Prologue
A Shi‘i-Led Reformation
1. A’yatullah al-‘Uzma al-Sayyid al-Sistani, “Hawla mashru‘ kitabat al-dustur al-‘iraqi,” 25 Rabi‘ al-Thani 1424; “Hawla qanun idarat al-‘iraq li al-fatra al-intiqaliyya,” 16 Muharram 1425; “Istifta’ hawla asalib quwwat al-ihtilal fi baghdad wa-‘adad min al-muhafazat,” 16 Safar 1425; “Hawla tashkil al-hukuma al-‘iraqiyya al-jadida,” 14 Rabi‘ al-Thani 1425; “Hawla qanun idarat al-dawla al-‘iraqiyya li al-marhala al-intiqaliyya,” 17 Rabi‘ al-Thani 1425; “Istifta’ jam‘ min al-mu’minin hawl al-intikhabat, 26 Sha‘ban 1425, http://sistani.org/bayanat.
2. Yitzhak Nakash, The Shi‘is of Iraq, 2d ed. (Princeton, 2003), 50–51.
3. ‘Izz al-Din Salim, Abhath fi shu’un al-nahdah (Beirut, 1990), 162–63; Anon., “al-Shi‘a ‘ala abwab al-qarn al-hadi wa al-‘ishrin,” al-Mawsim 32 (1997): 5–15; Muhammad Sa‘id al-Turayhi, Dawlat al-najaf (Oud-beijerland, 2004), 29– 41, 47–48, 59–65, 89–92; news interview with Muhammad Husayn ‘Ali al-Saghir, “Asatin al-marja‘iyya al-‘ulya: Shi‘at ‘arab wa-Shi‘at ‘ajam,” al-Mushahid al-Siyasi 432 (20–26 June 2004): 12; Azadeh Moaveni, “Fall of Hussein Could Lead to a Shift in Center, Focus of Shiite Muslims,” LAT, 17 April 2003; Anthony Shadid, “In Revival of Najaf, Lessons for a New Iraq,” WP, 10 December 2003; Hamza Hendawi, “Shiite Leadership Clash in Iran, Iraq,” Associated Press, 15 July 2004.
4. Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, al-Islam yaqud al-hayat (Qum, 2000), 21; Salim al-Hasani, al-Ma‘alim al-jadida li al-marja‘iyya al-Shi‘iyya: dirasa wa-hiwar ma‘a a’yatullah al-sayyid muhammad husayn fadlallah, 2d ed. (Beirut, 1993), esp. 37–54, 57–74, 77–157, 169–75; Muhammad Husayn Fadlallah et al., Ara’ fi al-marja‘iyya al-Shi‘iyya (Beirut, 1994), 113–14, 119–20, 125–30; news interview with Muhammad Husayn Fadlallah, “Ma zilna ummat al-ashkhas, la al-mu’assasat,” al-Shira‘ 1075 (17 March 2003): 15.
Chapter 1
The Burden of the Past
1. Fa’iq Hamdi Tahbub, Ta’rikh al-bahrayn al-siyasi, 1783–1870 (Kuwait, 1983), 33–48.
2. J. G. Lorimer, Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, ‘Oman and Central Arabia, 5 pts. in 2 vols. (Calcutta, 1908–15), 1A:836–41; J. B. Kelly, Britain and the Persian Gulf, 1795–1880 (Oxford, 1968), 26–27; Tahbub, Ta’rikh al-bahrayn, 33–52, 67, 73.
3. The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed., s.vv. “al-aif” and “al-asa;” Werner Ende, “The Nakhawila: A Shiite Community in Medina, Past and Present,” DI 37 (1997): 266.
4. ‘Ali Aba Husayn, “Dirasa fi ta’rikh al-‘utub,” al-Wathiqa 1 (July 1982): 83; ‘Abdallah ibn Khalid Al Khalifa and ‘Ali Aba Husayn, “Min ta’rikh al-‘utub fi al-qarn al-thamin ‘ashar,” al-Wathiqa 2 (January 1984): 20–25; Khalid Khalifa al-Khalifa, “Tijarat al-bahrayn mundhu fath al-‘utub wa-hatta zuhur al-naft,” al-Wathiqa 4 (July 1985): 32–39. Cf. “The Utoob in the Eighteenth Century,” and “Bahraini Trade from the ‘Utub Conquest until the Appearance of Oil,” in Bahrain through the Ages: The History, ed. Shaikh Abdullah bin Khalid al-Khalifa and Michael Rice (London, 1993), 302–13, and 339–43. See also Muhammad ‘Abd al-Qadir al-Jasim and Sawsan ‘Ali al-Sha‘ir, al-Bahrayn: qissat al-sira‘ al-siyasi, 1904–1956 (n.p., 2000), 9, 12, 16–18, 21.
5. The interview was reproduced in Khayr al-Din al-Zirikli, Shibh al-jazira fi ‘ahd al-malik ‘abd al-‘aziz, 4 vols. (Beirut, 1970), 1:209–10.
