‘Abbas (Abu al-Fadil), 76
‘Abd al-Hamid II, Sultan, 39
‘Abd al-Qays tribe, 22
‘Abdallah (family), 106
‘Abdallah, Crown Prince, 132–33
‘Abdallah, King of Jordan, 154
‘Abduh, Muhammad, 40
Abu Safa oil field, 56
Abu Sukhayr, 74
Acre, 105
Afghani, Jamal al-Din, 40
agriculture, 46, 49, 56, 58–59, 61, 63, 113
Al Bu Falasa tribe, 56
Al Bu Nasir tribe, 97
Al Fira‘wn, Fariq al-Muzhir, 74
Al Khalifa (ruling family of Bahrain), 13;
and banking, 62; and Britain, 18, 24, 57;
conquest of Bahrain, 17–18, 19–20, 24,
26, 54, 58; and constitutionalism, 65,
134–39, 137; and the Dawasir tribe, 57– 58, 69; dependence on foreign powers, 54–56; dependence on foreign workers, 60, 62–65; domination of Bahrain, 13– 14, 159–60; historical accounts by, 19– 20, 21; origin of, 17; and the Ottoman Empire, 54; relations with the Al Sa‘ud, 18, 54–56, 57, 65; as sailors, 17; and sectarianism, 57–58, 68–69, 70; and settlement of Sunnis in Bahrain, 25, 56, 57, 69; and the Shammar tribe, 69; as traders, 17; treatment of Shi‘is, 18, 56–62, 68–69, 70–71. See also Bahrain Al Khalifa, Sheikh ‘Abdallah, 63
Al Khalifa, Ahmad ibn Muhammad, 17, 19–20
Al Khalifa, Hamad ibn ‘Isa, 57, 58, 60, 62–63, 70
Al Khalifa, ‘Isa ibn Muhammad, 69
Al Khalifa, Salman ibn Ahmad, 18
Al Sabah (ruling family of Kuwait), 45
Al Safa’, Muhammad Jabir, 39–40
Al Sa‘ud (ruling family of Saudi Arabia): conquest of Arabia, 18, 25–26; conquest of Hasa, 18, 20–21, 25–26, 33, 34, 43, 46, 55; and the Gulf War, 130; historical
accounts by, 20–21, 34–35; and the Ikhwan, 46–47, 53; origin of, 17; and reform, 132–33; relations with the Al Khalifa, 18, 54–56, 57, 65, 134, 136; treatment of Shi‘is, 12–13, 18–19, 25– 26, 43–49, 52–53, 129–30, 133, 159; as the unifiers of Islam, 20–21; and Wahhabism, 12, 18–19, 44, 53, 132, 159. See also Ibn Sa‘ud, ‘Abd al-‘Aziz; Saudi Arabia; Wahhabism
Aleppo, 112
Alexandretta, 112
Algeria, 40
‘Ali, ‘Adnan, 78
‘Ali, Shadha Muhammad, 155
‘Ali ibn Abi Talib (first imam): 5, 22, 30– 31, 45, 76, 117, 122; shrine of, 8, 10
‘Allawi, Iyad, 148, 150, 151–52, 153, 156
Amal, 117, 119–20, 139, 141; and Israel, 139; relations with Hizballah, 120, 121– 22, 124, 125–27
‘Amara, 97
Amin (family), 106
Amin, Hashim, 106
Amin, Muhammad, 40
‘Anaza tribal confederation, 17, 56
Ansar al-Sunna, ix
Arab nationalism: in Bahrain, 64, 66, 69, 70; in Iraq, 72–73, 74, 80–86, 88, 101, 161; in Kuwait, 45; in Lebanon, 38–40, 100–101, 106, 108, 111, 117–18, 140; in the Ottoman Empire, 38–39. See also Arabism; Pan-Arabism; qawmiyya; ‘uruba
Arab revolt of 1916, 36, 78, 82
Arab socialism, 117
Arab world, the: and Iraq, 1, 9, 15, 157, 162
Arabian American Oil Company (Aramco), 47, 48–49
Arabism: in Bahrain, 21; in Iraq, 72–73, 75, 76, 77, 89–90; in Lebanon, 108, 111, 118; in Syria, 38–39. See also Arab nationalism; Pan-Arabism; qawmiyya; ‘uruba
Aramaeans, 88
‘Arif, ‘Abd al-Salam, 85, 86, 96
Army of Muhammad, the, 97
Artawiyya conference, 47
As‘ad, Ahmad, 109
As‘ad, Mahmud, 103
As‘ad, Shabib, 40
‘Ashura’, 31
‘Asir, 44
Assad, Hafiz, 118
Assaf (Sunni Turkomans), 30
Austria, 36
Awali River, 105
‘Awn, General, 125
Ayatollah, 6
Ayyubid dynasty, 20
al-Azhar, 45
Baghdad, 78, 91, 95, 157; domination of Shi‘i south, 83; and the 1920 revolt, 77, 78, 80, 81; and the Shi‘i uprising of 1991, 91–92; Thawra slum neighborhood of, 89
Bahrain, 13–14, 16–20, 21–25, 54–71, 72, 134–39, 159–60; agriculture in, 57, 58– 59, 63; Akhbari ulama in, 23; Al Khalifa conquest of, 17–18, 19–20, 24, 26, 54, 58; Arab nationalism in, 64, 66, 69, 70; banking in, 60, 62; and Britain, 54, 55, 57–58, 59, 60, 64, 69, 70, 134; as a British protectorate, 18, 54, 55; Carmathian past of, 24; Christian missionaries in, 70; citizenship in, 69, 71; civil society in, 71; class structure in, 58–59; communism in, 135; constitution of, 65, 67, 70, 71, 134–39; constitutionalism in, 134– 39; consultative council in, 67; date gardening in, 57, 58, 59; economy of, 56, 59, 60, 62; education in, 63; foreign workers in, 13, 60, 61, 62–64, 67, 69, 70, 159; and the Gulf War of 1991, 66; history writing in, 19–20, 21–22, 23–24, 