Acculturation: defined, 251; globalization-based, 253–54; immigration-based, 253–54; strategies, 251
Achievement, as human value, 126
Adams, G., 24
Adjustment, and self-directed motivation, 13–14
Age: and RUO types, 232; and value, 141–42
Agency: autonomous, 93; CMs of, 99–113
Agreeableness, and religious prosociality, 170–74
Ahadi, S. A., 258
Ahamakara, 102
Akrami, N., 285
Alger, Horatio, 195
Allport, G. W., 122–23, 172, 212
Al-Nakba, 198
American exceptionalism, 195
Analytical thinking, 6
Andersen, R., 168
Andrews, M., 202
Antonioni, D., 287
Arab-Israeli war, 198
Artha, 102
Aryus, K., 131
Asendorpf, J. B., 213–15, 227–28, 231, 233–34
Au, W., 8
Autobiographical author, personality development, 187
Autobiographical reasoning, 192
Autobiographical reflected self, 96
Autobiographical self, 96
Autonomous agency, 93
Autonomy, 103; behavioral, 93; Chinese models of, 106–13; CMs of, 99–113; Confucian model of, 108–11; culture-specific models for, 99–106; emotional, 93; Hindu cultural bases for the possibility of, 100–102; intellectual, 93; moral, 93; motivational, 93; personal, 93; psychological, 93–96; Taoist CMs of, 106–8; Western model of, 111–13
Avdeyeva, T. V., 218, 227, 232
Avia, M. D., 228
Ayurveda, 100
Azmitia, M., 204
Barbaranelli, C., 216
Batson, C. D., 172
Baumeister, R. F., 251
Behavior: group, 19; and values, 145–46. See also Values
Behavioral autonomy, 93
Belsky, J., 43
Benet-Martínez, V., 252, 256, 259, 289–90
Benevolence, as human value, 125
Bergman, L. R., 213
Berkeley and Oakland Growth Studies, 213
Berlia, N., 15
Berry, J. W., 251
Bialystok, E., 254
Bicultural efficacy, 250
Bicultural identity integration (BII), 204, 252–53
Bicultural Identity Integration Scale (BIIS-P), 252
Biculturalism, 249–54, 256–58; acculturation strategies, 251; bicultural identity integration, 252–53; bicultural self-efficacy, 250; fluency and use, 250; globalization-based acculturation, 253–54; immigration-based acculturation, 253–54; impact of personality on adjustment, 257–58; other constructs, 251–52; stimulating, 288–90
Bicultural self-efficacy, 250
Big Five neuroticism, 158
Big Five personality model, 156–58
Bilingual biculturals, 262
Bilingualism, 248–49, 254–56; coordinate vs. compound, 249; fluency and use, 248–49; impact of personality on adjustment, 255–56
Bilsky, W., 131
Biographical script, 191
Black, J. S., 291
“Black Peter debate,” 284
Blake, R., 286
Blauensteiner, A., 131
Block, J., 212–13, 214, 215, 216, 228, 232, 235, 239
Block, J. H., 214, 216, 228, 239
Boehm, B., 228
Borg, I., 131
Borkenau, P., 214
Boroditsky, Lera, 255
Brahman, 102
Brown, D. E., 99
Brym, R., 168
Buchanan, K. E., 133
Buddhism, 100, 106, 166, 168, 174
Bush, George W., 195
Butcher, J. N., 266
California Child Q-Set (CCQ), 214
California Psychological Inventory (CPI), 259
Caprara, G. V., 146
Carver, C. S., 216
Castañeda, I., 261
Chakravarty, S., 113
Chan, J., 110
Chen, Carolyn, 197
Cheng, C. Y., 255
Cheung, T., 5
Chiao, J. Y., 21
Children, telling stories in culture, 189–91
Chinese models: of autonomy, 106–13; of self, 106–13; of self-cultivation, 106–13
Choices, and self-directed motivation, 14–16
Christianity, 167
Church, A. T., 23, 218, 227, 232, 261
Clobert, M., 177
Code switching, 263
Cognition, context-sensitive, 6–8
Cognitive flexibility, 278
Collectivist cultural norms, 190
Community, 103
Compound bilingualism, 249
Conceptual self, 96
Conformity, as human value, 124–25
Confucianism, 106
Conscientiousness: defined, 139; openness to, 168–69
Contamination story, 198
Context-sensitive cognition, 6–8
Contextual self-representations, 21
Conway, M. A., 190
Cooperative motives, 287
Coordinate bilingualism, 249
Core experiential self, 96