6. Qadri Qal‘aji, Maw‘id ma‘a al-shaja‘a: qabas min hayat ‘abd al-‘aziz al su‘ud (Kuwait, 1971), 14, 146, 167–69, 172, 176–77, 249–58, 277; ‘Umar Abu Zilam et al., ‘Abd al-‘aziz al su‘ud: al-‘abqariyya fi al-tahrir wa al-tawhid wa al-tahdir (Kuwait, 1984), 25, 171, 189–91, 215, 401, 404; Ahmad ‘Abd al-Ghafur ‘Attar, Saqr al-jazira, 2 pts. (Cairo, 1946), 1:249–61; Hasan Sulayman Mahmud and Sayyid Muhammad Ibrahim, Ta’rikh al-mamlaka al-‘arabiyya al-su‘udiyya, 4th ed. (Cairo, 1958), 76–77; Muhammad Ibrahim, Ta’rikh al-mamlaka al-‘arabiyya al-su‘udiyya (Riyadh, 1973), 191; ‘Abdallah Salih ‘Uthayman, Ta’rikh al-mamlaka al-‘arabiyya al-su‘udiyya, 2 vols. (n.p., 1984–95), 2:137; Ibrahim Sulayman al-Jabhan, Ma yajib an ya‘rifuhu al-muslim min haqa’iq ‘an al-nasraniyya wa al-tabshir (n.p., n.d.), 38–39. See also Madawi al-Rasheed, “Political Legitimacy and the Production of History: The Case of Saudi Arabia,” in New Frontiers in Middle East Security, ed. Lenore Martin (New York, 1999), 33–35; Anon., “The Legacy of King Abdul Aziz,” Saudi Arabia 16 (Fall 1999): 3–4.
7. Rabitat ‘Umum al-Shi‘a fi al-Su‘udiyya, “al-Shi‘a fi al-mamlaka al-‘arabiyya al-su‘udiyya: al-jughrafiyya wa al-sukkan,” 6 September 1989, 1–2, 5; and “Ta’rikh al-Shi‘a: al-tahawwulat al-ra’isiyya,” 6 September 1989, 1–3; Hamza al-Hasan, al-Shi‘a fi al-mamlaka al-‘arabiyya al-su‘udiyya, 2 vols. (Beirut, 1993), 1:26–32; Muhammad Sa‘id al-Muslim, al-Qatif: waha ‘ala difaf al-khalij (Riyadh, 1991), 95–98. See also Lorimer, Gazetteer, 2A:644–45, 2B:1536; Political Agent in Bahrain to Political Resident in the Persian Gulf, 5 October 1953, FO 371/ 104263/10110/2; Muhammad Ghanim al-Rumayhi, Qadaya al-taghyir al-siyasi wa al-ijtima‘i fi al-bahrayn, 1920–1970 (Kuwait, 1976), 49; Clive Holes, “Community, Dialect, and Urbanization in the Arabic-Speaking Middle East,” BSOAS 55 (1995): 272–73.
8. Yusuf al-Bahrani, al-Kashkul, 3 vols. (Beirut, 1985), 1:99; ‘Ali ibn al-Shaykh Hasan al-Biladi al-Bahrani, Anwar al-badrayn fi tarajim ‘ulama’ al-qatif wa al-ahsa’ wa al-bahrayn (Qum, 1986), 19, 27, 39; Hisham Muhammad al-Shakhs, A‘lam hajar min al-madiyyin wa al-mu‘asirin, 2 vols. (Beirut, 1990–98), 1:21–22, 2:48–52, 127; Muhammad ‘Isa Al Makabis, Mawsu‘at shu‘ara’ al-bahrayn, 1208–1966, 4 pts. in 2 vols. (Qum, 1998), 1,1:20; Mahdi Abdalla Al-Tajir, Language and Linguistic Origins in Bahrain: The Baharnah Dialect of Arabic (London, 1982), 2, 7–8, 33–34; Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 1:15–19; Muhammad Sa‘id al-Muslim, Sahil al-dhahab al-aswad: dirasa ta’rikhiyya insaniyya li-mintaqat al-khalij al-‘arabi (Beirut, 1970), 93–99; idem, al-Qatif, 202; Muhsin al-Amin, A‘yan al-Shi‘a, 56 vols. (Beirut, 1960), 1:32, 225; Muhammad Husayn al-Muzaffar, Ta’ rikh al-Shi‘a (Qum, 1970), 111, 261–63. Cf. ‘Ali Habiba, “Min qadaya al-ta’rikh fi al-bahrayn,” al-Wathiqa 3 (1984): 101–2.
9. The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed., s.v. “armai”; Sa‘id al-Shihabi, al- Bahrayn, 1920–1971: qira’a fi al-watha’iq al-baritaniyya (Beirut, 1996), 7; Muhammad ibn ‘Abdallah al-Ahsa’i, Tuhfat al-mustafid bi-ta’rikh al-ahsa’ fi al-qadim wa al-jadid, 2 pts. (Riyadh, 1960), 1:viii, 250–54; Biladi, Anwar al-badrayn, 277; Juan Cole, Sacred Space and Holy War: The Politics, Culture, and History of Shi‘ite Islam (London, 2002), 4, 32–33, 56.
10. Rabitat ‘Umum al-Shi‘a fi al-Su‘udiyya, al-Shi‘a fi al-su‘udiyya: al-waqi‘ al-sa‘b wa al-tatallu‘at al-mashru‘a (London, 1991), 28; Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 1:27, 75.
11. Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 1:29, 80–81, 108, 2:16; Muslim, Sahil al-dhahab, 99–101; Charles Belgrave, Personal Column (London, 1960), 56, 191; R. B. Serjent, “Fisher-Folk and Fish-Traps in al-Bahrain,” BSOAS 31 (1968): 489, 506–7; Fuad Khuri, Tribe and State in Bahrain: The Transformation of Social and Political Authority in an Arab State (Chicago, 1980), 105, 112–13.
12. Rabitat ‘Umum al-Shi‘a fi al-Su‘udiyya, “Ta’rikh al-Shi‘a: al-tahawwulat al-ra’isiyya,” 1; The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed., s.v. “aif.”