70; human rights in, 66, 70, 71; influence of foreign powers in, 54–56, 64–65, 159; and the Iranian Islamic Revolution, 55, 60, 65; as an Iranian possession, 17– 18, 19–20, 21, 22, 23, 54, 55; Iraniansin, 60, 65–66, 134; labor and trade unions in, 60, 70, 71, 135; military bases in, 13, 64–65, 68, 159; oil industry in, 59, 60–62; parliament of, 65, 66, 67, 70, 71, 134–39, 160; pearl industry in, 17, 56, 57, 59–60; protest movement of 1954–56 in, 70, 134; reform in, 1, 2, 63, 70–71, 134–35, 137–39; and Saudi Arabia, 54–56, 57–58, 62, 134, 136; Shi‘i coup attempt of 1981 in, 65; Shi‘ism in, 21–24; State Security Law of 1975, 71, 136, 137; taxation in, 57, 58; unemployment in, 60; and the United States, 13, 64–65, 68, 137, 139, 159; uprising of 1994–99 in, 62, 66–68, 69–71, 137. See also Al Khalifa; constitutionalism; parliamentary politics; Shi‘i(s), Bahraini; Sunni(s), Bahraini
Bahrain Freedom Movement, 66
Bahrain Petroleum Company (Bapco), 61–62, 64
Bali, 3
Baluchis, 63
Bangladeshis, 60
Baqi‘ cemetery, 46
Baqqal, Najm, 76
Ba‘th: in Bahrain, 135; in Lebanon, 106, 118; in Saudi Arabia, 13, 130; in Syria, 83. See also de-Baathification; Iraqi Ba‘th
Baydun (family), 106
Baydun, Rashid, 109
Bazzi (family), 106
Beirut, 30, 62, 100, 113, 119; Shi‘is in, 14, 32, 113–14, 120
Bekaa Valley, the, 103; and Hizballah, 120, 121, 125, 127; and the Jabal ‘Amil, 105; Shi‘is in, 14, 29, 31, 32, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 111, 113, 114, 117; Syrian invasion of, 118
Belgrave, Charles, 62–64, 69, 71, 147
Belgrave, James, 64
Belgrave, Marjorie, 63
bidun (residents of Bahrain), 71
Bin Jawdar tribe, 56
Bremer III, L. Paul, 8, 80, 147, 148, 150
Britain (British), 105; in Bahrain, 18, 24, 54, 55, 57–58, 64, 69, 134; in Iraq, 26, 27, 36, 73–76, 78, 79, 94, 146, 149; Iraqi Shi‘i jihad movement against, 36– 38, 73; relations with Ibn Sa‘ud, 33–34, 35; and the Sharifians, 27, 36
Budayyi‘, 57 al-Bukhala’, 91. See also al-Jahiz
Bush, President George H. W., 144
Bush administration, the, 1–3, 8, 146, 163
Bushire, 17
Buyids, 29
California Arabian Standard Oil Company, 47
Chiha, Michel, 108
Christians: and Arab nationalism, 38–39, 118; in Iraq, 152, 154; in Lebanon, 28, 30, 38–39, 100–101, 110, 113, 118, 141, 142, 143. See also Maronite(s)
clerics, 5–7, 9–10, 94–95, 114, 117, 121, 122, 124, 138, 145, 148, 152. See also marja‘iyya; mujtahids; ulama
Coalition Provisional Authority, the, 80, 145, 149–50
Committee of Union and Progress, 36
communism, 13, 69, 78, 88–89, 90, 94, 96, 130, 135
confessionalism, 109–10, 114, 122, 142, 156, 160. See also ta’ifiyya
constitutionalism, 6; 1926 constitution of Lebanon, 102–3, 108, 122; 1973 constitution of Bahrain, 63, 71, 134–35, 138– 39; 2002 constitution of Bahrain, 138; 2005 draft constitution of Iraq, 157. See also parliamentary politics
Cox, Sir Percy, 33, 34, 35, 79
Dabbas, Charles, 103
Da‘wa Party. See Islamic Da‘wa Party
Dawasir tribe, 55, 56, 57–58, 69
Dayri, Hamza, 67
de-Baathification, 146. See also Iraqi Ba‘th
al-Dhat al-jariha, 84–85. See also Matar, Salim Dir‘iyya, 18
Druze(s), 28, 29, 30, 31, 102, 107
Druze Revolt of 1925–27, the, 103
Duri, ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, 89
European Parliament, the, 70
Europeans, 45
Fadil (family), 106
Fadila Party, 154
Fadlallah, Muhammad Hussein, 1, 2, 11, 120–21, 124, 125, 141, 143–44, 150
Fahd, King of Saudi Arabia, 46, 70
Fayyad, Muhammad Ishaq, 7
Feisal (as king in Syria), 27, 100, 101, 102
Feisal, King of Iraq, 27, 36, 73, 78–79, 82, 85
Feisal, King of Saudi Arabia, 55
Filipinos, 60
France, 27, 33, 40, 112; and Lebanon, 28, 99, 100, 101, 102–3, 105, 108, 123, 160
Frangie´, Suleiman, 117
French-Lebanese treaty of 1936, 103–4
Funaysh, Muhammad, 126
Gandhi, Mahatma, 67
Gaza, 140
Germany, 36
Ghifari, Abu Dharr, 29
Glubb Pasha, John, 64
Gulf War of 1991, the, 4, 45, 52, 65, 66, 91–92, 97, 130, 132, 158–59
Hakim, Muhammad Baqir, 146
Hakim, Muhammad Sa‘id, 7
Haldane, Aylmer, 79
Hamadeh (family), 103, 106. See also Himada (clan)
Hamadeh, Sabri, 116
Hamdanids, 29
Hanjam, 79
Harfush (clan), 30