Core self, 95
Costa, P. T., Jr., 215
Cross, S. E., 22
Cross, W. E., 251
Cultural accommodation, 263
Cultural differences, and religious prosociality, 173–74
Cultural empathy, 279
Cultural frame switching (CFS), 263–64
Cultural identities, cooperative negotiation of, 286–88
Culturally relevant emotions, 39
Cultural models (CMs): of agency, 99–113; of autonomy, 99–113; defined, 2; independent self-construal, 2–3; of individual, 99–113; interdependent self-construal, 2–3; relational-interdependent self-construal, 3; of self, 1–24, 99–113
Cultural modernity, 193
Cultural norms: collectivist, 190; individualistic, 190
Cultural self, neurological basis of, 20–21; general vs. contextual self-representations, 21; self-awareness/recognition, 21; self vs. other representations, 20–21
Culture: assessing the value theory across, 129–31; beyond East and West, 19–24; children telling stories in, 189–91; and emotion, 35–41; emotion research and current gaps in, 40–41; future research, 177; and language, 258–65; limitations and measurement issues, 175–77; mechanisms of functioning of, 97–98; as moderator of the personality-religiosity relationships, 162–74; nature of, 97; new directions in research on, 19–24; and personality, 258–65; shaping fulfillment of needs, 63–64; shaping self-related motivations, 64–77
Culture-specific models: for autonomy, 99–106; for a person, 99–106; for self, 99–106
D’Andrade, R. G., 62
Das, R., 113
David, E. J. R., 250
Declaration of Independence, 10
Delpierre, V., 143
Dernelle, R., 143
Devich-Navarro, M., 251
Dharma, 101
Differential susceptibility hypothesis: and gene-culture interactions, 42–43
Divinity, 103
Dopamine (DA), and positive emotions, 47–50
Döring, A. K., 131
Drögekamp, L., 131
Dunlop, W. L., 192
Egalitarianism, 229
Ego depletion, 77
Ekehammar, B., 285
Ekman, P., 36
Electroencephalogram (EEG), 20
Elster, A., 143
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 195, 197
Emotion research, culture and, 40–41
Emotions: biology and, 41–45; culturally relevant, 39; culture and, 35–41; definitions and cultural models, 37; focal, 9; gene-culture interactions and, 45–52; interpersonally disengaged, 9; interpersonally engaged, 9; negative, 37–38, 45–47; positive, 37–38, 47–50; regulation, 39–40; self influence, 8–12; socially engaging and disengaging, 39; socially relevant, 50–52
Enlightenment, 111
Ervin, S. M., 259
Ewing, Kathrin, 105
Experience, openness to, 165–68
Extraversion, 170
Eysenck models, of religious personality, 156–58
Face value, as human value, 126
Fan, J., 20
Fehr, B., 18
Feldman, G., 137
Five-Factor Model (FFM), 260
Five-Factor Theory, 154
Flexibility, defined, 279
Focal emotions, 9
Franklin, Benjamin, 195
Freud, S., 201
Friesen, W. V., 36
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 20
Funder, D. C., 238
Fung, H. H., 9
Gagné, M., 112
Gebauer, J. E., 160, 166, 168, 170–72, 176
Geiser, C., 229
Gelfand, M. J., 288
Gender, in RUO types, 232
Gene-culture interactions: differential susceptibility hypothesis and, 42–43; in the domain of emotion, 45–52
General self-representations, 21
Generativity, 194
Genetics: and personality traits, 154–55; and religiosity, 154–55
Getting Saved in America: Taiwanese Immigration and Religious Experience (Chen), 197
Giddens, A., 193
Globalization-based acculturation, 253–54
GLOBE project, 146
Goodwin, R., 133
Gordon, M. M., 251
Greene, Joshua, 287
Group behavior, 19
Group identity, differences as building blocks for, 283–86
Gudykunst, W. B., 279
Haidt, J., 188
Hamaguchi, E., 5
Hamamura, T., 76
Hammack, Phillip, 196
Hammack, P. L., 185, 197–99, 200–201
Hammer, M. R., 279
Hart, D., 227
Haselager, G. J. T., 227
Hedonism, as human value, 125
