p.172
accent 12, 67; attitudes towards 78–9; and difference 68
accent familiarity 38, 77; and intelligibility 57–8, 78–9; and listening 61, 77
accommodation 43, 52; in speaking tests 59–60
acoustic models and intelligibility 140–2
ACTFL (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages) Proficiency Guidelines 12 55, 73–4
American English 51
APST 155
articulatory phonology 167
ASR see automatic speech recognition
assessment of L2 speaking proficiency 1, 44
AutoAssess 155
automated assessment in spontaneous speech 6, 153–4; accuracy of ASR 161–2, 166; assessment systems 160–1; challenges 161–6; constrained vs. unconstrained speech 155–7; early efforts 154–5; error detection 158; generic approaches 159–60; intonation 159–60; L1 specific and generic models 163–4; model-based approaches 157–9; phone-level models 157–8; pronunciation ability defined 154; reference models 162–3; rhythm and timing 160; validity issues 164–6; new directions and recommendations 166–7
automatic speech recognition (ASR) 3, 6, 116, 130, 131, 137–8, 157–8; accuracy 161–2, 166; acoustic models and intelligibility 140–2; duration features 148–9; fundamental frequency and energy 145–7, 147f; pronunciation scoring 144–5; speaker dependent systems 142–3; speaker independent systems 143; spectral match scores 144–5; speech recognition modeling 138–40; validity of test scores 40–1; new directions and recommendations 149–50; see also pronunciation features in rating criteria
AZELLA (Arizona English Language Learner Assessment) 156, 160
Bachman, L. 74
Bailey, K. M. 72
Barker, F. et al. 40
Berns, M. 54
Bernstein, J. et al. 41, 42t, 154
Bisazza, J. A. 57
Boyle, J. P. 57
Bradlow, A. R. 77
Brazil, D. 121
Bundgaard-Nielsen, R. L. et al. 17, 19t
Cambridge English Language Assessment (CELA) 130; segmental features 127; suprasegmental features 128–9
p.173
Cambridge ESOL speaking tests 59
CAPT see computer-assisted pronunciation training
Carey, M. D. et al. 37, 59, 80
Carnegie Speech Assessment 155
Cebrian, J. 16, 16t, 17, 19, 19t, 20t, 21
CEFR see Common European Framework of Reference
CELA see Cambridge English Language Assessment
Chang L.-A. D. 26
Chapelle, C. et al. 31–2, 33, 164
Cheng, J. et al. 145, 146–7, 158
cloze exercises 24
Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) 37, 40, 55, 154
Communicative Language Teaching 11
comprehensibility 12, 15, 21, 53–4, 68; contributing features 22–3; defined 15, 18, 19–20; ease of interpretation 15; Munro and Derwing 11–12, 15; operationalization 20, 20t; perceived comprehensibility 54; and processing difficulty 15; in Smith paradigm 53
computer-assisted pronunciation training (CAPT) 137, 138, 150
consonant features 117
context 25
Cook, C. et al. 90
cross-cultural communication 50–2; see also comprehensibility; intelligibility; interpretability
crowdsourcing 166
Cucchiarini, C. et al. 120
Davis, L. 82
deep learning 166
Derwing, T. M. et al. 2, 11–15, 17, 18, 19, 19t, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24–5, 44, 54, 56, 68–9, 78, 90–1, 107, 145
discourse 22
Discourse Intonation framework 121
Downey, R. 139
duration features 148–9; see also vowel duration
Educational Testing Service (ETS) 61, 138, 156
EFL see English as a Foreign Language
EIL see English as an International Language
ELF see English as a Lingua Franca
ELT see English language teaching
EMI see English-medium instruction
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) 51
English as an International Language (EIL) 140, 162–3
English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) 37, 43, 49, 51–2, 141; intelligibility 50, 54–5; listening assessment 60–1; speaking assessment 58–60; new directions and recommendations 58–62
English as a Second Language (ESL) 78
English for international communication 50–2; intelligibility from ELF perspective 50, 54–5; intelligibility from WE perspective 50, 52–4, 56–8; new directions and recommendations 58–62
English language teaching (ELT) 51
English-medium instruction (EMI) 52; admission tests 60
EPT (ESL Placement Test) 56
error detection 158
Eskenazi, M. 158
ESL see English as a Second Language
ETS see Educational Testing Service
Evanini, K. 163
Expanding Circle varieties of English. 51
extemporaneous speech 14
FACETS program 109
Flege, J. E. 16, 68, 92, 108–9
Fleiss, J. L. 97
fluency 119; features 119, 128; vs. phonology 154
foreign accent: contributing features 22, 23; defined 16; Munro and Derwing 11–13; operationalization 16–17, 16t; phonemic vs. phonetic divergences 22; recent confusion 21
