INTRODUCTION
1. Linda Strausbaugh et al., “The Genomics Perspective on Venture Smith: Genetics, Ancestry, and the Meaning of Family,” in Venture Smith and the Business of Slavery and Freedom, ed. James Brewer Stewart (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2010), 209.
2. James Brewer Stewart, editor’s preface to Venture Smith and the Business of Slavery and Freedom, xiv.
3. Venture Smith, A Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Venture, a Native of Africa, but Resident Above Sixty Years in the United States of America, Related by Himself (New London, CT: Printed by C. Holt, at the Bee-office, 1789). In the account, Smith explains that his first owner, James Mumford, called him Venture because he was purchased through Mumford’s “own private venture.” With his last owner, Oliver Smith, he entered into an arrangement whereby he worked extra jobs in order to buy his freedom.
4. Luke Collingwood was the notorious mastermind of a 1781 massacre during which more than a hundred enslaved men and women were murdered. Collingwood and his human cargo of more than four hundred set out for Jamaica from Africa on a vessel named the Zong. When the vessel ran off course, extending an already perilous journey and risking the health of the captives for whom his patrons would be financially liable should they die, Collingwood ordered them thrown off the vessel into the sea so that insurance damages could be claimed.
5. Stewart, editor’s preface, Venture Smith and the Business of Slavery and Freedom, xiv.
6. Strausbaugh et al., “The Genomics Perspective on Venture Smith,” 208.
7. Ibid., 225.
8. Dorothy Nelkin and M. Susan Lindee, The DNA Mystique: The Gene as a Cultural Icon, 2nd ed. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004), xxix.
9. Ibid., 2.
10. There are now more than three dozen genetic-ancestry-testing companies. Last summer, 23andMe announced that it had genotyped one million individuals. See Anne Wojcicki, “Power of One Million,” 23andMe Blog, June 18, 2005, http://blog.23andme.com/news/one-in-a-million/. A 2014 story in the Scientist placed Ancestry.com and Family Tree DNA’s clients at 600,000 each. See Tracy Vence, “DNA Ancestry for All,” Scientist, July 10, 2014, http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/40460/title/DNA-Ancestry-for-All/. In a 2015 interview with the author, Gina Paige of African Ancestry numbered that company’s niche market of customers of African descent at 45,000 over the last twelve years.
11. Herbert J. Gans (1979): “Symbolic Ethnicity: The Future of Ethnic Groups and Cultures in America,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 2, no. 1 (1979): 1–20. A helpful chronology of the “Americanization” of root-seeking from the colonial era to the present is provided in Francois Weil, Family Trees: A History of Genealogy in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013).
12. A Slave’s Story, British Broadcasting Company, March 25, 2007.
13. Ibid. Researchers obtained several samples from Smith’s coffin, but no DNA was recovered.
14. Nelkin and Lindee, The DNA Mystique, xii.
15. See Nicholas Wade, “A Decade Later, Genetic Map Yields Few New Cures,” New York Times, June 10, 2010, www.nytimes.com/2010/06/13/health/research/13genome.html; “Spiegel Interview with Craig Venter: ‘We Have Learned Nothing from the Genome,’ ” Spiegel Online International, July 29, 2010, http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/spiegel-interview-with-craig-venter-we-have-learned-nothing-from-the-genome-a-709174.html.
16. Arjun Appadurai, The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 5.
17. Alondra Nelson, “The Social Life of DNA,” Chronicle of Higher Education, August 29, 2010, http://chronicle.com/article/The-Social-Life-of-DNA/124138/.
18. Alondra Nelson, “Reconciliation Projects: From Kinship to Justice,” in Genetics and the Unsettled Past: The Collision of DNA, Race, and History, ed. Keith Wailoo, Alondra Nelson, and Catherine Lee (Rutgers, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2012), 20–31.
19. Christine Hine, Virtual Ethnography (London: Sage Publications, 2000); Daniel Miller and Don Slater, The Internet: An Ethnographic Approach (Oxford, UK: Berg, 2001); Stefan Helmreich, “Spatializing Technoscience,” Reviews in Anthropology 32 (2003): 13–36. See also Deborah Heath et al., “Nodes and Queries: Linking Locations in Networked Fields of Inquiry,” American Behavioral Scientist 43 (1999): 450–63.
20. A. J. Hostetler, “Who’s Your Daddy? Genealogists Look Inside Their Cells for Clues to Their Ancestors,” Richmond (VA) Times-Dispatch, April 24, 2003; Stephen Magagnini, “DNA Helps Unscramble the Puzzles of Ancestry,” Sacramento Bee, August 3, 2003; Steve Sailer, “African Ancestry, Inc., Traces DNA Roots,” Washington Times, April 28, 2003; Frank D. Roylance, “Reclaiming Heritage Lost to Slavery,” Baltimore Sun, April 17, 2003; Rick A. Kittles, interview with author, February 4, 2006.
21. Sam Fulwood III, “His DNA Promise Doesn’t Deliver,” Los Angeles Times, May 29, 2000, http://articles.latimes.com/2000/may/29/news/mn-35219.
22. Ibid.
23. Barbara Katz Rothman, Genetic Maps and Human Imaginations: The Limits of Science in Understanding Who We Are (New York: Norton, 1998); Troy Duster, Backdoor to Eugenics (New York: Routledge, 1990); and Nelkin and Lindee, The DNA Mystique.
24. Donald Kennedy, “Not Wicked Perhaps, but Tacky,” Science 297 (2002): 1237; Craig J. Venter, “A Part of the Human Genome Sequence,” Science 299 (2003): 1183–84.
25. Craig J. Venter et al., “The Sequence of the Human Genome,” Science 291 (2001): 1304–51.
26. “Reading the Book of Life: White House Remarks on Decoding of Genome,” New York Times, June 27, 2000, http://www.nytimes.com/2000/06/27/science/reading-the-book-of-life-white-house-remarks-on-decoding-of-genome.html.
27. Dorothy Roberts, Fatal Invention: How Science, Politics and Big Business Re-Create Race in the Twenty-First Century (New York: New Press, 2011), x.
28. Ibid.
29. Vincent Sarich and Frank Miele, Race: The Reality of Human Differences (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2004).
30. Neil Risch et al., “Categorizations of Humans in Biomedical Research: Genes, Race, and Disease,” Genome Biology 3, no. 7 (2002): Comment 2007.1–2007.12; Esteban G. Burchard et al., “The Importance of Race and Ethnic Background in Biomedical Research and Clinical Practice,” New England Journal of Medicine 348 (2003): 1174.
