It has been noted that “few ideas in New Testament studies produce higher levels of agreement than the notion that Paul’s letter to Philemon has little or no theological substance.”1 In fact, few treatments of Pauline theology devote a substantial section to this particular letter.2 Several factors contribute to this conclusion: the relative length of Philemon, the personal tone and private nature of the letter, and the lack of explicit theological arguments. To many, these considerations provide sufficient justification for downplaying this letter as an important resource for Pauline theology, much less the theology of the NT.
This consensus further rests on the assumption that this letter must be evaluated against the categories established by the modern study of Paul’s theology. The letter lacks explicit treatment of topics such as justification by grace through faith, the justice and mercy of God the Father, the atoning death of Christ, and the unity of Jews and Gentiles as the one body of Christ. Others who attempt to evaluate this letter according to categories familiar to the works of the systematic theologians would also easily conclude that this work does not focus on Theology proper, Christology, Pneumatology, Ecclesiology, or Eschatology.
Our evaluation of the theological contribution of Philemon, however, must begin with the text in order to reconstruct the framework within which Paul’s letter was understood by believers in the first century. In doing so, we must focus on two interrelated aspects: the underlying presuppositions on which Paul’s appeals are made,3 and the narrative that can be identified behind the various assertions in this letter.4 The presentation below provides a sketch of such a “theology,” which points to the profound reservoir of theological thought.
Although not the subject of extensive discussion, the few references to “God” are consistent with Paul’s emphasis in his other letters. In the opening section, “God” is identified as “our Father” (v. 3), an appellation found in other opening sections of Paul’s letters (Rom 1:7; 1 Cor 1:3; 2 Cor 1:2; Gal 1:3; Eph 1:2; Phil 1:2; Col 1:2; 2 Thess 1:1; 2:16). This God is also the object of Paul’s thanksgiving prayer (v. 4). The significance of such an affirmation should not be underestimated. Paul writes with the fundamental assumption that God is the one and only object of worship.
The act of thanksgiving is an act of worship;5 it is an act in which Paul not only affirms the centrality of God but also situates human interaction and relationships within the wider plan of God. In focusing on the “love and faith” (v. 5) that Philemon has for all the saints, Paul foregrounds his relationship with God as the primary area of concern. This letter is, therefore, not to be read as a discourse in philosophical ethics, but rather as an appeal to Philemon to continue acting in a way consistent with his commitment to worship the one true God.
Beyond the appearances of the name “God,” two passive verbs point to God as the sovereign one who controls history. In v. 15, the assertion that Onesimus “was separated from” Philemon should be interpreted as an affirmation of divine providence: despite human intentions, God has a wider purpose for the human characters. In v. 22, Paul’s use of “I will be restored to you” together with the reference to prayer points to his own submission to the divine will.6 The God presented in this letter is a God who acts in history and to whom humans are responsible.
Returning to the title “our Father,” in light of the prominence of the household metaphor in this letter, this title acquires special significance. God the Father is the paterfamilias, who has power over his entire household. This note on divine authority introduces a proper perspective with its implied call for accountability.7 Some have also detected an anti-imperial claim here as God, not the Roman emperor, is now to be considered the ultimate head of the cosmic household.8
Though not a letter that focuses on the supreme ontological status of Christ, this letter contains numerous references to Christ, upon whom Paul grounds his appeals. He begins by identifying himself as a “prisoner of Christ Jesus” (v. 1). The significance of this identification is reinforced by its reappearances in vv. 9 and 23, as well as several references to his own imprisonment (vv. 10, 13, 22). Paul lives out the confession that Jesus is the Lord to whom all should submit.