13. Fu’ad al-Ahmad, al-Shaykh hasan ‘ali al badr al-qatifi (Beirut, 1991), 97–101.
14. Tajir, Language, 8.
15. Khuri, Tribe and State, 28–29.
16. Anon., “al-Bahrayn: al-masar al-iqlimi wa-mustaqbal al-haraka al-islamiyya,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 102 (September 1988): 27; Bahrain Freedom Movement, 26 August 1996, 25 December 1996, 19 January 1997, 10 February 1997, 3 May 1997, 19 June 1997, and 20 July 1997, http://vob.org; Shihabi, al-Bahrayn, 9. See also Yusuf al-Bahrani, Lu’lu’at al-bahrayn fi al-ijazat wa-tarajim rijal al-hadith (Najaf, 1966), 442; Yusuf al-Falaki, Qadiyyat al-bahrayn bayn al-madi wa al-hadir (n.p., n.d.), 10–16; Muhammad Ghanim al-Rumayhi, al-Bahrayn: mushkilat al-taghyir al-siyasi wa al-ijtima‘i (Beirut, 1995), 287.
17. Nasir-i Khusru, Safarnama-yi abu mu‘in hamid al-din nasir-i bin khusru, ed. Muhammad Dabir Siyaki (Tehran, 1956), 109–10; The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed., s.v. “armai”; William Palgrave, A Personal Narrative of a Year’s Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia, 1862–1863 (London, 1869), 368; S. M. Zwemer, Arabia: The Cradle of Islam (New York, 1900), 115–16; John Philby, The Heart of Arabia: A Record of Travel and Exploration, 2 vols. (London, 1922), 1:7; Habiba, “Min qadaya al-ta’rikh,” esp. 107–10.
18. Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 1:106–11, 124–30, 153–54. Cf. ‘Uthman ibn Bishr, ‘Unwan al-majd fi ta’rikh najd, 2 pts. (Beirut, 1967), 1:99–100, 2:277–79; Husayn ibn Ghannam, Ta’rikh najd (Cairo, 1961), 179, 182–87, 192–95.
19. Muslim, Waha, 260–63; Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 1:351–52, 2:9–16, 27; Rabitat ‘Umum al-Shi‘a fi al-Su‘udiyya, al-Shi‘a fi al-su‘udiyya, 39; Hasan al-Saffar, al-Shaykh ‘ali al-biladi al-qudayhi (Beirut, 1990), 48–51; Anon., “Madha fa‘ala al su‘ud fi al-ahsa’ wa al-qatif,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 102 (September 1988): 18– 22. See also Guido Steinberg, “The Shiites in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia (al-Ahsa’), 1913–1953,” in The Twelver Shia in Modern Times: Religious Culture and Political History, ed. Rainer Brunner and Werner Ende (Leiden, 2001), 243– 45; Fahd al-Qahtani, al-Islam wa al-wathniyya al-su‘udiyya (London, 1985), 31–35; Fouad Ajami, The Dream Palace of the Arabs: A Generation’s Odyssey (New York, 1998), 153–54.
20. Yitzhak Nakash, The Shi‘is of Iraq, 2d ed. (Princeton, 2003), 14–15, 25– 48; Report on Arabia by Nakib Zade Talib Bey, 3 August 1904, Enclosure in No. 27, FO 416/20; Go¨ khan C¸ etinsaya, “The Ottoman Administration of Iraq, 1890–1908” (Ph.D. diss., University of Manchester, 1994), 222–44, 275–80, 327; Thomas Eich, “Abu al-Huda, the Rifa‘iya, and Shiism in Hamidian Iraq,” DI 80 (2003): 143, 148, 151.
21. Elie Kedourie, England and the Middle East: The Destruction of the Ottoman Empire, 1914–1921 (London, 1956), 159–61, 203; idem, The Chatham House Version and Other Middle Eastern Studies (London, 1970), 239, 241–42, 255, 276; Paul Johnson, Journey into Chaos (London, 1958), 20–21; Muhammad Mahdi al-Basir, Ta’rikh al-qadiyya al-‘iraqiyya, 2d ed., 2 pts. (London, 1990), 1:44–45; Salah al-Din al-Sabbagh, Fursan al-‘uruba fi al-‘iraq: mudhakkirat al-shahid al-‘aqid al-rukn salah al-din al-sabbagh (n.p., 1956), 15; Lutfi Ja‘far Faraj, ‘Abd al-muhsin al-sa‘dun wa-dawruhu fi ta’rikh al-‘iraq al-siyasi al-mu‘asir (Baghdad, 1978), 15, 29–31, 45–47; ‘Abd al-Razzaq Ahmad al-Nasiri, Nuri al-sa‘id wa-dawruhu fi al-siyasa al-‘iraqiyya hatta ‘am 1932 (Baghdad, 1987), 15– 17, 21, 28, 31; ‘Aqil al-Nasiri, al-Jaysh wa al-sulta fi al-‘iraq al-maliki, 1921– 1958 (Damascus, 2000), 43, 55. A list of the ex-Ottoman officers may be found in Ahmad al-Zaydi, al-Bina’ al-ma‘nawi li al-quwwat al-musallaha al-‘iraqiyya (Beirut, 1990), 433–43.
22. Kamal Salibi, A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered (Berkeley, 1988), 87, 90–91, 119, 137; idem, The Modern History of Lebanon (London, 1965), xvi–xvii; Elizabeth Picard, Lebanon, a Shattered Country: Myths and Realities of the Wars in Lebanon, trans. Franklin Philip (New York, 1996), 13–15.
23. Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Hurr al-‘Amili, Amal al-a’mal, 2 vols. (Baghdad, 1964), 1:13; Muhsin al-Amin, Khitat jabal ‘amil (Beirut, 1961), 35– 37, 46, 65–67; idem, A‘yan al-Shi‘a, 1:30; Ahmad Rida, “al-Matawila aw al-Shi‘a fi jabal ‘amil,” al-‘Irfan 2 (1910): 239–40; Muhammad Kurd ‘Ali, Kitab khitat al-sha’m, 6 pts. in 3 vols. (Damascus, 1925–28), 3:6, 252; Muhammad Taqi al-Faqih, Jabal ‘amil fi al-ta’rikh (Beirut, 1986), 33–43; ‘Ali Muruwwa, al-Tashayyu‘ bayna jabal ‘amil wa-iran (London, 1987), 12–13; Muhammad Kazim Makki, Muntalaq al-haya al-thaqafiyya fi jabal ‘amil (Beirut, 1991), 61; ‘Ali Ibrahim Darwish, Jabal ‘amil, 1516–1697: al-haya al-siyasiyya wa al-thaqafiyya (Beirut, 1993), 25; Hashim ‘Uthman, Ta’rikh al-Shi‘a fi sahil bilad al-sha’m alshimali (Beirut, 1994), 25; Nawal Fayyad, Safahat min ta’rikh jabal ‘amil fi al-‘ahdayn al-‘uthmani wa al-faransi (Beirut, 1998), 18.
24. Amin, Khitat jabal ‘amil, 67–71; Muzaffar, Ta’rikh al-Shi‘a, 163–68; Muruwwa, al-Tashayyu‘, 14, 16; ‘Uthman, Ta’rikh al-Shi‘a, 47; Salibi, A House of Many Mansions, 118.
25. ‘Uthman, Ta’rikh al-Shi‘a, 108–13; Salih Ibn Yahya, Ta’rikh bayrut, ed. Fransis Hurs and Kamal Salibi (Beirut, 1969), 27–28, 195; Tanus al-Shidyaq, Kitab akhbar al-a‘yan fi jabal lubnan, 2 vols. (Beirut, 1970), 2:208, 301; Muhammad ‘Ali Makki, Lubnan, 635–1516: min al-fath al-‘arabi ila al-fath al-‘uthmani (Beirut, 1977), 213–32, 263–66; Muhammad Kurani, al-Judhur al-ta’rikhiyya li al-muqawama al-islamiyya fi jabal ‘amil (Beirut, 1993), 55–60, 63; Muhammad Zu‘aytar, al-Maruniyya fi lubnan: qadiman wa-hadithan (Beirut, 1994), 55–57; Abdul-Rahim Abu Husayn, “The Shiites in Lebanon and the Ottomans in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,” in Convegno sul tema la Shi‘a nell’impero ottomano, Accademia Nazionale Dei Lincei (Rome, 1993), 109–11; Salibi, A House of Many Mansions, 14, 103–4.
26. Istifanus al-Duwayhi, Ta’rikh al-azmina, 1095–1699 (Beirut, 1951), 308, 329; Philip al-Khazin, Kisrawan ‘ibr al-ta’rikh (Harisa, 1970), 18–19, 31–37, 42– 46; Bulus Qara’li, Fakhr al-din al-ma‘ni al-thani amir lubnan: idaratuhu wa-siya-satuhu, 1590–1635 (Bayt Shabab, 1937), 36–41; Yusuf Abi Sa‘ab, Ta’rikh al-kufur: kisrawan wa-usaruha (Beirut, 1985), 73, 76–81, 88; Bulus Nujaym, al-Qadiyya al-lubnaniyya (Beirut, 1995), 84, 96; Anis Sayigh, Lubnan al-ta’ifi (Beirut, 1955), 86–87, 91; Sulayman Zahir, Jabal ‘amil fi al-harb al-kawniyya (Beirut, 1986), 22–23; Zu‘aytar, al-Maruniyya, 57–58, 95, 138–39; Amin, Khitat jabal ‘amil, 72; Makki, Muntalaq al-haya al-thaqafiyya, 99–100; Darwish, Jabal ‘amil, 128; Salibi, A House of Many Mansions, 105–6, 126; Richard Van Leeuwen, Notables and Clergy in Mount Lebanon: The Khazins Sheikhs and the Maronite Church, 1736–1840 (Leiden, 1994), 82–83, 85, 106, 149–50, 178–79; Leila Fawaz, An Occasion for War: Civil Conflict in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860 (London, 1994), 13, 15.
27. Rida, “al-Matawila,” 237, 241–42; Amin, Khitat jabal ‘amil, 52; idem, A‘yan al-Shi‘a, 1:16; Faqih, Jabal ‘amil, 31–32; ‘Ali al-Zayn, Li al-bahth ‘an ta’ rikhina fi lubnan (Sidon, 1973), 480–81; Darwish, Jabal ‘amil, 27; al-Majlis al-Thaqafi li-Lubnan al-Janubi, Safahat min ta’rikh jabal ‘amil (Beirut, 1979), 96– 97; Makki, Muntalaq al-haya al-thaqafiyya, 65; Mundhir Jabir, “al-Shi‘a fi jabal ‘amil bayn al-mabda’iyya wa al-hifaz ‘ala al-dhat,” al-Muntalaq 105 (1993): 64, 66; Majed Halawi, A Lebanon Defied: Musa al-Sadr and the Shi‘a Community (Boulder, Colo., 1992), 33. See also Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Khalidi al-Safadi, Lubnan fi ‘ahd al-amir fakhr al-din al-ma‘ni al-thani, ed. Asad Rustum and Fuad al-Bustani (Beirut, 1969), 16, 66, 69–70, 76, 92, 131, 137, 150.