31. Nicholas Wade, A Troublesome Inheritance: Genes, Race, and Human History (New York: Penguin, 2014).
32. See Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003).
33. Roberts, Fatal Invention, 287.
34. Stephanie Greenlea, “Free the Jena Six! Racism, Technology and Black Solidarity in the Digital Age” (PhD diss., Yale University, 2012), 4. See also Bonilla-Silva, Racism Without Racists.
35. On the need to bring racism into awareness with respect to twenty-first-century social movements, see ibid.
36. Dena S. Davis, “Genetic Research & Communal Narratives,” Hastings Center Report 34, no. 4 (July–August 2004): 43.
37. Natalie Angier, “Scientist at Work: Mary-Claire King; Quest for Genes and Lost Children,” New York Times, April 23, 1993, http://www.nytimes.com/1993/04/27/science/scientist-at-work-mary-claire-king-quest-for-genes-and-lost-children.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm. This reconciliation project is discussed at length in chapter 1.
38. Peter Gill et al., “Identification of the Remains of the Romanov Family by DNA Analysis,” Nature Genetics 6, no. 2 (February 1994): 130–36.
39. Molecular anthropologist Frederika Kaestle, an expert in the analysis of ancient DNA, was tasked with carrying out analysis of the remains. (Ancient DNA techniques are capable of being used on samples that are up to one hundred thousand years old.) Study of the remains was halted after local indigenous groups invoked their rights under NAGPRA, but researchers sued the federal government to regain access. The judge hearing the suit requested that preliminary investigation of the remains be done so that their research potential could be ascertained. Subsequent DNA analysis took place in 2000, by a team of researchers lead by Kaestle. But these remains had begun to fossilize and little information could be extracted from them. See Frederika Kaestle, “Report on DNA Analysis of the Remains of ‘Kennewick Man’ from Columbia Park, Washington,” in F. P. McManamon, Kennewick Man (Washington, DC: US Department of the Interior, National Park Service, May 2004), http://www.nps.gov/archeology/kennewick/Kaestle.htm. For an excellent critique of the use of genetics in the “Kennewick Man” case, see also Kimberly TallBear, “Genetics, Identity and Culture in Indian Country” (working paper, International Institute for Indigenous Resource Management, Denver, CO, 2000), and Michelle M. Jacob, “Making Sense of Genetics, Culture, and History: A Case Study of a Native Youth Education Program,” in Wailoo, Nelson, and Lee, Genetics and the Unsettled Past, 279–94.
40. Morten Rasmussen et al., “The Ancestry and Affiliations of Kennewick Man,” Nature (2015), doi: 10.1038/nature14625.
41. Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson & Sally Hemings: An American Controversy (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1997); Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family (New York: Norton, 2008).
42. Eugene A. Foster et al., “Jefferson Fathered Slave’s Last Child,” Nature 396 (1998): 27–28. In 1999 the scientists would qualify their findings, saying that the father of Hemings’s last son could have been Thomas Jefferson or one of a small number of his paternal relatives.
43. Ibid. The rarity of the haplotype shared by paternal male Jefferson descendants was subsequently reconfirmed. See Turi E. King et al., “Thomas Jefferson’s Y Chromosome Belongs to a Rare European Lineage,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 132 (2007): 584–89.
44. John Works, “The Jefferson-Hemings Controversy: A New Critical Look,” Drumbeat (Fall 2010): 17–19, http://www.tjheritage.org/newscomfiles/WorksJefferson-HemingsArticle.pdf.
45. Jackson founded the African-American DNA Roots Project, a not-for-profit genetic ancestry analysis service, with Bert Ely, a biologist at the University of South Carolina, in 2001.
46. Jonathan Mummolo, “African American Seeks to Prove Genetic Link to James Madison,” Washington Post, June 11, 2007, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/10/AR2007061001404.html; “Proving Lineage to a President,” National Public Radio, June 14, 2007, http://www.npr.org/templates/story.php?storyId=11077716; Kris Coronado, “What Ever Happened To . . . the Possible Relative of James Madison,” Washington Post, October 14, 2011, http://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/magazine/whatever-happened-to--the-possible-relative-of-james-madison/2011/09/27/gIQA9evGkL_story.html.
47. Sierra Express Media, “Isaiah Washington States His Sierra Leone Passport Has No Bearing on What He Can Do for Salone,” Sierra Express, September 18, 2014, http://www.sierraexpressmedia.com/?p=70465; “Isaiah Washington’s Fight Against Ebola,” CNN, April 17, 2015, http://www.cnn.com/videos/world/2015/04/17/ebola-ball-challenge-isaiah-washington-intv.cnn.
CHAPTER 1: RECONCILIATION PROJECTS
1. John Torpey, Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006).
2. King and a group of collaborators, including Cavalli-Sforza, also played an important role in the evolution of the genomics era, issuing a call, in the journal Genomics, for an extension of the Human Genome Project that would consist of a “worldwide survey of human genetic diversity.” This well-intentioned, visionary but ultimately flawed idea, contributed to the creation of the parallel Human Genome Diversity Project. See Luca Cavalli-Sforza et al., “Call for a Worldwide Survey of Human Genetic Diversity: A Vanishing Opportunity for the Human Genome Project,” Genomics 11 (1991): 490–91.
3. David Noonan, “The Genes of War,” Discover, October 1990, 50.
4. Ibid., 51–52; Lisa Yount, “King, Mary-Claire,” in A to Z of Women in Science and Math (New York: Facts on File, 2007).
5. Allan C. Wilson et al., “Mitochondrial DNA and Two Perspectives on Evolutionary Genetics,” Biological Journal of the Linnean Society of London 26, no. 4 (1985): 375–400.
6. Noonan, “The Genes of War,” 52.
7. Rory Carroll and Jeff Farrell, “Argentina’s Authorities Order DNA Tests in Search for Stolen Babies of Dirty War,” Guardian, December 30, 2009, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/dec/30/argentina-dna-tests-babies-disappeared.
8. Julia Kumari Drapkin, “Torn Between Identities in Argentina,” Global Post, November 11, 2010, http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/argentina/101103/dna-clarin-dirty-war.
9. Noonan, “The Genes of War,” 51.
10. Linsday Adams Smith, “Subversive Genes: Re(con)stituting Identity, Family and Human Rights in Argentina” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2009). See also Lindsay A. Smith and Sarah Wagner, “DNA Identification,” Anthropology News (May 2007): 35.
11. Quoted in Catherine Bliss, Race Decoded: The Genomic Fight for Social Justice (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2012), 75.