The lordship of Christ is explicitly noted in v. 3 with the title “the Lord Jesus Christ.” In a letter that urges Philemon to be obedient to Christ and his gospel,9 this emphasis on lordship acquires special meaning as Philemon must act in a way consistent with this confession. This explains the phrase “in the Lord” at the end of both subsections of the main body of this letter (vv. 16, 20). In framing the entire discussion under the lordship of Christ, Paul reminds Philemon that he also has a “Master/Lord in heaven” (Col 4:1).10 This relativization of his own power and authority allows Paul to attempt to change Philemon’s behavior toward his own slave. After all, Paul does have “boldness in Christ” (v. 8) to command Philemon to act in light of Christ’s lordship as he continues in his expression of “love and faith in the Lord Jesus” (v. 5). Through these references to the Lord Jesus Christ, this letter can be considered a christocentric one, where Christ is both the basis and the goal of Paul’s appeals (cf. v. 6). Without Christ, Paul has no grounds to appeal to Philemon, and Philemon will find no reason to receive Onesimus as his brother.11
Beyond explicit references to Christ, one also finds indirect references to his redemptive work through Paul’s own acts as the mediator of reconciliation.12 Instead of proposing a series of moral arguments, Paul places himself between Onesimus and Philemon in an attempt to seek reconciliation. In identifying himself with Onesimus, he urges Philemon to receive Onesimus as he would receive Paul (v. 17) since Onesimus is his “own heart” (v. 12; cf. v. 20). This is consistent with the force of the conditional clause in v. 17, where Paul considers Philemon’s acceptance of Onesimus as the condition of his own partnership with Philemon.13 In this way, he imitates the reconciliatory work of Christ, who stands between the holy God and those who are disobedient to him. Moreover, as Christ himself takes on the role of a slave (cf. Phil 2:6–11), Paul gives up his freedom in serving the gospel as a “prisoner of Christ Jesus” (vv. 1, 9).14
Most striking is Paul’s adoption of redemption language in v. 18: “If he has wronged you in any way, or owes you anything, charge it to me.” This willingness to purchase the freedom of a slave resembles Christ’s own redemptive work on the cross (cf. Gal 3:13–14). In bearing the cost of this reconciliation, Paul stands between the two parties, willing to pay for such redemption with his own person.
This is consistent with Paul’s behavior elsewhere. At the end of Romans, for example, he intends to return to Jerusalem to deliver the collection to the Jews (Rom 15:25–29) since that money symbolizes the unity of Jews and Gentiles (cf. Gal 1:9–10; 1 Cor 16:1–4; 2 Cor 8–9).15 There Paul is also willing to risk his life for the sake of the unity of the church (cf. Rom 15:30–33). Moreover, discussion of his plans to return to Jerusalem culminates his arguments presented earlier in Romans, chapters that contain theological arguments.16 If Paul’s words in Philemon can be compared to that of Romans, his willingness to stand between Philemon and Onesimus should also be read in light of the wider theological arguments that find their climax in Christ’s redemptive work on the cross. The lack of explicit theological expressions should, therefore, not be considered a sign of the lack of theological depth.
Building on the prior work of God through Christ, Paul provides a radical new vision of reality in which the full transformation of human relationships testifies to the power of God’s salvific acts. Unlike Colossians, where the power of Christ’s death and resurrection is carefully articulated (cf. 1:15–23), Paul here focuses on the implications of such events. It is nonetheless correct to argue that in this letter, “Paul’s premise is nothing less than Christ’s resurrection: there is a new creation; all things have become new.”17
One significant way this new reality is presented is through the use of household labels. First and most important, God is the “Father” and Jesus Christ is the “Lord” (v. 3). In a household setting, both titles point to the paterfamilias. This is yet another piece in Paul’s writings that points to a high Christology, where Paul considers Christ to be of the same status as God the Father. Under the headship of God and the lordship of his Son, members of this household are to relate to one another under the presence of this higher authority.
With God and Christ being the heads of the household, the sibling metaphors become meaningful. Timothy, Paul’s coworker, is identified as a “brother” (v. 1), while Apphia, apparently a member of Philemon’s community, a “sister” (v. 2). Within this framework, the identification of Philemon as a “brother” (vv. 7, 20) becomes important as he is to be considered no more and no less than a member of the household of God. These labels pave the way for v. 16, where Philemon is called to receive Onesimus back “no longer as a slave, but more than a slave, a beloved brother.”18
This structuring of reality is theologically significant. First, God’s people, who have been defined by blood lineage, are now defined by their participation in the gospel of Christ. Both Jews and Gentiles are now able to participate in the Israel who has been called God’s “firstborn” (Exod 4:22) and “daughter” (Lam 2:13).19 As “brothers” and “sisters” who can now call God “Father” and Christ “Lord,” they acquire the privilege to receive the inheritance reserved for the legitimate heirs (cf. Col 1:12).