28. Zayn, Li al-bahth ‘an ta’rikhina, 485–603; Muhammad Jabir Al Safa’, Ta’rikh jabal ‘amil, 2d ed. (Beirut, n.d.), 104, 117–38; Haydar Rida al-Rukayni, Jabal ‘amil fi qarn, 1163–1247 (Beirut, 1998), 11, 52–53, 99–100; Fouad Ajami, The Vanished Imam: Musa al-Sadr and the Shia of Lebanon (Ithaca, 1986), 52– 54; Halawi, A Lebanon Defied, 20–21, 34–35.
29. Abdul-Rahim Abu Husayn, Provincial Leaderships in Syria, 1575–1650 (Beirut, 1985), esp. 2, 130, 134, 144, 148–52; idem, The View from Istanbul: Lebanon and the Druze Emirate in the Ottoman Chancery Documents, 1546– 1711 (London, 2004), 127; idem, “The Shiites in Lebanon,” 114–15; Salibi, A House of Many Mansions, 144–45, 149; The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed., s.v. “arfush”; Ajami, The Vanished Imam, 127–28; Halawi, A Lebanon Defied, 35–36, 90, 150–51; Hani Fahs, al-Shi‘a wa al-dawla fi lubnan: malamih fi al-ru’ya wa al-dhakira (Beirut, 1996), 92–93; Darwish, Jabal ‘amil, 107–16, 140, 150– 51, 229, 231.
30. Relations with Ibn Sa‘ud, 12 January 1917, FO 371/3044/35392; Shakespear to Sir Percy Cox, Enclosure 2 in No. 458, 15 May 1913, FO 424/238; Jacob Goldberg, “The 1913 Saudi Occupation of Hasa Reconsidered,” MES 18 (1982): 22–25.
31. Shakespear to Political Resident in the Persian Gulf, 4 January 1915, No. S-13, FO 371/2473/30472; Great Britain, Office of the Civil Commissioner, The Arab of Mesopotamia (Basra, 1917), 45–47; Political Resident in the Persian Gulf to Ibn Sa‘ud, 14 June 1923, No. 173 of 1923, IO R/15/2/74; Jacob Goldberg, The Foreign Policy of Saudi Arabia: The Formative Years, 1902–1918 (Cambridge, Mass., 1986), 124, 131, 145–47, 196–98; J. B. Kelly, Eastern Arabian Frontiers (New York, 1964), 112–13; John Philby, Saudi Arabia (London, 1955), 269–74.
32. Qal‘aji, Maw‘id ma‘a al-shaja‘a, 145–63, 169–71; Abu Zilam, ‘Abd al-‘aziz al su‘ud, 25, 51, 169, 419–20, 428, 437–39; Madiha Ahmad Darwish, Ta’rikh al-dawla al-su‘udiyya hatta al-rub‘ al-awwal min al-qarn al-‘ishrin, 2d ed. (Jidda, 1983), 84.
33. Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 2:80–82, 101–4, 115–16; Anon., “al-Siyasa al-kharijiyya al-su‘udiyya: bidayat al-nihaya,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 45 (January 1984): 11. See also Muhammad Jalal Kishk, al-Su‘udiyyun wa al-hall al-islami: masdar al-shar‘iyya li al-nizam al-su‘udi, 4th ed. (Cairo, 1984), 459–60; Translation of Treaty between Ibn Sa‘ud and the Turks, 15 May 1914, FO 371/2769/236112.
34. Anon., “al-Za‘im ahmad bin al-shaykh mahdi nasrallah,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 104 (November 1988): 43–44; Rabitat ‘Umum al-Shi‘a fi al-Su‘udiyya, al-Shi‘a fi al-su‘udiyya, 51–54; Hasan ‘Ali Al Badr al-Qatifi, Da‘wat al-muwahhidin ila himayat al-din (Najaf, 1911), 2–24; Ahmad, al-Shaykh hasan ‘ali al badr al-qatifi, 112–14, 117; Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 1:330, 333, 345, 2:106–9. See also Steinberg, “The Shiites in the Eastern Province,” 245.
35. ‘Ali al-Wardi, Lamahat ijtima‘iyya min ta’rikh al-‘iraq al-hadith, 6 vols. (Baghdad, 1969–78), 4:72–77; Hasan al-‘Alawi, Dawlat al-isti‘ara al-qawmiyya: min faysal al-awwal ila saddam husayn (London, 1993), 33–34; ‘Ala’ al-Lami, Nusus mudadda: difa‘an ‘an al-‘iraq, al-sha‘b, al-watan wa al-huwiyya (n.p., n.d.), 77; Nasiri, al-Jaysh wa al-sulta, 45–47, 50. See also Ibrahim al-Rawi, Min al-thawra al-‘arabiyya al-kubra ila al-‘iraq al-hadith: dhikrayat (Beirut, 1969), 19–22; Muhammad Ra’uf al-Shaykhli, Marahil al-hayat fi al-fatra al-muzlima wa-ma ba‘daha, 2 vols. (Basra, 1972), 2:386–87, 409; Nasiri, Nuri sa‘id, 38–56, 83– 85; Kamal Mazhar Ahmad, Safahat min ta’rikh al-‘iraq al-mu‘asir: dirasat tahliliyya (Baghdad, 1987), 49–50, 75–77; Sabbagh, Fursan al-‘uruba, 15; Kedourie, The Chatham House Version, 255.
36. A. J. Barker, The Neglected War: Mesopotamia, 1914–1918 (London, 1967), 67–77; Russell Braddon, The Siege (London, 1969), 25–26; Arnold Wilson, Loyalties: Mesopotamia, 1914–1917 (London, 1930), 22–23, 33–35.