12. Rick Kittles, “Tracing Our Ancestors,” Chicago Humanities Festival, November 9, 2013.
13. Duana Fullwiley, “Race, Genes, Power,” British Journal of Sociology 66 (2015): 43.
14. Melissa Nobles, The Politics of Official Apologies (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 3, 40.
15. Greensboro Truth and Reconciliation Commission, “November 3, 1979,” http://greensborotrc.org/november3.php.
16. Greensboro Truth and Reconciliation Commission, “The Mandate and Guiding Principles,” http://greensborotrc.org/mandate.php.
17. Greensboro Truth and Reconciliation Commission Report, Executive Summary, May 25, 2006, http://greensborotrc.org/exec_summary.pdf.
18. John Torpey, ed., Politics and the Past: On Repairing Historical Injustices (Lanham, MD: Rowan and Littlefield, 2003), 1.
19. Michael Fortun, Promising Genomics: Iceland and deCODE Genetics in a World of Speculation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), 10.
20. Susan Dwyer, “Reconciliation for Realists,” Ethics and International Affairs 13 (1999): 96.
CHAPTER 2: GROUND WORK
1. American Antiquities Act of 1906, Section 2, http://www.nps.gov/history/local-law/anti1906.htm.
2. Erika Hagelberg, Bryan Sykes, and Robert Hedges, “Ancient Bone DNA Amplified,” Nature 342 (November 1989): 485. The African Burial Ground researchers carried out their first, partially successful, genetic analysis of the burial remains in 1995. By temporal comparison, DNA testing resolving the Jefferson-Hemings controversy was conducted in 1998 and genetic analysis of the Kennewick Man in Washington State was conducted in 2000.
3. Spencer P. M. Harrington, “Bones and Bureaucrats,” Archaeology (March/April 1993), http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/afrburial/.
4. Quoted in ibid.
5. David W. Dunlap, “Excavation Stirs Debate on Cemetery,” New York Times, December 6, 1991, http://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/06/nyregion/excavation-stirs-debate-on-cemetery.html.
6. Ibid.
7. Paterson, quoted in ibid.
8. Cheryl J. La Roche and Michael L. Blakey, “Seizing Intellectual Power: The Dialogue at the New York African Burial Ground,” Historical Archaeology 31 (1997): 84–106.
9. Dunlap, “Excavation Stirs Debate on Cemetery.”
10. “Paterson to Monitor Dig at Burial Ground,” New York Times, December 7, 1991, http://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/07/nyregion/paterson-to-monitor-dig-at-burial-ground.html.
11. Warren R. Perry, “Archaeology as Community Service: The African Burial Ground Project in New York City” (University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, n.d.), http://www.stpt.usf.edu/~jsokolov/burialgr.htm, accessed September 29, 2010. Interview with author, July 12, 2012.
12. Activity resumed briefly in September 1992 in order to complete the excavation of “ten burials and one grave pit” that had been left partly exposed after work was halted two months prior.
13. Michael L. Blakey, “The New York African Burial Ground Project: An Examination of Enslaved Lives, a Construction of Ancestral Ties,” Transforming Archaeology 7, no. 1 (1998): 53–58; Felicia R. Lee, “Harlem’s Cultural Anchor in a Sea of Ideas,” New York Times, May 11, 2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/11/arts/design/11harl.html.
14. Glen C. Campbell, AIA, ISP (GC), to the General Services Administration of the New York African Burial Ground Peer Review Panel, Schomburg Center Archive, p. 1.
15. Michele N-K Collison, “Disrespecting the Dead,” Black Issues in Higher Education (April 1, 1999): 16–17. On funding, see Blakey, “The New York African Burial Ground Project.”
16. Michael L. Blakey, PhD, to Ms. Gina L. Stahlnecker, district assistant to Senator David A. Paterson, April 9, 1992, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture Archive.
17. For more about debates on race in forensic osteology, see Marc R. Feldesman and Robert L. Fountain, “ ‘Race’ Specificity and the Femur/Stature Ratio,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 100 (June 1996): 207–24; and Stephen Ousley, Richard Jantz, and Donna Freid, “Understanding Race and Human Variation: Why Forensic Anthropologists Are Good at Identifying Race,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 139 (January 2009): 68–76.
18. As well as archaeologists, paleoarchaeologists, biological anthropologists, and forensic scientists. See Michael L. Blakey, PhD, to Dr. James V. Taylor, director, Metropolitan Forensic Anthropology Team, Lehman College, CUNY, December 1, 1992, 1–2, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture Archive.
19. La Roche and Blakey, “Seizing Intellectual Power,” 88. See also Blakey, introduction to “The New York African Burial Ground Project.”
20. Ibid.
21. La Roche and Blakey, “Seizing Intellectual Power,” 88.
22. Blakey, “The New York African Burial Ground Project,” 53.
23. George J. Armelagos and Dennis P. Van Gerven, “A Century of Skeletal Biology and Paleopathology: Contrasts, Contradictions, and Conflicts,” American Anthropologist 105, no. 1 (2003): 53.
24. La Roche and Blakey, “Seizing Intellectual Power,” 88. This interpretation of the MFAT investigators’ intentions was supported by the research design submitted by HCI in advance of the burial ground survey. The complete proposal comprised just twelve pages detailing the removal and storage of the remains. Very little of the HCI’s course of action was devoted to research on the burials.
25. Gordon R. Mitchell and Kelly Happe, “Defining the Subject of Consent in DNA Research,” Journal of Medical Humanities 22 (2001): 49.
26. Michael L. Blakey, PhD, to Dr. James V. Taylor, director, Metropolitan Forensic Anthropology Team, Lehman College, CUNY, December 1, 1992, 1–2, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture Archive.
27. Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (New York: Norton, 1996 [1981]), 100–101. On research into race and lung capacity, see Lundy Braun, “Spirometry, Measurement, and Race in the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 60, no. 2 (2005): 135–69.
28. Michael A. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 154. There is a significant body of research that takes up the question of the convergence and divergence between concepts of race and ethnicity in the United States, and I recognize the interdependence of these terms. In drawing a distinction between them here, I aim to highlight the particular stakes of the African Burial Ground controversy.
29. Ibid., 12.
30. Blakey, quoted in Mitchell and Happe, “Defining the Subject of Consent in DNA Research,” 48.
31. La Roche and Blakey, “Seizing Intellectual Power,” 86.
32. This difference in research interpretation also reflected a wider scholarly debate over whether archaeology was best conducted through a forensic framework or an anthropological one. See, for example, Sherwood L. Washburn. “The New Physical Anthropology,” Transactions of the New York Academy of Science, series 2, 13 (1951): 298–304; and Diana B. Smay and George J. Armelagos, “Galileo Wept: A Critical Assessment of the Use of Race in Forensic Anthropology,” Transforming Anthropology 9 (2000): 19–40.