Harfush (emirs), 32
Hariri, Rafiq, 140
Hasa: as agricultural core of Arabia, 49; Al Sa‘ud conquest of, 18–19, 20–21, 25– 26, 33, 43, 46, 47, 55; and Bahrain, 16– 17, 23; golden past of, 24; and the Otto-
man Empire, 35–36; Shi‘is in, 12, 17, 18, 21, 22, 35, 36, 46, 47; Sunnis in, 48 hasab, 89
Hasan, Hamza, 132
Hasawiyya, 23
Hashemites, 82
Hashim, Muhsin Rahim, 155
Hashimi, ‘Aqila, 146
Hassani, Hajim, 156
Hawali, Safar, 53 al-hawza (newspaper), 150 al-hawza (seminaries of Najaf) 95
Higher Islamic Shi‘i Council, the, 106, 115, 116, 117, 118, 121–22, 123–24, 125, 142
Hikma mosque, 145
Himada (clan), 30, 103. See also Hamadeh
(family) Hizballah, 3–4, 14, 109, 119, 120–21, 124–27, 139, 140–41, 142, 149, 150, 160, 161; and Israel, 140–41; relations
with Amal, 120, 121–22, 124, 125–27
Hizballah al-Bahrain, 68
Hufuf, 49
Hujayr Valley conference, 102
Hula Lake, 105
Husri, Sati‘, 27, 80, 82, 85, 88
Hussein (third imam), 50, 51, 116, 143
Hussein, ‘Abd al-Wahhab, 66
Hussein, Saddam, 28, 65, 81, 83, 85, 89, 90, 93, 96–97, 148, 159
Hussein, Sharif of Mecca, 27, 36, 73, 78, 82
Husseini (family), 106
Huwayza, 37
Ibn Abi Sufyan, Mu‘awiya (Umayyad
caliph), 29
Ibn ‘Ali Kamali, Sulayman Shafiq, 35
Ibn Baz, ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, 50
Ibn Hamad, Sheikh Salman, 62, 63
Ibn Jiluwi, ‘Abdallah, 46
Ibn Jiluwi, Sa‘ud, 48
Ibn Saba’, ‘Abdallah, 45, 53, 91
Ibn Sa‘ud, ‘Abd al-‘Aziz: and the 1916 Arab chiefs’ meeting in Kuwait, 34; and Britain, 20, 33–35; conquest of Hasa, 25–26, 46, 55; conquest of Qatif, 25–26; as the founding father of Saudi Arabia, 18, 20–21, 34, 36; meeting with Cox, 33, 34; Shi‘i accounts of, 34–36. See also Al Sa‘ud; Saudi Arabia
Ibn Sa‘ud, Muhammad, 18
Ibn Taymiya, 30
Independent Elites and Cadres Party, 156
Iran (Iranian): clerics in, 4, 7, 9–10; dominance of the Persian Gulf, 55, 164; influence in Bahrain, 65–66, 68, 111; influence in Iraq, 4, 26, 92, 154, 157, 163; influence in Lebanon, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 141; the Islamic Republic of, 68, 90; the Islamic Revolution of 1978– 79 in, 4, 34, 45, 47, 50, 52, 55, 65, 91, 120, 157, 159, 160; and the Khobar Towers bombing, 131; nuclear intentions of, 4, 163; possession of Bahrain, 17–18, 19–20, 21, 22, 23, 54, 55; reform in, 4, 10, 162; and Saudi Arabia, 45, 53, 55; and Saudi Shi‘is, 50, 52; Shi‘ism in, 1, 32, 72; and the United States, 2, 4, 163; women in, 4
Iranian Islamic Revolutionary Guard, the, 68
Iran-Iraq War of 1980–88, the, 19, 55, 74, 75, 81, 83, 87, 90, 96–97, 109
Iraq, 2–3, 15, 26–28, 36–38, 144–57, 161– 62; Arab nationalism in, 74, 82–86, 88, 161; and the Arab world, 9, 157; Arabism in, 72, 75, 77, 89; and Bahrain, 14, 160; and Britain, 26, 27, 35, 36–37, 73, 79; Coalition Provisional Authority in, 80, 145, 149–50; communism in, 78, 88–89, 90, 94, 96; confessionalism in, 156; democracy in, 15; draft constitution of 2005 in, 157; education in, 79, 82, 85; elections in, 8, 15, 148, 151, 152–56, 161–62; federalism in, 147, 157; foreign interference in, 76, 77, 79, 84; foreign jihadists in, 149, 151; history writing in, 28, 37–38, 74–81, 96–97; interim constitution of, 146–47; interim government in, 8, 80, 146, 149, 152–53, 154; marsh Arabs in, 92; Mesopotamian past of, 83; militias in, 149, 150, 157; minority rights in, 9, 162; national assembly of, 8, 9, 148, 156, 161–62; nationalism in, 15, 72–73, 78, 80, 82–86, 89–90, 161; and the Ottoman Empire, 26, 36–37, 86–87, 93; parliamentary politics in, 7, 9, 79, 156, 161–62; personal status law in, 96, 157; pre-Islamic civilization of, 84; provisional constitution of 1964, 86, 96; provisional constitution of 1970, 83; 1918 rebellion in, 75, 78; 1920 revolt in, 73–81, 84, 149; and
Saudi Arabia, 160; sectarianism in, 90, 92–94, 109; Sharifians in, 36, 77, 78, 80, 84; shu‘ubiyya in, 81, 87–93; ta’ifiyya in, 90, 92–94, 109; Transitional Administrative Law in, 8, 146–47; and Turkey, 157; unity of, 79, 81, 84–85, 89, 155; U.S. bases in, 2, 14, 164; U.S. invasion of, 1–3, 7–8, 13, 72, 81, 98, 131, 132, 140, 144–49, 157, 161–64; women in, 9, 96, 154, 156, 162. See also Shi‘i(s),