37. Muhammad Rida al-Shabibi, “Yawm al-shu‘ayba,” al-‘Irfan 6 (1921): 308–9; ‘Abd al-Shahid al-Yasiri, al-Butula fi thawrat al-‘ishrin (Najaf, 1966), 68– 78; Hasan al-Asadi, Thawrat al-najaf ‘ala al-ingliz aw al-sharara al-ula li-thawrat al-‘ishrin (Baghdad, 1975), 91–92; Hasan Shubbar, “Dawr ‘ulama’ al-din fi al-jihad,” al-Jihad 365 (7 November 1988): 7; Katib al-Turayhi, “Waqi‘at al-shu‘-ayba didd al-ihtilal al-inglizi,” al-Mawsim 19 (1994): 341–44; Anon., al-Haraka al-islamiyya fi al-‘iraq (Beirut, 1985), 38–40; Salim al-Hasani, Dawr ‘ulama’ al-Shi‘a fi muwajahat al-isti‘mar, 1900–1920 (Beirut, 1995), 79, 84, 101; ‘Ali al-Ahmad, “al-Najaf wa-muqawamat al-istibdad al-dakhili wa al-istikbar al-khariji,” al-Muntalaq 77 (1991): 103, 105; Khalid Hamud al-Sa‘dun, al-Awda‘ al-qabaliyya fi al-basra, 1908–1918 (Kuwait, 1988), 277–78; Pierre-Jean Luizard, “Shaykh Muhammad al-Khalisi (1890–1963) and His Political Role in Iraq and Iran in the 1910s and 1920s,” in Brunner and Ende, The Twelver Shia, 226–27.
38. Fariq al-Muzhir Al Fir‘awn, al-Haqa’iq al-nasi‘a fi al-thawra al-‘iraqiyya sanat 1920 wa-nata’ijuha (Baghdad, 1952), 36–37; ‘Ali al-Sharqi, al-Ahlam (Baghdad, 1963), 97–99; ‘Ali al-Khaqani, Shu‘ara’ al-ghari aw al-najafiyyat, 2d ed., 12 vols. (Qum, 1988), 9:149–50; Wardi, Lamahat, 4:129–30, 134, 146; Ra’uf al-Wa‘iz, al-Ittijahat al-wataniyya fi al-Shi‘r al-‘iraqi al-hadith, 1914–1941 (Baghdad, 1974), 28–32; Hasan al-‘Alawi, al-Shi‘a wa al-dawla al-qawmiyya fi al-‘iraq (Paris, 1989), 64; Anon., “Muhammad Sa‘id al-Habubi,” al-Tayar al-Jadid 24–25 (17 December 1984): 25; Ahmed al-Habbubi, “Itine´raire d’un nationaliste arabe,” MA 163 (January–March 1999): 112, 116; Sa‘id al-Samarra’i, al-Ta’ifiyya fi al-‘iraq: al-waqi‘ wa al-hall (London, 1993), 111. See also ‘Ali al-Bazirgan, al-Waqa’i‘ al-haqiqiyya fi al-thawra al-‘iraqiyya, 2d ed. (Baghdad, 1991), 62–63, 73–74.
39. George Antonius, The Arab Awakening: The Story of the Arab National Movement (New York, 1946), 95, 106; Muhammad Jamil Bayhum, Qawafil al-‘uruba wa-mawakibuha khilal al-‘usur, 2 pts. (Beirut, 1948), 2:21; idem, al-‘Arab wa al-turk fi al-sira‘ bayn al-sharq wa al-gharb (Beirut, 1957), esp. 153–58; Zeine N. Zeine, Arab-Turkish Relations and the Emergence of Arab Nationalism (Beirut, 1958), 75, 80, 124; Tawfiq Biru, al-‘Arab wa al-turk fi al-‘ahd al-dusturi al-‘uthmani, 1908–1914 (Damascus, 1991), esp. 479–84, 499–500. See also Adeed Dawisha, Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century: From Triumph to Despair (Princeton, 2003), 29–30, 33; C. Ernest Dawn, “The Origins of Arab Nationalism,” in The Origins of Arab Nationalism, ed. Rashid Khalidi et al. (New York, 1991), 16, 19, 23; Philip Khoury, Urban Notables and Arab Nationalism: The Politics of Damascus, 1860–1920 (Cambridge, 1983), 53–74; S¸u¨kru¨ Haniog˘lu, The Young Turks in Opposition (Oxford, 1995), 211, 216; Hasan Kayali, Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, 1908–1918 (Berkeley, 1997), 12–13, 84, 114–15, 208–10, 212.
40. Muhammad Jabir Al Safa’, “al-Haraka al-‘arabiyya fi jabal ‘amil (I),” and “Safahat min ta’rikh jabal ‘amil (II),” al-‘Irfan 28 (1939): 777–78, 900–901.
41. Jabir, Ta’rikh jabal ‘amil, esp. 206–16. See also ‘Adil al-Sulh, Sutur min al-risala: ta’rikh haraka istiqlaliyya qamat fi al-mashriq al-‘arabi sanat 1877 (Beirut, 1966), 71, 94–100, 143–48; Sabrina Mervin, Un re´formisme chiite: Ule´mas et lettre´s du Gabal ‘Amil de la fin de l’empire ottoman a` l’inde´pendance du Liban (Paris, 2000), 331–34.
42. Amin, A‘yan al-Shi‘a, 43:300; ‘Ali Muruwwa, Ta’rikh juba‘: madiha wa-hadiruha (Beirut, 1967), 364–70; Kurani, al-Judhur al-ta’rikhiyya, 117–18; ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Mun‘im Shu‘ayb, Matalib jabal ‘amil: al-wahda wa al-musawa fi lubnan al-kabir, 1900–1936 (Beirut, 1987), 49; Waddah Sharara, al-Umma al-qaliqa: al-‘amiliyyun wa al-‘asabiyya al-‘amiliyya ‘ala ‘atabat al-dawla al-lubnaniyya (Beirut, 1996), 117–18.