Frawley, W. 74
functional load 22
p.174
Gimson, A. C. 54
Goodness of Pronunciation score 157, 158
Gorlach, M. 51
grammar 22
Hahn, L. D. 19t
Harding, L. 37, 42t, 60, 140–1
Hayes-Harb, R. et al. 19t
Higgs, T. 74
Horak, T. 41
HTK speech recognizer 118
ICAO see International Civil Aviation Organisation
IE see International English
IELTS see International English Language Testing System
illocutionary force 53
inclusion 52
Indian English speakers 141, 145
Inner Circle varieties of English 50–1, 57
intelligibility 68; defined 13–14, 17, 140–1, 142; ELF perspective 50, 54–5; extemporaneous speech 14; familiarity and accentedness 56–8, 78–9; in L2 speaking proficiency scales 55–6; Munro and Derwing 11–12, 13–15; operationalization 18, 18t; phonological intelligibility 50, 54; recent confusion 21; sentence verification task 14–15; vowels 23; WE perspective 50, 52–4, 56–8
intelligibility principle 12, 36
Interagency Language Roundtable 74
International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) 37, 41
International English (IE) 50
International English Language Testing System (IELTS) 38, 39, 40, 53, 127, 130; listening assessment 60; rater bias 59, 80; segmental features 127–8; Speaking Band Descriptors 56; suprasegmental features 128, 129
international teaching assistants (ITAs) 40, 55, 56; evaluating language proficiency of 71–3; language test developers 72; raters 75; support programs 72
interpretability 53
Isaacs, T. 16, 16t, 17, 19–20, 20t, 21, 22, 23, 55–6, 91–3, 107
ITAs see international teaching assistants
Jenkins, J. 37, 50, 52, 54–5, 59
Jenner, B. 54
Julkowska, I. A. 16, 16t, 17, 19, 19t, 20t, 21
Kachru, B. B. 50
Kang, O. et al. 24, 39, 42t, 75, 89, 122
Kauper, N. 82
Kennedy, S. 16, 16t, 17, 19, 19t, 20t
Kenworthy, J. 53
Kim, H. 41
Kim, Y. H. 42t
Kinzler, K. D. et al. 67
Koniaris, C. et al. 167
Labov, W. 67
Lambert, W. E. et al. 73
language for specific purposes (LSP) 40, 43
language proficiency 69, 72; and linguistic awareness 79–80; measuring and judging 70–1; scale specificity and the native speaker 73–5; see also international teaching assistants
language testing research 70
Lantolf, J. 74
learner goals 25
Levis, J. M. 12, 17, 21, 26, 36, 55, 140
LFC see Lingua Franca Core
Lingua Franca Core (LFC) 37, 52, 54
listener background characteristics 3, 5, 67, 76–7; attitudes towards L2 accented speech 78–9, 83; familiarity with accent 61, 77; familiarity with content 77–8; language proficiency and linguistic awareness 79–80
listener-based numerical scales 5, 89–91; accentedness 101–5, 102f, 102t, 103t, 104f, 105f, 106f; analyses 95; comprehensibility 95–100, 96f, 96t, 97t, 98f, 100f, 101f; current contributions and research 91–3; difficulties reported by raters 106; discussion 108–9; illustrations and examples 93–109; insufficient training 108; length of rating 107; listeners and rating procedures 94–5; and musical ability 92; new directions and recommendations 109–10; speakers and tasks 94; understanding constructs 107; using the scales 106–7
p.175
listeners: biases 73; defined 67; perceptions of accentedness 38–9, 67–9
listening comprehension 14, 15
Lockwood, J. 30
locutionary force 53
Lord, G. 89
LSP see language for specific purposes
McArthur, T. 51
McNamara, T. 34
Macqueen, S. 60
Maier, A. et al. 160
Major, R. et al. 77
many-facet Rasch measurement (MFRM) 93, 97, 109
Matsuura, H. et al. 58
MFRM see many-facet Rasch measurement
Michigan Test of Aural Comprehension 57
Modiano, M. 51
Mollaun, P. 81
multidialectalism 49
Munro, M. J. et al. 2, 11–15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24–5, 54, 56, 68–9, 71, 78, 90–1, 107, 145
Narayanan, S. 167
native-speaker (NS) norm 49, 51; and scale specificity 73–5
NativeAccent® 137
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) 36
non-native speaker (NNS): “can do” statements 59; “deficit model” 59
O’Brien, M. G. 16, 16t, 19, 91
Oral English Proficiency Test (OEPT) 56
Ortmeyer, C. 57
Outer Circle varieties of English 51
paired speaker assessment 60
Pearson see PTE Academic (Pearson Test of English)
phoneme segmentation acoustic likelihood 144
phonemic divergences in L2 speech 22, 23
PhonePassTM SET-10 155; see also Versant English Test
phones 139
phonetic divergences in L2 speech 22
phonological intelligibility 50, 54
phonology: articulatory phonology 167; vs. spoken fluency 154
Pikho, M. K. 58
Pinget, A.-F. et al. 109
pitch range variation 122