Iraqi
Iraqi Ba‘th, the: and Arab nationalism, 82– 83, 84–85; and the Dhahran coup attempt, 130; encouragement of religion in public life, 96, 97–98; historical accounts by, 80–81, 91–92, 96–97; and the
Iran-Iraq War, 83, 90, 91; and the Iraqi Communist Party, 88–89; and the monarchy, 36; and the nationality law, 86, 87; and the 1918 rebellion, 75; and the 1920 revolt, 74, 80–81; and Qasim, 89–90, 93; and shu‘ubiyya, 88–89, 90, 92; and ta’ifiyya, 90, 92–94; treatment of Shi‘is, 82–83, 85–87, 88–89, 90–93, 94, 95, 96–97, 144, 145; and tribalism, 97–98; and Wahhabism, 97
Iraqi Governing Council, 8, 80, 145–46, 147, 148, 149
Iraqi Kurdistan Assembly, 156
Iraqi List, 156
Iraqi Nationality Law, the, 86–87 al-‘Irfan (journal), 105
Isfahani, Sheikh al-Shari‘a, 77
Islah Society, 69
Islam: rise in the Middle East, 6–7, 69, 114, 158. See also Al Sa‘ud: as the unifiers of Islam
Islamic Action, 145
Islamic Amal, 120
Islamic Da‘wa Party, 94, 95, 120, 125, 145, 147, 148, 153, 156
Islamic fedayeen, 97
Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain, the, 65–66, 68, 137
Islamic Law Institute, 120, 121
Islamic Rebellion Committee, 75
Islamic Republic of Iran, the, 68, 90. See also Iran
Isma‘ili Shi‘ism, 22
Isma‘ilis, 12
Israel, 113, 118–19, 121, 123, 139. See also resistance (in Lebanon)
Italy, 35
Jabal ‘Amil, the: and Arab nationalism, 39–40; attempts to detach from Lebanon, 112–13; autonomy of, 101–2; and the Lebanese state, 102–4; Maronites in, 112; religious scholarship in, 32; Shi‘is in, 14, 29, 30–31, 104, 105, 106, 111, 112–13, 114, 117, 119; size of, 105; ulama in, 99
Jabal Druze, the, 102
Jabir, Salih, 94
Ja‘far, Khudayr, 145
al-Jahiz, 88. See also al-Bukhala’
Jamri, ‘Abd al-Amir, 66, 67–68, 70, 135, 138
Japan, 60
Jawahiri, Muhammad Mahdi, 84, 88
Jawdar, ‘Isa, 66
Jaza’iri, ‘Abd al-Qadir, 40 al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya (monthly), 130
Jazzar, Ahmad, 31
Jezzin, 30 jihad, 35, 36–38, 46, 73; foreign jihadists, 149, 151
Jiluwi (family), 46 jizya, 46. See also taxation John Paul II, 11
Juba‘i, ‘Ali al-Hurr, 40
Jubayl, 49
Jum‘a, ‘Abd al-Hussein, 26, 36
Jumayyil, Bashir, 118
Jumayyil, Pierre, 118
Kamal al-Din, Muhammad ‘Ali, 81
Karbala, 26, 27, 74, 77, 78, 92, 145; battle of, 5, 51, 76, 116
Kata’ib Party, 109, 118. See also Phalanges Kazimain, 77, 146
Khalil (family), 106
Khamsin, Musa Bu, 25, 47 khawarij, 122
Khazin (family), 30
Khobar, 49
Khobar Towers, 131
Khomeini, Ruhollah, 7, 8, 9, 50, 52, 66, 91, 114
Khuri, Fuad, 23
Khusru, Nasir-i, 24
Khuza‘i, Raja, 147
King-Crane Commission, 102
King Fahd Causeway, 56
Kubba, Muhammad Mahdi, 78
Kufa, 5
Kufa mosque, 95
Kurdistan Alliance, 156
Kurds, Iraqi, 9, 15, 81, 87, 93, 95, 154, 155, 156, 157
Kuwait, 17, 34, 35, 42–43, 45, 83, 134, 137, 159
Lahoud, E´ mile, 123
Lammens, Henri, 110
Lebanon, 14–15, 28–32, 38–41, 139–44, 160–61; and Arab nationalism, 38–41, 100–101, 106, 117–18; Arabism in, 100–101, 111; Ba‘th in, 106, 118; as bridge between Islamic and Western civilizations, 108; and Britain, 105, 105; civil war in, 14, 28, 62, 117–19, 118, 121, 122–23, 139; confessionalism in, 109–10, 114, 122, 142, 160; constitution of 1926 in, 102–3, 108, 122; as final state, 100; and France, 28, 99, 100, 101, 102–3, 105, 108, 123, 160; heritage of, 28; history writing in, 39–41, 110–11, 119; and the Iranian Islamic Revolution, 160; and Israel, 113, 118– 19, 121, 139; Nasserism in, 113; national identity of, 100–101, 109, 143– 44; national salvation committee in, 119; nationalism in, 38, 109; notable leaders in, 99, 101–3, 106–7; and the Ottoman Empire, 28, 31–32, 38–40, 160; Palestinians in, 113, 118–19, 121; parliamentary politics in, 104, 107–8, 122, 123, 125–26, 142, 143; and Phoenicia, 100, 118; sects in, 14, 28–29, 127; and Syria, 3, 38, 100–101, 102, 103, 121,
Lebanon (cont.) 110, 118, 122, 123, 126, 127, 140, 141, 142, 160; and the United States, 2, 123, 160; unity in, 99, 142–44. See also Amal; Hizballah; Mount Lebanon; National Pact of 1943, the; Shi‘i(s), Lebanese; Ta’if accord