Second, in this reconstruction of reality, the marginal members of the community can claim their rightful places within this household of God. It is not surprising for Paul to mention “Apphia, our sister” at the beginning of this letter, as she is to serve as the witness of this gospel of reversal, where the powerless ones can experience the powerful grace of God.20 Rather than a narrow treatise on the treatment of slaves, this letter is concerned with the wider perception of reality, a reality constructed by the power of the gospel of Christ.
Third, Paul considers the local church as the proper setting for the implementation of this new vision of reality. In this community of faith, this vision ceased to be a theoretical model, for it testifies to the transformative power of the gospel. Without discussing the responsibilities of various office holders, this letter does provide one of the strongest views of the local church. It is in this ecclesiological setting that one can experience the eschatological reality of the new age: “Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, a new creation has come: The old has gone, the new is here!” (2 Cor 5:17).21 It is to this ecclesiology that we must now turn.
With the dawn of the new age, Paul expects the community of God’s people to live out this new reality. As a natural extension of this point, the church is to represent the new humanity, one that testifies to the powerful work of a gospel that transcends social and ethnic barriers. If this letter is to be read with Colossians, also addressed to believers in the same geographical region, that letter’s theoretical discussion provides the rationale for the practices advocated in Philemon. In Col 3:11, the new humanity is defined in strikingly universal terms: “there is neither Greek nor Jew, circumcised nor uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave nor free, but Christ is all and in all.” Here, Paul urges Philemon to live out this reality.22
In light of this wider vision, the public nature of Philemon can be properly understood. The address to the various individuals with their (official) titles at the beginning of this letter (vv. 1–2) and the greetings from a number of Paul’s coworkers at the end (vv. 23–24) make it clear that although Paul is dealing with a personal issue, this is also a public one that involves the entire community of believers.23 Beyond the concern of individual virtue, therefore, Paul focuses on such community with individual members united through the “grace … and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ” (v. 3). This focus as well as its basis that transcends personal friendship distinguishes Paul’s letters from the writings of other moral philosophers of his time.24 It also points to the continued relevance of this letter for the contemporary audience as Paul here “appears to speak about the interests of the whole Church rather than the private affairs of a single individual.”25
In considering a personal matter as one that involves the entire ecclesial community, Paul highlights the connection between individual acts and the life of the church. In commenting on Philemon’s past acts of love, Paul has already noted how “the hearts of the saints have been refreshed” through him (v. 7), and such isolated acts of kindness are the outworking of his “faith in the Lord Jesus,” with “all the saints” being the beneficiaries (v. 5). Instead of being a rhetorical device to manipulate Philemon, these words highlight how acts of an individual become instruments of God through which the lives of all the saints are affected.
Because of his insistence on the connection between individual acts and the Christian community, Paul emphasizes the issue of accountability. The coworkers noted in this letter become witnesses both to the exercise of Paul’s authority and the need for Philemon to respond appropriately. The final reminder of his own impending visit (v. 22) underscores this issue. This focus on accountability within the community creates a space within which the reality of the new age can be realized and experienced. One can perhaps also detect an embedded polemic here as Paul argues against the status quo of the wider society.26 It is in this sense that one can consider this letter as presenting a countercultural vision for those who are not included in the eschatological people of God.
In presenting a new vision of reality for the community, Paul also emphasizes the significance of conversion. This new vision is not imposed from without by Paul or any other church leaders; it is rather developed from within as individuals are transformed by the gospel of Jesus Christ. This letter deals with the effects of conversion: the conversion of Philemon and his household and the conversion of Onesimus. With Philemon’s conversion, he must live and act within a different frame of reference.27 An underlying purpose of Paul’s appeal is to have Philemon fully obtain “the knowledge of every good thing that is in us for Christ” (v. 6). In this respect, the function of this letter is comparable to that of the early Christian catechetical instructions, through which new believers learn to live out their new identity.