Heilbrun, Carolyn, 193
Heller, D., 262
Herbst, J. H., 215
Herfst, S., 292
Herzberg, P. T., 232
HEXACO model, of religious personality, 156–58
High-arousal positive emotions, 191
Hofstede, G., 146
Holistic thinking, 6
Holocaust, 197
Homan, Astrid, 286
Huismans, S., 143
Hull, P. V., 259
Human values, 124–26; achievement, 126; benevolence, 125; conformity, 124–25; face, 126; hedonism, 125; humility, 126; power, 126; security, 124; self-direction, 125; stimulation, 125; tradition, 125; universalism, 125
Humility, as human value, 126
Huntington, S. P., 162
Hurricane Katrina, 73
Imai, L., 288
Immigration-based acculturation, 253–54
Individualistic cultural norms, 190
Individualized self, 103
Influence, and self-directed motivation, 13–14
Intercultural adaptation, 281
Intercultural competency: five-dimensional approach to, 279–81; from theory to practice, 290–93
Intercultural effectiveness, 281–83
Intercultural Effectiveness Training (IET), 291
Intergroup anxiety, 278
Internal alchemy, 107
International Sexuality Description Project, 158–60
Interpersonally disengaged emotions, 9
Interpersonally engaged emotions, 9
Intersubjective consensus, 79
Intersubjective culture: cultural products, 80–81; as mediator, 79–80; residential mobility, 81
Ishii, K., 46
Islam, 167
Iyengar, S. S., 14
Izard, C. E., 36
Jack, R. E., 36
Jang, S., 289
Jenkins, S. R., 252
Ji, L. J., 265
Jobs, Steve, 12
John, O. P., 213
Kama, 102
Kan, C., 10
Kanagawa, C., 16
Karasawa, M., 9
Karma, 101
Katigbak, M. S., 261
Kay, A. C., 70
Kennedy, A., 257
Kentucky Fried Chicken, 195
Kim, Y., 8
Kitayama, S., 3–4, 9, 13, 14, 39, 78
Kleinfeld, J., 195
Kluckhohn, C., 63
Knafo, A., 137
Knutson, B., 9
Koopmann-Holm, B., 196
Kroeber, A. L., 63
Kumar, S., 15
Kusumi, I., 46
LaFromboise, T., 250
Lakoff, G., 188
Language: and culture, 258–65; and personality, 258–65; and personality assessment, 265–66; and personality characteristics, 263–65; and personality measures, 259–61; and personality-related variables, 261–63
Lee, A. Y., 189
Lehman, D. R., 15
Lepper, M. R., 14
Leung, A. K.-Y., 14
Leung, K., 158
Levenson, R. W., 38
Lewin, Kurt, 283
Life stories: children telling stories in culture, 189–91; counter narratives, 200–203; hybrid identities, 203–5; master narratives, 196–99; narrative identity, emergence of, 191–93; and personality, 186–89; redemptive self, 193–96
Low-arousal positive emotions, 191
Luhmann, M., 229
Luijters, K., 283
Lyubomirsky, S., 258
Malka, A., 167
Maoist Cultural Revolution, 110
Markus, H. R., 3–4, 14, 15, 78
Master narratives, 196–99; positioning and power, 199–200
Mauss, Marcel, 102
McAdams, D. P., 123, 187–88, 194–95, 196
Mead, G. H., 258
Meaning Maintenance Model (MMM), 62
Meeus, W. H. J., 234
Mendenhall, M., 291
Mesquita, B., 9
The Middle East: A Cultural Psychology (Gregg), 200
Miller, J. G., 113
Milligan, S., 168
Mines, Mattison, 104
Mini-International Personality Item Pool, 158
Minimal self, 95
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 266
Mischel, W., 75
Miyamoto, Y., 13
MMPI-2, 266
Models of self and well-being, 10–12
Models of self-directed motivation, 12–17; choices and preferences, 14–16; influence and adjustment, 13–14; self-enhancement motives, 16–17
Models of self guide social and interpersonal behavior, 17–19; close relationships, 17–18; group behavior, 19; orientations toward others, 18–19
Models of self influence emotion, 8–12
Models of self shape cognition, 5–8; context-sensitive cognition, 6–8; self-descriptions, 5–6
Mok Hing Yiu, 13
Molden, D. C., 189
Moore, C., 200
Moral tribes (Greene), 287
Morling, B., 13
Morris, B., 106
Motivated agent, personality development, 187
Motivational autonomy, 93