33. F. L. C. Jackson et al., “Origins of the New York Burial Ground Population: Biological Evidence of Geographical and Macroethnic Affiliations Using Craniometrics, Dental Morphology, and Preliminary Genetic Analysis,” in The New York African Burial Ground: History Final Report, ed. Edna Greene Medford (Washington, DC: US General Services Administration, November 2004), 153–54. See also Blakey’s introduction, The New York African Burial Ground, 17–22.
34. Jackson et al., “Origins of the New York Burial Ground Population,” 150.
CHAPTER 3: GAME CHANGER
1. Interview with author, July 25, 2012.
2. Ibid.
3. Jackson et al., “Origins of the New York Burial Ground Population,” 150.
4. The large research group included Blakey, University of Maryland anthropologist Fatimah Jackson, Hampshire College anthropologist Alan Goodman, Boston University historian Linda Heywood, Howard University geneticist Matthew George, physical anthropologists Warren Perry and S. O. Y. Keita, and Rick Kittles, a doctoral student in biology from George Washington University.
5. Jackson et al., “Origins of the New York Burial Ground Population,” 150.
6. Michael Blakey, “Bioarchaeology of the African Diaspora in the Americas,” Annual Review of Anthropology (2001).
7. Nancy Leys Stepan and Sander L. Gilman, “Appropriating the Idioms of Science: The Rejection of Scientific Racism,” in The “Racial” Economy of Science: Toward a Democratic Future, ed. Sandra Harding (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993), 170.
8. Jackson et al., “Origins of the New York African Burial Ground Population,” 69.
9. African Burial Ground (Final Report), chapters 5, 11, and 13.
10. Jackson et al., “Origins of the New York African Burial Ground Population,” 150.
11. Interview with author, June 14, 2012.
12. Jackson et al., “Origins of the New York African Burial Ground Population,” 151.
13. Ibid., 162.
14. Ibid. Also Rick Kittles, “Inferring African Ancestry of African Americans,” Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists, March 30, 2001 (unpublished paper).
15. Michael L. Blakey, PhD, “Research Design for Temporary Curation and Anthropological Analysis of the ‘Negro Burying Ground’ (Foley Square) Archaeological Population at Howard University,” June 11, 1992, p. 2, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture Archive.
16. “Report to the General Services Administration of the New York African Burial Ground Peer Review Panel, May 12–14, 1993,” p. 6, Schomburg Center Archive.
17. Fatimah Jackson, “Concerns and Priorities in Genetic Studies: Insights from Recent African American Biohistory,” Seton Hall Law Review 27 (1997): 957.
18. “Report to the General Services Administration of the New York African Burial Ground Peer Review Panel,” 17.
19. Ibid.
20. Blakey, “Research Design for Temporary Curation and Anthropological Analysis of the ‘Negro Burying Ground,’ ” 15. See also Allan C. Wilson et al., “Mitochondrial DNA and Two Perspectives on Evolutionary Genetics,” Biological Journal of the Linnean Society of London 26, no. 4 (1985): 375–400.
21. Ibid.
22. Alan Cooper and Hendrik N. Poinar, “Ancient DNA: Do It Right or Not at All,” Science 289 (2000): 1139.
23. Jackson et al., “Origins of the New York African Burial Ground Population,” 85.
24. John Simons, “Out of Africa,” Fortune, February 19, 2007, p. 37.
25. Jackson et al. “Origins of the New York African Burial Ground Population,” 86.
26. “Return to the African Burial Ground: An Interview with Physical Anthropologist Michael L. Blakey,” Archaeology, November 20, 2003, http://www.archaeology.org/online/interviews/blakey/index.html.
27. Mark A. Jobling and Chris Tyler-Smith, “Fathers and Sons: The Y Chromosome and Human Evolution,” Trends in Genetics 11 (November 1995): 449–56.
28. Jackson et al., “Origins of the New York African Burial Ground Population,” 88.
29. Simons, “Out of Africa,” 37.
30. Jackson et al., “Origins of the New York African Burial Ground Population,” 87.
31. Ibid., 89, 91.
32. Blakey, “The New York African Burial Ground Project,” 55–56. He continues, “Muscle attachments become enlarged when muscles undergo frequent strain. Most of the population of men and women have [sic] enlarged muscle attachments in the neck, arms, and legs. It has become commonplace for our technicians to find women’s bones that are so robust as to be indistinguishable from those of men.” See also Harrington, “Bones and Bureaucrats.”
33. David Willard, “Dignity for the Living,” William and Mary News, December 12, 2003, https://www.wm.edu/news/stories/2003/dignity-for-the-living.php.
34. White House, “Establishment of the African Burial Ground National Monument,” press release, February 27, 2006, http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/02/20060227-6.html.
35. Harrington, “Bones and Bureaucrats.”
36. Ibid.
37. Carey Goldberg, “DNA Offers Link to Black History,” New York Times, August 28, 2000, http://www.nytimes.com/2000/08/28/us/dna-offers-link-to-black-history.html.
38. Deborah Bolnick et al., “The Business and Science of Ancestry Testing,” Science 318, no. 5849 (2007): 399–400.
39. Goldberg, “DNA Offers Link to Black History.” See also Jackson et al., “Origins of the New York African Burial Ground Population,” 151.
40. Quoted in “A Year After Reburial of Slaves, Debate over Memorial,” Associated Press, October 21, 2004, in Diverse, http://diverseeducation.com/article/4063/. See also Saeed Shabazz, “Howard U Scientists Make Historic DNA Breakthrough,” Final Call, January 1, 2000, http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/Modern_Technology_15/Howard_U_scientists_make_historic_DNA_breakthrough_4017.shtml.
41. Blakey, “The New York African Burial Ground Project,” 55.
42. Author interview with Warren Perry, July 12, 2012.
43. Fatimah Jackson, “Concerns and Priorities in Genetic Studies: Insights from Recent African American Biohistory,” Seton Hall Law Review 951 (1996–97): 957.
44. Ibid.
45. Interview with author, 2015.
46. Interview with author, 2014.
47. Ayana Jones, “African Ancestry Come to Life,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 22, 2012, http://www.phillytrib.com/businessarticles/item/4195-african-ancestry-comes-to-life.html.