43. Zeine, Arab-Turkish Relations, esp. 73; Hasan Muhammad Sa‘d, Jabal ‘amil bayn al-atrak wa al-faransiyyin, 1914–1920 (Beirut, 1980), 27–28; Ghassan Ahmad ‘Isa, “al-Haraka al-‘arabiyya fi jabal ‘amil, 1865–1920,” Amal 543 (17 June 1988): 52, and 544 (24 June 1988): 60.
44. ‘Ali al-Zayn, “Athar al-‘an‘anat fi ta’rikhina,” al-‘Irfan 58 (1970): 31–41; idem, Li al-bahth ‘an ta’rikhina, 23–35; Mustafa Muhammad Bazi, Jabal ‘amil fi muhitihi al-‘arabi, 1864–1948 (Beirut, 1993), 31–34; Fahs, al-Shi‘a wa al-dawla fi lubnan, 27–28.
Chapter 2
Containment Politics in the Persian Gulf
1. Anon., “al-Kuwayt taghli..wa-lakin didd al sabah,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 3 (March 1991): 13; Anon., “al-Ikhtilasat min sanduq al-ajyal tumazziq ramziyyat al-usra al-hakima fi al-kuwayt,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 31 (August 1993): 36; Fallah al-Mudayris, “al-Shi‘a fi al-mujtama‘ al-kuwayti,” al-Siyasa al-Dawliyya 123 (1996): 34, 46; Rabitat ‘Umum al-Shi‘a fi al-Su‘udiyya, al-Shi‘a fi al-su‘u-diyya: al-waqi‘ al-sa‘b wa al-tatallu‘at al-mashru‘a (London, 1991), 96; ‘Abdallah Muhammad al-Gharib, Wa-ja’a’ dawr al-majus: al-ab‘ad al-ta’rikhiyya wa al-‘aqa’idiyya wa al-siyasiyya li al-thawra al-iraniyya (Cairo, 1983), 329–35; Gregory Gause, Oil Monarchies (New York, 1994), 69–70, 101; Fouad Ajami, The Dream Palace of the Arabs: A Generation’s Odyssey (New York, 1998), 156, 186–87; Graham Fuller and Rend Rahim Francke, The Arab Shi‘a: The Forgotten Muslims (New York, 1999), esp. 155, 169–71.
2. Extracts from an untitled poem, al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 88 (July 1987): 1.
3. ‘Abdallah al-Hasan, “Sira‘ al-huwiyyat wa al-aqalim fi al-mamlaka: al-sira‘ al-najdi al-hijazi,” and Anon., “Watan yasir ila hatfihi: taqsim al-mamlaka..al-hajis al-akbar,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 16 (May 1992): 12–18, 25; Muhammad al-Husayn, “al-‘Asabiyyat al-mahaliyya tatanama wa al-huwiyya al-wataniyya lam tulad ba‘d: al-mamlaka muhaddada, al-musharaka al-siyasiyya aw al-taqsim,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 18 (July 1992): 24–29; ‘Abd al-Amir Musa, “Wahdat al-mamlaka..wa-haqq lana an nakhaf ‘alayha,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 11 (December 1991): 17–18; Khalid al-Rashid, “Hal hunak huwiyya wataniyya su‘udiyya?” Qadaya al-Khalij, March 2003, http://gulfissues.net. See also Summary of Jedda Dispatch No. 30, 30 June 1963, FO 371/168869/1015/25; Madawi al-Rasheed, “The Shi‘a of Saudi Arabia: A Minority in Search of Cultural Authenticity,” BJMES 25 (1998): 125–29; idem, A History of Saudi Arabia (Cambridge, 2002), 113; Fuller and Rahim Francke, The Arab Shi‘a, 181–82.
4. Ibrahim Sulayman al-Jabhan, Tabdid al-zalam wa-tanbih al-niyam, 2d ed. (Riyad, 1979), 29–33, 67, 71, 79, 139, 140, 153, 159–62, 165, 175, 188, 384, 490, 496; Muhibb al-Din al-Khatib, al-Khutut al-‘arida li al-usus allati qama ‘alayha din al-Shi‘a al-imamiyya al-ithna ‘ashariyya, 10th ed. (Cairo, 1981), 28, 42; Ihsan Ilhi Zahir, al-Shi‘a wa al-sunna, 2d ed. (Cairo, 1986), 8, 10, 13, 15, 47– 49, 56, 59; idem, al-Shi‘a wa al-tashayyu‘: firaq wa-ta’rikh (Lahor, 1984), 40–41; idem, al-Shi‘a wa-ahl al-bayt, 5th ed. (Lahor, 1983), 20, 28–29, 34; Muhammad Mal Allah, Mawqif al-Shi‘a min ahl al-sunna (n.p., n.d.), 81; Safar al-Hawali, Wa‘d kisinjr wa al-ahdaf al-amirikiyya fi al-khalij (Dallas, 1991), 92; idem, “Mudhakkirat al-nasiha,” reproduced in al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 7 (August 1991): 18; Anon., “‘Ala khatt ibn jibrin: al-‘abikan yuhaddid bi-madhbaha li al-muwati-nin al-Shi‘a,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 14 (March 1992): 47; Hamza al-Hasan, al-Shi‘a fi al-mamlaka al-‘arabiyya al-su‘udiyya, 2 vols. (Beirut, 1993), 2:354–69, 397–98.
