, 126; of research, 63–67
Reagan, Ronald, 125, 128
reconciliation projects: in Argentina, 9, 17, 20–21, 28–32, 38, 40, 108, 109; genetic analysis and, 6–7, 8–12, 17, 19, 20–25, 27–29, 33, 36–37, 40–41, 163–66; Greensboro Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 38–41; overview of, xii–xiii, 40–41; in the United States, 32–41
Reed, Adolph, 137
Relative Genetics, 66
reparations: Black Manifesto, 117–18, 186n18; genetic testing in, 23, 107–9, 186n17; genocide, 116; land allotments, post–Civil War, 110–12; legal basis, 104, 116–18, 186n17, 186n23; movement genealogy, 112–20, 185n5, 185n8, 186n17, 186n23; pension activism, 113–15, 185n8; politics of, 109–10, 118–19, 126; racial inequality basis, 109–10; social justice activism, 115–16, 119, 186n17; sovereign immunity, 114, 115; strategies, 112–13, 185n5, 186n17. See also Farmer-Paellmann v. FleetBoston
Reparations Assessment Group, 126
Reparations Committee of Descendants of United States Slaves, 116
Reparations Coordinating Committee (RCC), 116–17, 120, 126
Reparations Study Group, 121
Republic of New Afrika (RNA), 117, 186n17
resources: diasporic, 143–44; genetic ancestry testing, 10, 20, 66, 75–76. See also African Ancestry, Inc.
Restitution Study Group, 23, 129, 130
reveals, reveal ceremony, 11, 22, 96–97, 99–102, 146–47, 158–62
Richards, Martin, 90–91
R. J. Reynolds, 127, 130
Roberts, Dorothy, 13
Robinson, Randall, 110, 116, 120
Rock, Chris, 96
Roots (book, TV miniseries), ix–x, xii, 69–73, 77, 93–94, 97, 124, 139–40
root-tracing kits, 71
Rosenthal, Carolyn J., 71
Rothman, Barbara Katz, 12, 13
Royal, Charmaine, 36
Safran, William, 142
sankofa, 56, 165
sara (ancestral sacrifice), 104–5
Savage, Gus, 47
Scheck, Barry, 82, 123
“sharing dinner,” 142–43
Sherman, William, 110
short tandem repeat (STR), 60, 66
Shriver, Mark, 36
Shujaa, Kenya, 56
Sierra Leone, 23, 24, 67, 76, 99–106, 131, 143, 146, 151, 161, 162
Simpkins, Gregory, 150–54, 156, 192n1
single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), 34–35, 43–44, 74–75
slave life accounts, 2–3, 6, 62, 70, 73, 88, 111, 171n3
Slaves in the Family (Ball), 103
A Slave’s Story (TV documentary), 1, 6
Smith, Venture, 1–7, 38, 75, 77, 160, 172n3
snowball sampling, xi–xii
social/racial justice, 15–16, 25, 148, 164; and genetic analysis, 19, 22, 28, 64, 107, 109, 136, 166; and reconciliation projects, 136, 162; and reparations politics, 115, 126
social life of DNA, 3, 7–8, 27, 36, 44, 81, 108, 139, 161, 165
The Social Life of Things (Appadurai), 8
social media, and genealogy, 23, 97, 99–100
social power of DNA, 3–7, 73, 82
Sorenson Genomics, 66, 158, 181n48
South Africa, 9, 38, 40, 100–101, 108, 109, 127, 132, 133, 146, 149
spatiotemporal analysis, 74–75, 78–80, 100
Special Field Order No. 15, 110
Stack, Carol, 142
Stofko, Karl, 3
Strausbaugh, Linda, 1–2
Sullivan, Leon, 147–50, 155, 161, 162. See also Leon H. Sullivan Foundation
“The Sullivan Principles,” 149
Summit for Equatorial Guinea 2012, 155
Sykes, Bryan, 44, 59, 176n2
Task Force for the Oversight of the African Burial Ground, 46
Taylor, Helen, 70, 73
Thomas Jefferson effect, 34
Torrington, Arthur, 89
trans-science, 163–64
A Troublesome Inheritance (Wade), 14–15
truth and reconciliation commissions, 21, 28, 38–40
Tu-Wa-Moja, 32–33
TV programs on genealogy, xii, 1, 2, 11, 16, 22–23, 77, 82, 83, 89–90, 95–96, 97, 145, 184n2, 184n3. See also specific programs
23andMe, 4, 36, 75, 158, 172n10
Tyler-Smith, Chris, 60
United Kingdom, xi
United Nations, 24, 37, 64, 116, 117, 155, 186n17
United States: bicentennial, 69; DNA use in, 18, 108; and dual citizenship, 150; genetic analysis and, 6, 32–41, 43–44, 49, 57–58; genetic ancestry testing in, 17, 74; incarceration in, 81–82; and reparations, 112–14, 118, 125, 126, 132, 185n5, 186n17; slave societies in, 51, 62; truth and reconciliation process in, 21, 38, 40
US Congress, 113, 114, 118, 125
US Supreme Court, 82, 114, 119. See also specific cases
Vaughn, William, 113
Venture Smith Day, 5, 6
Verdun, Vincene, 123
Wade, Nicholas, 7, 14–15
Ward, Robert V., 123
Wareham, Roger, 135
Warmsley, Florence, 1, 6
Washington, Isaiah, xii, 23, 24, 97–100, 102–6, 146, 150, 151, 159, 160, 161, 162
Watson, Diane, 97, 98
Weil, Francois, 172n11
Weinberg, Alvin, 163
Williams, Ann Claire, 135
Williams, Vanessa, 97, 98–99
Wilson, Allan, 31, 59
Winfrey, Oprah, 83, 96, 146
Woolworth sit-in (1960), 39
Worrill, Conrad, 139
Y-chromosome DNA (Y-DNA), 18, 19, 34, 57–58, 60, 66–67, 74–76, 85, 90, 99, 160
Young, Andrew, 151, 160
Zion Baptist Church (Philadelphia), 148