48. Established in 2001, Sorenson was one of the first US companies to specialize in high-efficiency DNA sequencing and genotyping. It conducts analysis for population genetics as well as DNA genealogy, forensic genetics, and medical genetics. The company is also in the business of DTC testing. In 2007 it acquired Identigene, which provides DNA paternity tests that can be purchased in drug stores and at other locations.
49. African Ancestry, African Lineage Database, http://www.africanancestry.com/database.html.
50. African Ancestry reports that approximately 25 to 30 percent of male root-seekers using its PatriClan (Y chromosome) test will not match any of the paternal lines in the African Lineage Database (ALD). In such instances, the customer may be advised to have his sample matched against a “European database.” See Greg Langley, “Genealogy and Genomes: DNA Technology Helping People Learn More About Who They Are and Where They Come From,” Baton Rouge Advocate, July 20, 2003. A page about the PatriClan (Y chromosome) test on African Ancestry’s website states: “We find African ancestry for approximately 65% of the paternal lineages we test. The remaining 35% of the lineages we test typically indicate European ancestry. If our tests indicate that you are not of African descent, we will identify your continent of origin.” “Discover the Paternal Roots of Your Family Tree,” http://africanancestry.com/patriclan.html (accessed July 1, 2010). Because the ALD is extensive but not exhaustive, however, it is possible that some African genetic markers are not yet included.
51. Alondra Nelson, “The Factness of Diaspora,” in Revisiting Race in a Genomic Age, ed. Barbara A. Koenig, Sandra Soo-Jin Lee, and Sarah S. Richardson (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008), 255; Alondra Nelson, “Reconciliation Projects: From Kinship to Justice,” in Wailoo, Nelson, and Lee, Genetics and the Unsettled Past.
52. African Burial Ground Foundation Memorial Dedication postcard, September 2007.
53. James D. Faubion and Jennifer Hamilton, “Sumptuary Kinship,” Anthropological Quarterly 80 (2007): 540.
CHAPTER 4: THE PURSUIT OF AFRICAN ANCESTRY
1. Alex Haley, Roots: The Saga of an American Family (New York: Dell, 1976).
2. Helen Taylor, “ ‘The Griot from Tennessee’: The Saga of Alex Haley’s Roots,” Critical Quarterly 37 (June 1995): 47.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid., 46–47.
5. Philip Nobile, “Uncovering Roots,” Village Voice, February 23, 1993.
6. Taylor, “ ‘The Griot from Tennessee,’ ” 48.
7. Carolyn J. Rosenthal, “Kinkeeping in the Familial Division of Labor,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 47 (1985): 965–74.
8. Genetic genealogy testing is employed by other diasporic social groups whose historical experiences of migration, dispersal, and persecution have made it difficult to document genealogical information, including the Irish (Catherine Nash, “Genetic Kinship,” Cultural Studies 18 [2004]: 1–33) and Jewish (Nadia Abu El-Haj, “ ‘A Tool to Recover Past Histories’: Genealogy and Identity After the Genome,” Occasional Paper No. 19 [December 2004], School of Social Science, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, NJ, www.sss.ias.edu/publications/papers/paper19.pdf). These services are also widely used for religious reasons. For example, genealogy is an important part of the after-life cosmology of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
9. Quotes in Taylor, “ ‘The Griot from Tennessee,’ ” 49.
10. Maurice Halbwachs, On Collective Memory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
11. L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, and Alberto Piazza, The History and Geography of Human Genes (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994); Michael F. Hammer, “A Recent Common Ancestry for Human Y Chromosomes,” Nature 378, no. 6555 (1995): 376–78; Jobling and Tyler-Smith, “Fathers and Sons: The Y Chromosome and Human Evolution,” 449–55; Karl Skorecki et al., “Y Chromosomes of Jewish Priests,” Nature 385, no. 32 (1997): 32.
12. Jennifer K. Wagner and Kenneth M. Weiss, “Attitudes on DNA Ancestry Tests,” Human Genetics 131 (2012): 41.
13. Charmaine D. Royal et al., “Inferring Genetic Ancestry: Opportunities, Challenges, and Implications,” American Journal of Human Genetics 86 (2010): 661–73. See also Jennifer K. Wagner et al., “Tilting at Windmills No Longer: A Data-Driven Discussion of DTC DNA Ancestry Tests,” Genetics in Medicine 14 (2012): 586. The DTC genetic-testing-services field is largely unregulated as an industry and for the most part privately owned. As a consequence, the companies are not obligated to be transparent about the number of customers they serve, the genetic markers or statistical algorithms they use, or their profits. What is known about this industry sector relies mostly on estimates and self-reporting.
14. For an incisive treatment of the “choices” and cognitive schema involved in genealogy, see Eviatar Zerubavel, Ancestors and Relatives: Genealogy, Identity, & Community (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).
15. Strausbaugh et al., “The Genomics Perspective on Venture Smith,” 227.
16. For an excellent, detailed discussion of this form of ancestry analysis, see Duana Fullwiley, “The Biologistical Construction of Race: ‘Admixture’ Technology and the New Genetic Medicine,” Social Studies of Science 38 (2008): 695–735.
17. Wagner and Weiss, “Attitudes on DNA Ancestry Tests,” 41.
18. David Lazer, introduction to DNA and the Criminal Justice System: The Technology of Justice (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), 6.
19. Bolnick et al., “The Business and Science of Ancestry Testing.”
20. Dahleen Glanton, “Blacks Tap Roots Anew,” Chicago Tribune, September 12, 2004, http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2004-09-12/news/0409120142_1_reparations-movement-african-americans-slave-trade.
21. Ibid.
22. Darryl Fears, “Out of Africa—but From Which Tribe?,” Washington Post, October 19, 2006, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/18/AR2006101801635.html.
23. Strausbaugh et al., “The Genomics Perspective on Venture Smith,” 215.
24. Paul Rabinow, Essays on the Anthropology of Reason (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996).
25. Harriott’s autosomal DNA test inferred her racial composite results to be 28 percent European and 72 percent sub-Saharan African.
26. Martin Richards, “Beware the Gene Genies,” Guardian, February 14, 2003, http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,899835,00.html.
27. Ibid.
28. Nash, “Genetic Kinship,” 2004.
29. David M. Schneider, American Kinship: A Cultural Account (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1968).
CHAPTER 5: ROOTS REVELATIONS
1. Parts of this chapter draw on collaborative research with Jeon Wong Hwang. See Nelson and Hwang, “Roots and Revelation: Genetic Ancestry Testing and the YouTube Generation,” in Race After the Internet, ed. Lisa Nakamura and Peter Chow-White (New York: Routledge, 2013), 271–90.