Motivational mechanisms, 77–81; intersubjective culture as mediator, 79–80; self-concept as mediator, 78–79
Motivational setting hypothesis, 43–45
Motivation for control or agency, 70–74
Motives, and self-enhancement, 16–17
Mouton, J., 286
Multicultural Personality Questionnaire (MPQ), 290
Multidimensional Work Motivation Scale, 112
Naidu, N. V. R., 15
Naïve dialecticism, 69
Narrative identity, 185, 187; emergence of, 191–93; redemptive self, 193–96
Narrative therapy, 201
Neberich, W., 171
Needs, culture shaping fulfillment of, 63–64
Negative emotions, 37–38; serotonin and, 45–47
Nguyen, A. M., 256
Normative secularism, 166
Norris, P., 167
Obama, Barack, 195
Okazaki, S., 250
Open-mindedness, 279
Orientalism (Said), 199
Ostendorf, F., 214
Otten, S., 283
OXTR rs53576, 51
Oxytocin (OXT), and socially relevant emotions, 50–52
Oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR), 51
Oz, H., 255
Ozer, D. J., 215
Pan-cultural value hierarchy, 133–35
Pavicic-Takac, V., 255
Pennebaker, J. W., 259
People magazine, 196
Perceived consensus, 79
Person: culture-specific models for, 99–106; Western model of, 111–13
Personal autonomy, 93
Personality: and culture, 258–65; future research, 177; implications of language effects for assessment of, 265–66; and language, 258–65; and life stories, 186–89; limitations and measurement issues, 175–77; person-centered approach to, 212–17; religious, 155–62; traits, value and, 137–40; values as an aspect of, 122–24
Personality traits, 211–12; genetic and environmental influences, 154–55; and religiosity, 154–55
Person-centered approach to personality, 212–17
Perunovic, W. Q. E., 262
Phinney, J. S., 251
Picture-Based Value Survey, 131
Piekstra, J., 280
Plasticity, defined, 49
Poarch, G. J., 254
Požega, D., 255
Polzer, J., 289
Portrait Values Questionnaire (PVQ), 130
Positioning, and master narratives, 199–200
Positive emotions, 37–38, 47–50; and DA, 47–50
Power: as human value, 126; and master narratives, 199–200
Preferences, and self-directed motivation, 14–16
“Prevention-oriented relationality,” 76
Psychological adjustment, 256
Psychological autonomy, 93–96; components of, 93, 94; defined, 93
Puente-Díaz, R., 258
Q-Sort-based RUO types, 227
Quested, E., 112
Questionnaire-based RUO types, 227–30
Rafaeli, E., 262
Rammstedt, B., 234
Realistic threat, 278
Relational-Interdependent Self-Construal (RISC) Scale, 22
Relational self-construal, 21–22
Religiosity: future research, 177; genetic and environmental influences, 154–55; limitations and measurement issues, 175–77; and personality traits, 154–55; and values, 143–44
Religious personality, 155–62; Big Five personality model, 156–58; Eysenck models, 156–58; HEXACO model, 156–58; isomorphism between the individual and collective levels, 161–62; non-Christian Western samples and international studies, 158–60; universals across cultures, 155–62; universals in, 160–61
Religious prosociality: agreeableness and, 170–74; cultural differences in nature of, 173–74; in secular vs. traditional religious contexts, 170–73
Rentfrow, P. J., 162
Residential mobility, 81
Resilient, Undercontrolled, and Overcontrolled (RUO) types, 214–17; added value with respect to the Big Five, 237; cross-cultural generality of Q-Sort-based, 227; cross-cultural generality of questionnaire-based, 227–30; in cross-cultural perspective, 217–27, 230; developmental portrait of the social and psychological world of, 235–37; discrete or fuzzy, 231–32; evidence supporting the reliability of, 230–31; gender and age differences in, 232; generality across methods and instruments, 232–34; other issues associated with, 230–37; temporal stability of, 234–35
Revised NEO Personality Inventory, 176