Lughat al-‘Arab (journal), 20
Madani, ‘Abdallah, 136
Madhkur (family), 17
Madrid, 3
Mahdi, ‘Adil ‘Abd, 147
Mahmud, ‘Abd al-Latif, 66
Malikis, 56
Ma‘n, Fakhr al-Din, II, 30
Manama, 19, 60, 63, 135 al-marja‘ al-dhati, 94 al-marja‘ al-mawdu‘i, 95 al-marja‘ al-rashid, 95 al-marja‘ al-salih, 94–95 marja‘ al-taqlid, 6 marja‘iyya, 9, 10, 48 al-marja‘iyya al-fiqhiyya, 124 al-marja‘iyya al-siyasiyya, 124 marja‘iyyat al-maydan, 95. See also clerics; mujtahids; ulama
Marja‘yun, 105
Maronite(s): and Arabism, 100–101, 108, 110–11, 118; expansion in Lebanon, 30, 111; and France, 100–101; and Israel, 118; and the Phalanges, 118; and Phoeni-cianism, 100, 118; and the presidency of Lebanon, 108, 123, 143; relations with Shi‘is, 30, 108, 111–13, 116, 160; relations with Sunnis, 107–8, 111; view of Lebanon, 28, 100–101, 110. See also Christians
Marsh Arabs, 92
Marxists, 66
ma’tams, 23
matawila, 117. See also Mutawalis
Maysalun, battle of, 101
Maysan, 97
Medina, 46
Modarressi, Muhammad Taqi, 147
modernity, 4, 10, 11, 47, 51, 143
Morocco, 138
Mount Lebanon, 29, 38, 109, 110, 111. See also Lebanon
Movement of the Hungry, 125
Mudarressi, Hadi, 65
Mughniyya, Hussein, 102
Mughniyya, Muhammad Jawad, 106–7
Muhammad, the Prophet, 4–5, 20, 22, 92
Muhammad, son of King Fahd, 46
Muhammad, al-Mahdi (twelfth imam), 5
Muhammad Reza Shah, 54
Muhammara, Shaykh of, 34
Muharram demonstrations, 50–52
Muharraq, 135
mujtahids, 6, 9, 23, 107; and the Anglo-Iraqi treaty, 86; and Ibn Sa‘ud, 25–26; Iraqi Ba‘th courting of, 96; and the Iraqi constituent assembly of 1923, 88; and jihad, 35, 37; and King Feisal, 79; opposition to the personal status law by, 96; and the 1918 rebellion, 75; and the 1920 revolt, 77, 78; and the U.S. invasion of Iraq, 145–46. See also clerics; marja‘i-yya; ulama
Muntafiq tribal confederation, 37
muruwwa, 97
Muruwwa (family), 106
Muruwwa, Hussein, 106
Musawi, Hussein, 120
al-mustad‘afun, 52
Mutawalis, 30–31. See also matawila
Mutayri, Ibrahim, 145
Nahda Party, 109
Na‘im tribe, 56
Na’ini, Muhammad Hussein, 9
Najaf: Arab character of, 76; as center of Shi‘ism, 1, 2, 10, 106; economy of, 150; King Feisal’s visit to, 78–79; and propagation of Shi‘ism, 27; and the 1918 rebellion, 75–77, 78; and the 1920 revolt, 75, 77, 78; and rivalry with Qum, 2, 10; seminaries of, 92, 148; Shi‘i leadership in, 95; shrine of ‘Ali in, 8, 10, 78, 150; tribal character of, 76; and the U.S. occupation of Iraq, 146
Najafi, Bashir, 7
Najd, 17, 18, 25, 33, 34, 35, 43, 57
Najjada Party, 109
Nakhawila, 46
Naqib, Hadi, 78
nasab, 89
Nasiriyya, 38
Nasrallah, Hasan, 120, 125, 140, 141, 149
Nassar (clan), 30
Nasser, Gamal ‘Abd, 48, 64, 85, 86, 89
National Liberation Front, the, 66
National Pact of 1943, the, 108–9, 110, 117, 122–23
nationalism: in Bahrain, 62; in Iraq, 72– 90, 161; in Lebanon, 38–41, 100–101, 109; in Saudi Arabia, 44. See also Arab nationalism; Bahrain; Iraq; Lebanon; Pan-Arabism; Saudi Arabia
Nazmi, Wamidh, 153
Nuri, ‘Abd al-Majid, 145
oil: in Bahrain, 56, 59, 60, 61, 63; in Iraq, 157; in Saudi Arabia, 12, 26, 44, 46, 47–49, 159
Omanis, 63
Organization for Islamic Revolution in the Arabian Peninsula, the, 51
Ottoman Empire (Ottomans), the: and the Al Khalifa, 54; Arab nationalism in, 38– 39; collapse of, 26, 32–33; and Hasa and Qatif, 18, 23, 25; and Ibn Sa‘ud, 18, 20, 35; and Iraq, 27, 36–37, 86; and Lebanon, 28, 31, 39–40, 101, 103, 160; Pan-Islamic policies of, 37; and World War I, 33–34, 36, 37
Pachahchi, ‘Adnan, 147
Packer, George, 155
Pakistanis, 60
Palestine, 31, 105, 112, 113, 140
Palestinians, 82, 113, 118, 119, 121
Pan-Arabism: in Iraq, 82, 83, 84; in Saudi Arabia, 13, 130. See also Arab nationalism; Arabism; qawmiyya; ‘uruba
parliamentary politics: in Bahrain, 65–66, 67, 70, 71, 134–39, 160; in Iraq, 7, 9, 79, 156, 161–62; in Lebanon, 104, 107– 8, 122, 123, 125–26, 142, 143. See also constitutionalism
pearl industry, 17, 46, 56, 57, 59–60, 63
Persian Gulf, the, 21, 55, 61, 164
Persians, 19, 81, 88, 90, 91. See also Iran; shu‘ubiyya
Phalanges, 118. See also Kata’ib Party
Philby, John, 44
Popular Front, the, 66