Poonpon, K. 128
pronunciation features in rating criteria 3, 5–6, 115–16; Automated Speech Recognizers (ASRs) 116, 130, 131; current practices and contributions 127–9; illustrations of pronunciation analysis 122–7; segmental features 115, 116–18, 127–8; suprasegmental features 115, 116, 119–22; new directions and recommendations 129–31
Pronunciation in Second Language Learning and Teaching (PSLLT) 2012 conference 1
pronunciation instruction 4, 11–12; contributing features 22–3; foreign accent, intelligibility, comprehensibility 12–20; reasons for concern 12; recent confusion 21–2
pronunciation instruction: new directions/recommendations: acceptability 25–6; context and learner goals 25; greater consistency 23–4; new measures 24–5
pronunciation research 70, 73; see also listener-based numerical scales
prosodic features 37, 120, 128–9, 145–6, 159, 160
PTE Academic (Pearson Test of English) 146, 155, 156, 158
Rafiqzad, K. 57
Rasch measurement 76, 92–3; many-facet Rasch measurement (MFRM) 93, 97, 109
raters 75–6; attitudes towards L2 accented speech 78–9, 83; bias 59, 75, 80, 82; consistency 59; defined 67; effects of bias on score assignment 81–2; fairness 60; interaction with L2 accents 80–1; language proficiency and linguistic awareness 79–80; native speakers 59; perceptions of language proficiency 69; scale specificity and the native speaker 73–5; scales 69; training and performance 58, 75–6, 82, 83; variability 38–9; future directions and recommendations 82–4; see also international teaching assistants; listener background characteristics; listener-based numerical scales; pronunciation features in rating criteria
p.176
regional accents 141
reliability see generalization
Roever, C. 34
Saito, K. et al. 16t, 17, 20, 20t, 21, 22, 107
Savignon, S. 74
Scovel, T. 16
SE see Standard English
segmental features 115, 116–18, 127–8
sentence verification task 14–15
Shriberg, L. D. 78
Shrout, P. E. 97
Smith, K. A. 73
socio-cognitive framework 32
speaking assessment 58–9; accommodation 59–60
speaking proficiency scales 55
speech act theory 54
speech rate 120
SPELL (Interactive System for Spoken European Language Training) 154–5
Spolsky, B. 71
spontaneous speech 143
STANAG 6001 language proficiency scale 36–7
Strik, H. et al. 158
Sun, X. 163
suprasegmental features 37, 115, 116, 119–22, 128–9
Szpyra-Kozlowska, J. 25
Taylor, L. 60
Teixeira, C. et al. 159
Tell Me More® 137
Tepperman, J. 167
Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) 39, 138; listening assessment 60, 61
Test of English Proficiency of Academic Staff (TOEPAS) 52
test usefulness 32
theoretical linguistics 11
Thomson, R. I. 16, 16t, 19t, 20, 20t, 42t, 92–3, 107
TOEFL see Test of English as a Foreign Language
TOEFL iBT (internet Based Test) 41, 44, 56, 130; listening assessment 60; segmental features 127; speaking assessment 72, 80–1, 156; suprasegmental features 128, 129
TOEPAS see Test of English Proficiency of Academic Staff
tone 55
tone height 121
tone units 121
Toulmin, S. E. 33
Trofimovich, P. 16, 16t, 17, 19–20, 19t, 20t, 21, 22, 23, 37, 42t, 55–6, 91–2
unconstrained speech 143, 155–7; see also automated assessment in spontaneous speech
validity in pronunciation assessment 2, 4, 30–1; Assessment Use Argument 33; concept of validity 31–4; construct validity 32, 34; Interpretive Argument 33–4, 33f; key validity questions 34–5, 35t
validity: current contributions and research 35–6; in automated assessment 164–6; evaluation 36–8; explanation/extrapolation 40–1; generalization 38–40; main research methods 41–2, 42t; utilization 41; new directions and recommendations 42–5
Van Doremalen, J. et al. 163
Van Moere, A. 139
VersantTM English Test 138, 143, 144, 145, 148, 155
p.177
VILTS see Voice Interactive Language Training System
Voice Interactive Language Training System (VILTS) 154, 155
Voice Onset Time (VOT) 117, 122, 123f
vowel duration 118, 124–5, 124f
vowel features 118
vowel intelligibility 23
vowel space 118
Walker, R. 37
Wang, L. 39
washback 41; impact and ethics 43–5; and listening tests 61
WE see World Englishes
Wigglesworth, G. 82
word stress 37
word/utterance recognition 53
World Englishes (WE) 2–3, 4–5, 49–50; concentric circle model 50; intelligibility 50, 52–4, 56–8; listening assessment 60–1; speaking assessment 58–60; new directions and recommendations 58–62
World Standard Spoken English (WSSE) 51, 52
Xi, X. et al. 33, 33f, 41, 42t, 72, 81, 164, 166
Yates, L. et al. 42t
Young, S. et al. 118
Zielinski, B. 22