Robinson, M., 133
Ross, J. M., 172
Roth, M., 232
Rotter, J. B., 71
Rubel, T., 140
Rubel-Lifschitz, T., 141
Sagiv, L., 137
Saguy, A. C., 202
Said, Edward, 199
Samuels, J., 215
Saroglou, V., 143, 156, 162, 176
Satterstrom, P., 289
Savani, K., 15
Saw, A., 250
Schkade, D., 258
Schnabel, K., 228
Schoenrade, P., 172
Schwartz, S. H., 121–24, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 137, 140–41, 143, 145, 146
Schwartz Value Survey, 129
Security, as human value, 124
Self: beyond East and West, 19–24; as center of autonomous regulation, 95–96; Chinese models of, 106–13; Confucian model of, 108–11; cultural models of, 1–24, 99–113; culture-specific models for, 99–106; hindu CMs of, 102–6; models of, 10–12; new directions in research on, 19–24; Taoist CMs of, 106–8; Western model of, 111–13
Self-awareness/recognition, 21
Self-concept as mediator, 78–79
Self-cultivation, Chinese models of, 106–13
Self-determination theory (SDT), 74
Self-direction, as human value, 125
Self-efficacy, bicultural, 250
Self-enhancement motives, 16–17
Self guide social and interpersonal behavior models, 17–19
Self-regulation processes, 74–77
Self-related motivations: culture shaping, 64–77; motivation for control or agency, 70–74; self-consistency, 68–69; self-determination theory (SDT), 74; self-enhancement, 66–68; self-regulation processes, 74–77
Self-representations: general vs. contextual, 21
Self shape cognition models, 5–8
Serotonin, and negative emotions, 45–47
Sexuality, 169
Shapiro, J. P., 251
Sheldon, K. M., 258
Shinada, M., 46
Sick self, 10
Sinclair, L., 18
Slabu, L., 133
Slingerland, E., 107
Social actor, personality development, 187
Social class, and cultural models, 23–24
Social initiative, 279
Socially relevant emotions, and OXT, 50–52
Sociocultural self, 96
Soffieti, J., 247
Spiritual self, 103
Standard factor analysis (R-Factor analysis), 213
Stattin, H., 239
Stephan, C., 278
Stephan, W., 278
Stephens, N. M., 23
Stern, William, 212
Stimulation, as human value, 125
Suh, E. M., 11
Sui, J., 21
Sullivan, D., 70
Super Bowl, 195
Syed, M., 204
Symbolic threat, 278
Taoist yoga, 108
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 259
Threat: realistic, 278; symbolic, 278
Tice, D. M., 251
Toolis, E., 185
Tradition, as human value, 125
Trapnell, P. D., 260
Triandis, H. C., 3
Trommsdorff, G., 77
Tsai, J. L., 196
Twenty Statements Test, 16
Typology, defined, 213
Universalism, as human value, 125
Values: and actions and situations, 122; age and, 141–42; as an aspect of personality, 122–24; and attitudes, 144–45; and behavior, 145–46; and beliefs, 121; content and structure of systems, 124–29; cross-cultural evidence, 131–33; as desirable goals, 122; education and, 142–43; impact on everyday decisions, 122; national differences in priorities, 135–36; ordered by relative importance, 122; personality traits and, 137–40; relations, structure of, 126–29; relative importance of multiple, 122; reliability, stability, and change, 131–33; and religiosity, 143–44; and religiosity and religion, 143–44; sex and, 140–41; as standards or criteria, 122. See also Behavior
Van Aken, M. A. G., 214–15, 227, 234
Van der Zee, K. I., 280, 282, 283, 285
Van Leeuwen, K., 232
Van Lieshout, C. F. M., 227
Van Oudenhoven, J. P., 280
The Varieties of Religious Experience (James), 196
Vecchione, M., 146
Ventis, W. L., 172
Vignoles, V. L., 4
Vivero, V. N., 252
Vygotsky, Lev, 91
Walker, L. J., 192
Wang, Q., 190
Ward, A., 202, 252, 257, 281–82
Wiseman, R. L., 279
World Values Survey, 166
World War II, 197
Writing a Woman’s Life (Heilbrun), 193
Yang, K., 261
Yap, A. J., 255
Yik, M. S. M., 260
Zaal, J. N., 280
Zhang, L., 20
Zhu, Y., 20