The conversion of Onesimus is the focus of a major subsection of this letter (vv. 8–16). If we can assume that the entire household of Philemon was converted when Philemon himself received the gospel message, Onesimus’s “conversion” during his stay with Paul signifies a personal and independent commitment to the gospel. Paul’s identification of this regenerated Onesimus as his “son” points to his incorporation into the household of God. This appellation does not function as a term of endearment; it reflects the Jewish understanding of conversion as a new birth. In light of the prevalence of kinship language in this letter, this conversion acquires added significance. Onesimus does not simply obtain eternal life; he is now part of a community that worships God as Father and Jesus Christ as Lord.
With the conversion of both Philemon and Onesimus, the relationship between them can no longer remain as it was. Philemon must receive Onesimus back “no longer as a slave, but more than a slave, a beloved brother” (v. 16). This statement clearly points to the reframing of the relationship between these two. For the discussion of the theology of conversion, the phrase that follows is equally significant: “both in the flesh and in the Lord” (v. 16). Instead of arguing for two separate realms of existence, Paul clearly points to the interrelatedness of one’s earthly existence and spiritual identity. The fact that both Philemon and Onesimus are now part of this same community, grounded in grace, makes it necessary that their relationship be transformed according to the new rules of this kinship group.
For Paul, conversion cannot be separated from mission, because one is not simply converted to benefit from the joy of eternal life; one is also called to participate in the unfolding plan of God.28 It is not surprising, therefore, to find Paul discussing how Onesimus is “useful” immediately after noting his conversion. He is “useful” because he is serving Paul, who is serving Christ in his imprisonment (v. 13). If we can assume that by saying that “you will do even more than what I say” (v. 21), Paul is appealing to Philemon to release Onesimus for service to the gospel, this letter is intensely focused on missions and the wider unfolding of the salvific plan of God. This in part explains the canonical status of this letter.
One does not find a separate section on Christian ethics here, although the entire letter is often considered to center on slavery, an issue of significant moral importance. While Paul does not provide a systematic discussion on the issue of slavery,29 several general principles concerning the life and behavior of believers are worth noting.
First, to Paul, ethics is intimately connected with the identity of believers and their roles in the wider salvific plan of God (as noted above). Instead of presenting an abstract set of ethical principles, Paul focuses on one’s response to the gospel of the cross. Moreover, ethics is not limited to acts of an individual; it is also concerned with the function and well-being of the entire community of believers. Ethics is, therefore, but a way to live out the reality that is introduced by the dawn of the new age.
More specifically, Paul grounds one’s behavior on the gospel itself. This is well illustrated by the chiastic structure in v. 5, where the “love … for all the saints” is intimately related to one’s “faith in the Lord Jesus.” This faith worked out in one’s acts of love is that which determines the right course of behavior for Philemon, as it does for all believers.30 Within this broad framework, particular themes become meaningful: forgiveness, reconciliation, kindness, justice, respect, and responsibility.
Finally, in framing this discussion with a thanksgiving prayer report (vv. 4–7) and a benediction (v. 25), Paul refuses to draw a line between worship and ethics.31 He is concerned with a certain course of action because it is consistent with the gospel message and because it participates in the unfolding of God’s plan in history. As such, the “right” course of action is one that testifies to God’s powerful work in history. This testimony becomes an act of praise through which the work of God through Christ can be proclaimed.
No discussion of the theology of Philemon is complete without noting Paul’s understanding of his authority and his expectation of Philemon’s obedience. By reminding Philemon that he has the authority “to command [him] to do what is proper” (v. 8), Paul makes it clear that the appeals “on the basis of love” (v. 9) that follow cannot be taken lightly. This authority is based on his call to be an apostle, as implied by the reference to the consequence of such a call, his own imprisonment for the sake of Christ and his gospel (vv. 1, 9, 23). Moreover, by identifying himself as an “old man” (v. 9) with Onesimus as his “son” (v. 10)32 and Philemon as Onesimus’s “brother” (v. 16), Paul is speaking on behalf of God the “Father” and Jesus Christ the “Lord” (v. 3). His unique authority is a significant part of this new structure of reality as it reflects the will of the head of this household.
Paul expects nothing short of the absolute “obedience” (v. 21) of Philemon. Today’s audience should also be reminded of the significance of this letter and the authority it carries. Rather than a series of friendly recommendations, Paul’s words convey the divine will. Christian leaders are to continue the proclamation of God’s Word, including this short letter of Paul, as we all submit to the lordship of Christ.