2. The Motherland series also aired on cable television in the United States on the Sundance Channel.
3. June Deery, “Interior Design: Commodifying Self and Place in Extreme Makeover, Extreme Makeover: Home Edition, and The Swan,” in The Great American Makeover: Television, History, Nation, ed. Dana Heller (New York: Macmillan, 2006), 169. On the history and affective significance of “the reveal” in television, see Anna McCarthy, “ ‘Stanley Milgram, Allen Funt, and Me’: Postwar Social Science and the ‘First Wave’ of Reality TV,” in Reality TV: Remaking Television Culture, ed. Susan Murray and Laurie Ouellette (New York: New York University Press, 2004), 19–39.
4. Lawrence-Lightfoot and Jemison appear in African American Lives, produced by Henry Louis Gates Jr., Williams R. Grant, and Peter W. Kunhardt (Washington, DC: Public Broadcasting Service, 2005), DVD. Chris Rock’s family genealogy is featured in African American Lives II, produced by Henry Louis Gates Jr., Williams R. Grant, Peter W. Kunhardt, and Dyllan McGee (Washington, DC: Public Broadcasting Service, 2007), DVD.
5. Isaiah Washington with Lavaille Lavette, A Man from Another Land: How Finding My Roots Changed My Life (New York: Center Street, 2011), 71.
6. Leslie Gordon, “Q & A with Isaiah Washington, a Man from Another Land,” http://lesliewrites.com/isaiah.htm.
7. Isaiah Washington, “DNA Has Memory: We Are Who We Were,” Huffington Post, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/isaiah-washington/dna-has-memory-we-are-who_b_87450.html.
8. Isaiah Washington, interview with author, March 2008.
9. Viewer responses described in this passage are posted in comments section, Jasmyne Cannick, “My African Ancestry DNA Revealed!,” YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hZzQU3dT9DA.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. Edward Ball, Slaves in the Family (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1998).
13. Leslie Goffe, Priscilla: The Story of an African Slave, BBC.com, November 23, 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4460964.stm.
14. “Mission Statement,” Gondobay Manga Foundation, https://gondobaymangafoundation.org/about-us/.
CHAPTER 6: ACTS OF REPARATION
1. Martha Biondi, “The Rise of the Reparations Movement,” Radical History Review 87 (Fall 2003): 5.
2. Foner, A Short History of Reconstruction (New York: Harper & Row, 1990), 32.
3. Ibid., 72.
4. Ibid., 73.
5. Biondi argues that two factors account for the “growing” appeal of the reparations movement: (1) the model of successful settlements for past wrongs to victimized groups in the United States and abroad and (2) the sense that racial healing in the United States cannot be achieved “until the United States confronts the full scope of harms it inflicted on enslaved Africans and their descendants.” Biondi, “The Rise of the Reparations Movement,” 9.
6. Mary Frances Berry, “Reparations for Freedmen, 1890–1916: Fraudulent Practices or Justice Deferred?,” Journal of Negro History 57 (July 1972): 220–21.
7. Johnson v. McAdoo, Opinion of the Court, November 14, 1916, Cases Adjudged by the United States Court of Appeals (District of Columbia Circuit), vol. 45, pp. 440–41.
8. Ex-slave pension activists not only faced a tide of incredulity and recalcitrance from elected officials, but also repressive state surveillance. As occurred simultaneously with race leader Marcus Garvey and other black activists of the period, the leadership of the ex-slave association was subject to scrutiny and harassment from federal authorities. In pathbreaking research, historian Mary Frances Berry documented how House and other leaders of the movement were falsely accused of being engaged in fraud by taking money gathered from the organization membership and using these monies for their personal ends. These accusations were unsupported by evidence but would result in a trial and conviction for House on fraud charges that precipitated the end of the organization.
9. Cheryl Townsend Gilkes, “Interview with Queen Mother Audley Moore,” in The Black Women Oral History Project, vol. 8, ed. Ruth Edmonds Hill (Westport, CT: Meckler, 1991), 115.
10. Lelya Keough, “Moore, ‘Queen Mother’ Audley,” in Africana: The Encyclopedia of African and African American Experience, ed. Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates Jr. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 59–60.
11. United Nations, Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, http://www.hrweb.org/legal/genocide.html.
12. Townsend Gilkes, “Interview with Queen Mother Audley Moore,” 115.
13. Queen Mother Moore, http://www.queenmothermoore.org/reparations.htm, accessed April 13, 2009; Erik S. McDuffie, “Moore, Audley ‘Queen Mother,’ ” American National Biography Online, August 2003, http://www.anb.org/articles/15/15-01298.html.
14. Biondi, “The Rise of the Reparations Movement,” 7.
15. Ibid.
16. Julie Foster, “Slavery Reparations Lawsuit Brewing,” January 31, 2001, WND, http://www.wnd.com/2001/01/8011/#7KkKpIXfEZV8jsTF.99.
17. The RNA sought to create a new world for African slave descendants while appealing to another facet of international law—the right to autonomous rule. The RNA demanded reparations from the United States in the form of $400 billion in “slavery damages.” In tandem, these activists, like the Black Panther Party before them, invoked UN statutes to call for the formation of a “plebiscite” among black Americans. The purpose of this poll would be to decide whether members of the community would establish an independent nation with territory ceded from the United States. They wanted African Americans to have the choice of citizenship beyond the United States, and accordingly proposed the creation of a separate nation for blacks carved out of several southern states, comprising in part some of the land promised to emancipated men and women after the Civil War. The RNA thereby added secession to the diverse arsenal of reparations strategies.
18. The text of this proclamation was subsequently printed in the New York Review of Books. See the Black National Economic Conference, “Black Manifesto,” New York Review of Books, July 10, 1969, http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1969/jul/10/black-manifesto/.
19. Ibid.
20. John Torpey, “Paying for the Past? The Movement for Reparations for African Americans,” Journal of Human Rights 3 (2004): 173.
21. Biondi, “The Rise of the Reparations Movement,” 9.
22. Ta-Nehisi Coates, “The Case for Reparations,” Atlantic, May 2014, http://www.theatlantic.com/features/archive/2014/05/the-case-for-reparations/361631/.
23. Despite the national evasion of this foundational issue, recent public acknowledgment of and apologies for slavery have occurred in several states and municipalities, including California, Maryland, and Illinois. In 2000, California governor Gray Davis signed a law requiring insurance companies operating in the state to disclose any policies that they wrote on enslaved men and women. In 2002, the California Department of Insurance released a report revealing that six insurance companies now operating in the state had profited from slavery. The case for reparations was also taken up by several state and city governments, including Chicago, where, since 2003, companies seeking to do business with the city are required to disclose whether they profited from chattel slavery.