Powell, Colin, 133
Progressive Socialist Party, 106, 109
Qabalan, ‘Abd al-Amir, 124
Qadisiyya, 90 Qadisiyyat Saddam, 90 al-Qaeda, 3, 4, 129, 131, 151, 152
Qahtani, Muhammad ibn ‘Abdallah, 50–51
Qasim, ‘Abd al-Karim, 36, 89–90, 93, 96
Qatif: as agricultural core of Arabia, 49; Akhbari ulama in, 23; Al Sa‘ud conquest of, 18, 20, 25–26, 33; forced conversion of Shi‘is to Sunnism in, 25, 46, 47; golden past of, 24; and Ibn Sa‘ud, 25– 26, 46, 47; and Muslim unity, 35–36; oasis of, 16; Shi‘ism in, 22, 35–36, 46; and Wahhabism, 21
qawmiyya, 85. See also Arab nationalism; ‘uruba
Qurna, 37
Qusaybi, ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, 55
Qutb, Sayyid, 3
rafidun, 117
Ramadi, 151
Rashidis, 35 resistance (in Lebanon), 139–40, 42. See
also Israel Rida, Ahmad, 39
Rikabi, Fu’ad, 83
Riyashi, Iskandar, 104
Rubay‘i, Muwaffaq, 153
Rusafi, Ma‘ruf, 88
Sabah, Muhammad Jabir, 67
Saddam City, 89
Sadr, Muhammad, 77
Sadr, Muhammad Baqir, 10–11, 94–95, 124
Sadr, Muhammad Sadiq (Sadr II), 95–96, 97, 148
Sadr, Muqtada: and ‘Allawi, 150–51, 152; and Christians, 152; and elections, 146, 152–53, 154–55, 156; and interim constitution, 147; and interim Governing Council, 145–46; as Nasrallah, 149; political role for, 152–53; and al-Qaeda, 152; and rebellions of 2004, 3, 75, 148– 52, 153; and Sistani, 3, 148–49, 151;
support for, 147, 148; and the United
Sadr, Musa, 107, 113, 114–17, 118, 119, 121, 139
Sadr City, 89, 113–14, 144, 145
Sadr al-Din (family), 106
Sadr movement, the, 3, 96, 148, 150, 152– 53, 154, 156, 161
Sa‘dun, ‘Abd al-Muhsin, 27, 86, 87
Sa‘dun, ‘Ajmi, 37
Safad, 105
Salafis, 97
Salim, ‘Izz al-Din, 146
Samarra’i, Sa‘id, 93
Sangur, Hamid, 66
Sarkis, Ilyas, 119
Sasanids, 44
Sa‘ud, King, 48
Saudi Arabia, 12–13, 18, 20–21, 33–34, 43–53, 129–33, 159; and Bahrain, 54– 56, 57–58, 62, 65, 134, 136; and Britain, 33–34; citizenship in, 130; communism in, 130; communities of, 43–44; 1969 coup attempt in, 130; first Saudi state, 18, 20, 25, 55; history writing in, 20–22, 25–26, 45, 51–52, 53; and Iran, 50, 52, 53, 55, 159; and Iraq, 160; nationalism in, 44; oil in, 26, 44, 46, 47– 50, 159; and the Ottoman Empire, 32– 36; reform in, 1, 2, 131, 132–33; second Saudi state, 18, 25, 55; taxation in, 46; third Saudi state, 18, 25; ulama of, 46– 47, 50, 72; and the United States, 131, 133, 163; women in, 133. See also Al Sa‘ud; Shi‘i(s), Saudi; Wahhabism
Saudi Communist Party, 130
Saudi Labor Socialist Party, 130
Sayyid, Lutfi, 89
sectarianism: in Bahrain, 57–58, 68–69, 70; in Iraq, 90, 92–94, 109; in Lebanon, 109. See also ta’ifiyya
September 11 attacks, 3, 45, 65, 71, 131, 132, 139, 159, 163. See also terrorism
Shab‘a Farms, 140
Shabibi, Muhammad Baqir, 37, 77, 78–79
Shabibi, Muhammad Rida, 77, 86, 94
Shafi‘i law school, 30
Shahrastani, Hibat al-Din, 78
Shammar tribe, 69
Shams al-Din, Muhammad Mahdi, 124, 125, 142–43
Sharaf al-Din (family), 106
Sharaf al-Din, ‘Abd al-Hussein, 102, 106–7
Sharara, Muhammad, 106
Sharifians, 36, 73, 77, 78, 80, 84
Sharqi, ‘Ali, 37, 77, 79, 81, 83–84, 85–86
Shi‘i(s): in the Arab world, 11–12; decrease of radicalism among, 3–4, 129, 139–44, 158, 160–61, 162–63; depicted as heretics, 21; and government, 5–6, 9–10; and Ibn Saba’, 45, 53, 91; and Iran, 1, 10, 72; and parliamentary politics, 6, 7, 9; radicalism among, 2–3, 65–66, 95–96, 118–21, 148–49; and reform in the Arab world, 4, 5, 6, 9; and the United States, 1–2, 164
Shi‘i(s), Bahraini: and the Al Khalifa, 21, 24–25, 27, 54–71, 134–39; and Arab nationalism, 69; Arab origin of, 21–22; citizenship of, 69, 71; and constitutionalism, 13, 14, 67, 134–39, 160; as cultivators, 56–57, 58–59; and the Dawasir tribe, 57–58; golden past of, 23–24; historical accounts by, 23–24, 64; and Iran, 21, 66, 68; leadership struggles among, 65–66; in the oil industry, 61–62; and parliamentary politics, 13, 14, 67, 134– 39; in the pearl industry, 56, 59–60; pop-
ulation size of, 69; and the 1954–56 protest movement, 70, 134; in the service and distribution sectors, 62; taxation of, 56–57; and the 1994–99 uprising, 66, 67–71; and the U.S. invasion of Iraq, 1, 14, 65