24. Emphasis added. United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit, Jewel Cato; Joyce Cato; Howard Cato; Edward Cato, Plaintiffs-Appellants, v. United States of America, Defendant-Appellee. Leerma Patterson; Charles Patterson; Bobbie Trice Johnson, et al., Plaintiffs-Appellants, v. United States of America, Defendant-Appellee. Nos. 94–17102, 94–17104. Decided December 4, 1995.
25. Charles J. Ogletree Jr., “Tulsa Reparations: The Survivors’ Story,” http://www.bc.edu/content/dam/files/schools/law/lawreviews/journals/bctwj/24_1/03_TXT.htm.
26. Randall Robinson, The Debt: What America Owes to Blacks (New York: Dutton, 2000), 243.
27. Ibid.
28. Tamar Lewin, “Calls for Slavery Restitution Getting Louder,” New York Times, June 4, 2001, http://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/04/national/04SLAV.html.
CHAPTER 7: THE ROSA PARKS OF THE REPARATIONS LITIGATION MOVEMENT
1. Raymond A. Winbush, ed., Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations (New York: Amistad, 2003), 31; “Personal Testimony of Deadria Farmer-Paellmann in Support of HR 40,” Washington, DC, April 6, 2005, http://ncobra.org/resources/pdf/DEADRIA%20april%206%20statement.pdf.
2. Deadria C. Farmer-Paellmann, “Excerpt from Black Exodus: The Ex-Slave Pension Movement Reader,” in Winbush, Should America Pay?, 22.
3. Farmer-Paellmann, “Excerpt from Black Exodus,” 24.
4. Robert Trigaux, “Putting a Price on Corporate America’s Sins of Slavery,” St. Petersburg Times, April 14, 2002.
5. Ibid., Farmer-Paellmann, “Excerpt from Black Exodus,” 26.
6. Farmer-Paellmann, “Excerpt from Black Exodus,” 24.
7. Ibid.
8. Robin Finn, “Public Lives: Pressing the Cause of the Forgotten Slaves,” New York Times, August 8, 2000.
9. “Personal Testimony of Deadria Farmer-Paellmann in Support of HR 40.” See also James Cox, “Farmer-Paellmann Not Afraid of Huge Corporations,” USA Today, February 21, 2002, http://www.usatoday.com/money/general/2002/02/21/slave-activist.htm.
10. Farmer-Paellmann, “Excerpt from Black Exodus,” 25. See also “Personal Testimony of Deadria Farmer-Paellmann in Support of HR 40,” and Cox, “Farmer-Paellmann Not Afraid of Huge Corporations.”
11. Trigaux, “Putting a Price on Corporate America’s Sins of Slavery.”
12. “Personal Testimony of Deadria Farmer-Paellmann in Support of HR 40.”
13. Ibid.
14. Farmer-Paellmann, “Excerpt from Black Exodus,” 26.
15. Trigaux, “Putting a Price on Corporate America’s Sins of Slavery.”
16. “Personal Testimony of Deadria Farmer-Paellmann in Support of HR 40.”
17. Josie Appleton, “Suing for Slavery,” April 1, 2004, Spiked-Liberties, http://www.spiked-online.com/Printable/0000000CA4B0.htm.
18. Trigaux, “Putting a Price on Corporate America’s Sins of Slavery.”
19. Norman Kempster, “Agreement Reached on Nazi Slave Reparation,” Los Angeles Times, December 15, 1999, http://articles.latimes.com/1999/dec/15/news/mn-44055.
20. Biondi, “The Rise of the Reparations Movement,” 5.
21. Ibid., 9.
22. For additional discussion of the Farmer-Paellmann case, see Faubion and Hamilton, “Sumptuary Kinship.”
23. Cox, “Farmer-Paellmann Not Afraid of Huge Corporations.”
24. Ibid.
25. Peter Viles, “Suit Seeks Billions in Slave Reparations,” CNN.com, March 29, 2002; Matt O’Connor, “Judge Drops Suit Seeking Reparations, Slave Descendants Vow to Appeal,” Chicago Tribune, January 27, 2004.
26. In 2008 Fagan was disbarred in the states of New York and New Jersey for embezzling and misappropriating funds owed to clients in the Nazi reparations case.
27. Quoted in Robert Trigaux, “Putting a Price on Corporate America’s Sins of Slavery.”
28. Ibid. See also Nathan Burchfiel, “Blacks Deserve ‘200 Years of Free Education,’ Activist Says,” TownHall.com, http://www.townhall.com/news/ext_wire.html?rowid=46239.
29. Kelly Vlahos Beaucar, “Lawsuit Chases Companies Tied to Slavery,” FOXNews.com, March 27, 2002, http//www.foxnews.com/printer_friendly_story/0,3566,48781,00.html.
30. Finn, “Public Lives.”
31. Faubion and Hamilton, “Sumptuary Kinship,” 553.
32. Emphasis added, In Re African-American Slave Descendants Lit., 304 F. Supp. 2d 1027 (N.D. Ill. 2004), Opinion and order.
33. Ibid. See also O’Connor, “Judge Drops Suit Seeking Reparations.”
34. Eric J. Miller, “Representing the Race: Standing to Sue in Reparations Lawsuits,” Harvard BlackLetter Law Journal 20 (2004): 93, http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/blj/vol20/ericmiller.pdf.
35. Alex Kleiderman, “The Vexed Question of Paying for Slavery,” BBC News, August 23, 2004, http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/business/3590334.stm.
36. “Students to Boycott Slavery Banks; Marks 50th Anniversary of Montgomery Bus Boycott,” press release, Restitution Study Group, December 5, 2005, http://releases.usnewswire.com/printing.asp?id=57572.
37. Burchfiel, “Blacks Deserve ‘200 Years of Free Education.’ ”
38. “Do Not Use Aetna as Your Health Insurance Carrier,” e-mail from Deadria Farmer-Paellmann to OTUAfricanDNA Yahoo Group, November 7, 2006.
39. Appleton, “Suing for Slavery.”
40. Ibid.
41. “Business in Brief: Slaves’ Descendants File $1B Lawsuit,” Boston Globe, March 30, 2004.
42. Farmer-Paellmann v. FleetBoston Refiling: African American Genocide and DNA Case, 16.
43. James Cox, “Lloyd’s of London, FleetBoston and R.J. Reynolds Accused; Descendants Seek $1 Billion,” Miami Times, March 31–April 6, 2004.