Shi‘i(s), Iraqi: Arab identity of, 72, 84, 89, 92; and the Ba‘th regime, 82–83, 90–93, 94, 95, 96–97, 144, 145; depicted as separatists, 85; depicted as a threat to Arabism, 88; deportation of, 86–87; historical accounts by, 36–38, 74–80; and Iran, 4, 72, 92, 163; and the Iraqi Communist Party, 88–89; and the January 2005 elections, 152–56, 161; and King Feisal, 78– 79; in the military, 93; nationalism among, 72, 74, 78, 80, 82–89, 161; and the nationality law, 86, 87; opposition to the British, 36–38, 73; origin of, 22, 26– 27, 72, 92; and the Ottoman Empire, 32–33, 36; and the personal status law, 96, 157; and Qasim, 89–90; and the 1918 rebellion, 75, 78; and the 1920 revolt, 73–80, 81, 84, 149; and sectarianism, 90, 92–94; and shu‘ubiyya, 81, 87– 92; and Sunnis, 83, 93, 151–52; and the United States, 1–3, 8, 72, 144–50, 161, 162, 163; and the 1991 uprising, 81, 91–92, 144, 145
Shi‘i(s), Kuwaiti, 42–43, 45, 48
Shi‘i(s), Lebanese: in agriculture, 113; and Amal, 109, 117, 119–20, 121–22, 126– 27; and Arab nationalism, 39–40; in Beirut, 14, 32, 113–14; in the Bekaa Valley, 14, 29, 31, 32, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 111, 113, 114, 117; and confessionalism, 142, 160; and education, 102, 105, 106; in government, 117, 126; and the Higher Islamic Shi‘i Council, 106, 115– 16, 118, 121–22, 123–24, 125, 142; historical accounts by, 29, 30–31, 39–40, 107; and Hizballah, 3–4, 119, 120–22, 124–27; and Iran, 114, 120, 121; and Iraq, 15, 106, 120, 144; in the Jabal
Shi‘i(s), Lebanese (cont.)
‘Amil, 14, 29, 30–31, 39–40, 101–2, 103, 104, 105, 106, 111, 112–13, 114, 117, 119; legal courts of, 103; as Muta-walis, 30–31, 117; national identity of, 101, 141–44; and the Ottoman Empire, 32–33, 39–40, 103; population size of, 100, 112, 113, 139; relations with Maronites, 30, 104, 111–13, 127, 160; relations with Sunnis, 111, 113, 116, 125, 160; support for Lebanese independence, 101, 102–4; and Syria, 141; taxation of, 102, 105; and the United States, 1
Shi‘i(s), Saudi: and agriculture, 46, 49; Arab origin of, 21; and Aramco, 47–49; and communism, 13, 130; demands for political rights, 130, 131–33, 159; education among, 130, 131; in exile, 47, 50, 130; forced to convert to Wahhabism, 46–47; and the Gulf War, 130; and the Iranian Islamic Revolution, 50, 52, 159; and Iraq, 160; and the Muharram demonstrations of 1979–80, 50–51; and Nas-serism, 13, 48, 130; and national unity, 130–31; in the oil industry, 47–49, 50; and the Ottoman Empire, 23, 35–36; and Pan-Arabism, 13, 130; political status of, 12–13, 19, 21, 44, 50, 51, 130; relations with Ibn Sa‘ud, 34–36, 46–47; taxation of, 46; and the U.S. invasion of Iraq, 1, 131; viewed as a security problem, 47, 131; and Wahhabism, 12–13, 18–19, 25, 44–47, 52–53, 133
Shi‘ism: and accommodation with the West, 4, 129, 158, 162–63; clerics and followers in, 5–6, 9–10, 94–96; and constitutionalism, 6, 8, 73, 88, 134–39, 157; decline of, 18–19, 23–25, 30–31, 49–50, 98, 105–7; and democracy, 6, 8, 162–63; as distinct from Sunnism, 4–6, 22; and Ibn Saba’, 45, 53, 91; and modernity, 10–11, 162; origin of, 4–5, 21– 22, 26, 29, 30, 45, 92; and reform, 10– 11; rise as a political force, x, 7, 69, 114; role of the imam in, 5–6; Twelver branch of, 5, 12, 22; and Wahhabism, 44
Shiraz, governor of, 18
Shirazi, Mirza Muhammad Taqi, 73, 74– 75, 77
shirk, 44
Shirri, Muhammad Baqir, 89
shura, 121
Shuwayli, ‘Abd al-Rahman, 145
Sistani, ‘Ali, 95; and concept of government, 8–9, 15; and democracy, 8, 162; and elections, 8, 9, 15, 149, 151, 153– 54, 155, 163; and Iran, 9–10; Iranian origin of, 149; and Khomeini, 7, 8, 9; leadership role of, xi, 7; and parliamentary politics, 8–9; and reform of Shi‘ism, 10– 11; and Sadr, 3, 148–49, 152; and the United States, 7–8, 162
Sitra island, 17
Sitri, Haydar, 67
Social Democratic Party, 118. See also Kata’ib Party; Phalanges
South Yemen, 68
Standard Oil of California, 47, 48, 61. See also Arabian American Oil Company
Suez Canal, 64
Sulayman, Hikmat, 27–28, 85, 87
Suleiman the Magnificent, Sultan, 23