44. Nick Godt, “J.P. Morgan & Co. Sued for Profiting from Slavery,” New York Sun, September 26, 2006, http://www.nysun.com/article/40357. See also Faubion and Hamilton, “Sumptuary Kinship,” 533.
45. Biondi, “The Rise of the Reparations Movement,” 14.
46. Kevin Hopkins, “Forgive US Our Debts? Righting the Wrongs of Slavery,” Georgetown Law Journal (August 2001).
47. In Re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation 304 F. Supp. 2d 1027 (N.D. Ill. 2005), Opinion and order.
48. Ashley M. Heher, “Slave Descendants Attempt to Revive Reparations Suit,” Chicago Sun Times, September 27, 2006.
49. Faubion and Hamilton, “Sumptuary Kinship,” 552.
50. Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985).
51. Deadria Farmer-Paellmann interview with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, “The World Today,” March 30, 2004.
52. Adolph Reed, “The Case Against Reparation,” Progressive, December 2000.
53. Ibid.
54. Winston Munford, “How Do We Make Reparations Happen?,” Black Star News, January 28, 2014, http://www.blackstarnews.com/us-politics/justice/how-do-we-make-reparations-happen.html.
55. O’Connor, “Judge Drops Suit Seeking Reparations.”
56. Kelly Vlahos Beaucar, “Lawsuit Chases Companies Tied to Slavery,” FOXNews.com, March 27, 2002, http//www.foxnews.com/printer_friendly_story/0,3566,48781,00.html.
57. James Davey, “From ‘Jim Crow’ to ‘John Doe’: Reparations, Corporate Liability, and the Limits of Private Law,” in Ethics, Law, and Society, vol. 3, ed. Jennifer Gunning and Soren Holm (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2007), 199.
58. Glanton, “Blacks Tap Roots Anew.”
59. Ibid.
CHAPTER 8: DNA DIASPORAS
1. Rogers Brubaker, “The ‘Diaspora’ Diaspora,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 28, no. 1 (2005): 1.
2. On “exceptional,” see Khachig Tölölyan, “Rethinking Diaspora(s): Stateless Power in the Transitional Moment,” Diaspora 5 (1996): 13. Also see Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks; Robin D. G. Kelley and Tiffany Patterson (2000). “Unfinished Migrations: Reflections on the African Diaspora and the Making of the Modern World,” African Studies Review, 43, no. 1 (2000): 11–45.
3. William Safran, “Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return,” Diaspora 1 (1990): 91.
4. Janet Carsten, Cultures of Relatedness: New Approaches to the Study of Kinship (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
5. Carol Stack, All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community (New York: Harper & Row, 1974).
6. Laurence J. C. Ma, “Space, Place, and Transnationalism in the Chinese Diaspora,” in The Chinese Diaspora: Space, Place, Mobility, and Identity, ed. Laurence J. C. Ma and Carolyn Cartier (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003), 1–50.
7. Jacqueline Nassy Brown, “Black Liverpool, Black America, and the Gendering of Diasporic Space,” Cultural Anthropology 13 (1998): 298; Jacqueline Nassy Brown, Dropping Anchor, Setting Sail: Geographies of Race in Black Liverpool (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), 53.
8. Brown, “Black Liverpool, Black America,” 298.
9. Rukmini Callimachi, “West African Nation Lays Claim to Whoopi,” Associated Press, February 7, 2007.
10. “US Chat Show Host Could Be a Zulu,” BBC News, June 15, 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4096706.stm.
11. “Liberia: Billionaire Showcases Liberia,” AllAfrica.com, May 1, 2006, http://allafrica.com/stories/200605010729.html.
12. “The Leon H. Sullivan Foundation,” Leon H. Sullivan Foundation, http://www.thesullivanfoundation.org/summit/about/index.asp.
13. “About the Summit,” Leon H. Sullivan Foundation, http://www.thesullivanfoundation.org/summit/about/index.asp.
14. Leon H. Sullivan, Build, Brother, Build (Philadelphia: Macrae Smith, 1969), 52.
15. Zion Baptist Church of Philadelphia, http://www.zionbaptphilly.org/index.php/about-us/about-us-who-we-are.
16. Leon H. Sullivan, Moving Mountains: The Principles and Purposes of Leon Sullivan (Valley Forge, PA: Judson Press, 1998).
17. Ibid., 27–30.
18. Leon H. Sullivan, “Agents for Change: The Mobilization of Multinational Companies in South Africa,” Law & Policy in International Business 15 (1983): 429. Karen Paul, “Corporate Social Monitoring in South Africa: A Decade of Achievement, An Uncertain Future,” Journal of Business Ethics 8 (1989): 465.
19. Paul Lewis, “Leon Sullivan, 78, Dies; Fought Apartheid,” obituary, New York Times, April 26, 2001, http://www.nytimes.com/2001/04/26/world/leon-sullivan-78-dies-fought-apartheid.html,
20. Paul, “Corporate Social Monitoring in South Africa,” 464.
21. Lewis, “Leon Sullivan, 78, Dies.”
22. Sullivan, Moving Mountains, 28 (emphasis added).
23. Leon H. Sullivan Foundation, “Framework for the Establishment of Africa-Diaspora Dual Citizenship” (Washington, DC: Sullivan Foundation, n.d.).
24. Gregory Simpkins, interview with author, July 3, 2012.
25. Ibid.
26. Ibid.
27. Leon Sullivan Foundation, “Framework for the Establishment of Africa-Diaspora Dual Citizenship.”
28. Paige, interview with author.
29. Simpkins, interview with author.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid.
32. Paige, interview with author.
33. Ibid.
34. Chad Bouchard, “Leon H. Sullivan Foundation: The Implosion of a Legacy,” Washington Post Magazine, July 25, 2013, http://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/magazine/leon-h-sullivan-foundation-the-implosion-of-a-legacy/2013/07/18/fe042654-d9ba-11e2-a9f2-42ee3912ae0e_story.html.
35. Ibid.
CHAPTER 9: RACIAL POLITICS AFTER THE GENOME
1. Gregory Simpkins interview with author, July 3, 2012. “They had already taken the test. . . . Gina knew that, and we were brainstorming about people [who] had already taken this . . . [and] so, they’re already open to it. And [Garvey and King III] are obviously a draw. That’s how it came about.”
2. Alvin M. Weinberg, “Science and Trans-Science,” in his Nuclear Reactions: Science and Trans-Science (New York: American Institute of Physics, 1992), 3–20.
3. Mapping Police Violence, “The National Police Violence Map,” www.mappingpoliceviolence.org.