Sunni(s): domination of Shi‘is, 11; growing militancy among, 3–4, 158–59; and the Iran-Iraq War, 19
Sunni(s), Bahraini: and the consultative council, 67; in parliament, 135, 138; in the 1954–56 protest movement, 70, 134; and sectarian balance with Shi‘is, 25, 56–57, 69; as upper class, 56–57, 59–60; in the 1994–99 uprising, 69–70
Sunni(s), Iraqi: and Arab nationalism, 72, 80, 82, 85, 161; and the Ba‘th regime, 83; boycott of the January 2005 elections, 155, 161; and the British, 27; insurgency of, 3, 151–52, 156–57, 161; in the military, 93; power of, 73; and sectarianism, 92–94; and Shi‘is, 15, 151–52; and shu‘ubiyya, 92; and the United States, 72, 145
Sunni(s), Lebanese: and Arab nationalism, 38–39, 111, 117–18; relations with Maronites, 107–8; relations with Shi‘is, 30, 103, 111, 113, 114; and Syrian-Lebanese unity, 100–101, 104
Sunni(s), Saudi: in the oil industry, 47–50; relations with Shi‘is, 18–19; social standing of, 48. See also Wahhabism
Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq (SCIRI), the, 95, 147, 148, 152, 153, 156
Supreme Islamic Legislative Council, the, 111, 115, 116
Syria, 36: ‘Alawis in, 12; Arab nationalism in, 38–39; Ba‘th in, 83, 89; and Lebanon, 3, 38–39, 100–101, 102, 103, 118, 120, 122, 123, 124–25 126, 127, 140, 141, 142, 160; and the Sunni insurgency in Iraq, 151
Syrian Social Nationalist Party, 106
Ta’if accord, 122–23, 125, 142, 143, 160–61
ta’ifiyya, 90, 92–94, 109. See also confes-sionalism; sectarianism
Talabani, Jalal, 156
Talai‘ Party, 109
Taliban, the, 4
Tanbih al-umma wa-tanzih al-milla, 9. See also Na’ini, Muhammad Hussein
Ta’rikh jabal ‘amil, 39. See also Al Safa’, Muhammad Jabir
Tarshiha, 105
Tawila (coin), 24
taxation, 46, 56–57, 58, 75, 102, 105
Taym, 105
ta‘ziya play, 31
terrorism, 2, 3, 158–59. See also September 11 attacks
Texas Oil Company, 47
Timman, Ja‘far Abu, 77
Transitional Administrative Law (of Iraq), 8, 146–47
Tripoli, 112
Tudeh communist party, 89
Tufayli, Subhi, 125
Tulfah, Khayrallah, 89
Turkey (Turkish), 27, 32, 85, 87, 157, 162
Turks, 34
Tyre, 105
ulama (Shi‘i), 45; in Bahrain, 66, 69, 135; in Iraq, 75, 94; in Lebanon, 32, 99, 102, 106–7, 117, 120, 121; and the Ottoman Empire, 35, 37; as representatives of the imam, 5–6; Usuli and Akhbari, 23, 26. See also clerics; marja‘iyya; mujtahids ulama (Saudi Sunni and Wahhabi), 46–47, 50, 72 ‘Umar, Nasir ibn Sulayman, 53
United Iraqi Alliance, the, 154, 156
United Nations Security Council, the, 147
United States (U.S.), the: attempt to reshape the Middle East, ix–xi; and Bahrain, 13, 64–65, 68, 137, 139; and the Dhahran military base, 48; distrust of Shi‘ism, 2, 158; 2003 invasion of Iraq, 1–3, 7–8, 13, 72, 81, 131, 132, 140, 144–49, 150, 156, 161–64; and Iran, 2, 4, 65, 163; and Lebanon, 2, 123, 160; and Saudi Arabia, 131, 132, 133, 163; and Turkey, 162
Unity and Jihad organization, the, 151
University of Minerals and Petroleum, the, 50 ‘Uqayr, 49
‘uruba, 85. See also Arab nationalism; Arabism; qawmiyya ‘Usayran (family), 106 ‘Usayran, ‘Ali, 40 usufruct, 24
Usuli(s), 23, 26 ‘Utaybi, Juhayman ibn Muhammad, 50–51 ‘Uthman (third caliph), 45 ‘Utub tribe, 17, 19, 20, 24, 56, 57 ‘Uyuni, ‘Abdallah ibn ‘Ali, 22
Versailles peace conference, 102
Wahhab, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd, 18
Wahhabism: and the Al Sa‘ud, 132; and the Arabian Oil Company, 49; and Bahrain, 54–55, 70; and Hizballah, 3–4; and the Ikhwan, 46–47, 53; and the Iranian Islamic Revolution, 50; in Iraq, 97; and Saudi Shi‘is, 12–13, 18–19, 21, 25, 44, 45, 46, 52–53, 133; as Saudi state ideology, 12, 18, 44, 159
Wa’ili, Ahmad, 92
Wa’ili, Ibrahim, 81
West Bank, the, 140
Wifaq National Islamic Association, the, 138 wilayat al-faqih, 7. See also Khomeini, Ruhollah women (in politics), 4, 9, 19, 76–77, 137, 146, 147, 154, 156
World War II, 63
Ya‘qubi, Muhammad, 154
Yawar, Ghazi, 147
Yazid (Umayyad caliph), 116
Yaziji, Ibrahim, 38
Yemen, 12
Yemenis, 63
Young Turk revolution of 1908, the, 39
Zahir, Sulayman, 39
Zallaq, 57
Zarqawi, Abu Mus‘ab, 151
Zaydis, 12
Zayn, ‘Ali, 40
Zein (family), 106
Zuwayn, Hadi, 77