5. J. B. Philby, The Heart of Arabia: A Record of Travel and Exploration (London, 1922), 294–95.
6. The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed., s.vv. “‘Abd Allah b. Saba’ ” and “Shi‘a.”
7. Muhammad Rashid Rida, al-Sunna wa al-Shi‘a aw al-wahhabiyya wa al-rafida, 2d ed., 2 pts. (Cairo, 1947), 1:4–12, 2:249–52; Ahmad Amin, Fajr al-islam, 5th ed. (Cairo, 1945), 269.
8. Jabhan, Tabdid al-zalam, 159, 418, 483, 497; Zahir, al-Shi‘a wa al-sunna, 16–27; idem, al-Shi‘a wa al-tashayyu‘, 45–77, 146; idem, al-Shi‘a wa-ahl al-bayt, 117, 124, 126; Gharib, wa-Ja’a’ dawr al-majus, 56–58; http://d-sunnah.net/rafedha-origin.htm; http://fnoor.com/fn0497.htm. For Shi‘i responses, see Mur-tada al-‘Askari, ‘Abdallah ibn saba’ wa-asatir ukhra, 2d ed. (Baghdad, 1968), esp. 13–16, 29–31, 37–38, 41–45, 57; Muhammad Husayn Kashif al-Ghita’, Asl al-Shi‘a wa-usuluha, 9th ed. (Beirut, 1960), esp. 18, 66, 77–78; Badr al-Din al-Ka-zimi ila Ibrahim al-Jabhan, “Munaqasha ‘aqa’idiyya fi maqalatihi wa-nashratihi” (Kuwait, 1977), 35–36; Muhammad Husayn al-Muzaffar, Ta’rikh al-Shi‘a, 2d ed. (Beirut, 1979), 19; Ibrahim Ishkanani, al-Tashayyu‘: nash’atan wa-tatawwuran (n.p., 1979), 146–47; Muhammad Jawad al-Shirri, al-Shi‘a fi qafas al-ittiham (Detroit, 1985), 39–78; Isma‘il al-Baghdadi, Mata wujidat al-Shi‘a? (n.p., 1986), esp. 29–30, 67–75, 186–91; Anon., “Al su‘ud wa al-nasab al-yahudi,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 70 (January 1986): 74–76; Pan-Shia Association in Saudi Arabia, Ahl al-Bayt 2 (1989): 5. See also Werner Ende, Arabische Nation und Islamische Geschichte (Beirut, 1977), 199–210, 300.
9. Yusuf al-Hajiri, al-Baqi‘: qissat tadmir al su‘ud li al-’athar al-islamiyya fi al-hijaz (Beirut, 1990), 15–18; Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 2:226–29; Yann Richard, Shi‘ite Islam, trans. Antonia Nevill (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 120. On Kuwait, see Mudayris, “al-Shi‘a,” 32, 35–36, 41, 45; Jill Crystal, Oil and Politics in the Gulf: Rulers and Merchants in Kuwait and Qatar (Cambridge, 1990), 83, 101; idem, Kuwait: The Transformation of an Oil State (Boulder, Colo., 1992), 77; Fuller and Rahim Francke, The Arab Shi‘a, 157, 161.
10. John Philby, Saudi Arabia (London, 1955), 268; B. D. Hakken, “Sunni-Shia Discord in Eastern Arabia,” MW 23 (1933): 304; Madawi al-Rasheed and Louloua al-Rasheed, “The Politics of Encapsulation: Saudi Policy towards Tribal and Religious Opposition,” MES 32 (1996): 110; Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 2:144, 307; Fahd al-Qahtani, Sira‘ al-ajniha fi al-‘a’ila al-su‘udiyya: dirasa fi al-nizam al-siyasi wa-ta’assus al-dawla (London, 1988), 252.
11. Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 2:236, 241–52; Hasan al-Saffar, al-Shaykh ‘ali al-biladi al-qudayhi (Beirut, 1990), 52–53; F. S. Vidal, The Oasis of al-Hasa (n.p., 1955), 97; Christine Helms, The Cohesion of Saudi Arabia: Evolution of Political Identity (Baltimore, 1981), 154–55, 167–68, 170.
12. Anwar ‘Abdallah, “Nushu’ al-mu’assasa al-salafiyya (II),” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 27 (April 1993): 36–38; Hamza al-Hasan, “Marakiz al-quwwa al-siya-siyya wa al-ijtima‘iyya fi al-mamlaka al-‘arabiyya al-su‘udiyya,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 9 (October 1991): 29; idem, al-Shi‘a, 2:146–54, 163–64, 262–64; Rabitat ‘Umum al-Shi‘a fi al-Su‘udiyya, al-Shi‘a, 28–29; Hasan al-Saffar, “al-Nizam al-su‘udi wa-qatl al-kafa’at,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 57 (January 1985): 41; Tawfiq al-Shaykh, “al-Nasaq al-ta’rikhi li al-‘alaqa bayn al-mujtama‘ wa al-sulta wa-ta’thiruhu ‘ala al-muthaqqafin (II),” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 19 (August 1993): 15; Abu al-Hasan al-Khunayzi, al-Munazarat (Cairo, 1977), 22. See also Hafiz Wahba, Arabian Days (London, 1964), 131–37; Ayman al-Yassini, Religion and State in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Boulder, Colo., 1985), 49–50, 55–56; Joseph Kostiner, “On Instruments and Their Designers: The Ikhwan of Najd and the Emergence of the Saudi State,” MES 21 (1985): 315–17; Guido Steinberg, “The Shiites in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia (al-Ahsa’), 1913–1953,” in The Twelver Shia in Modern Times: Religious Culture and Political History, ed. Rainer Brunner and Werner Ende (Leiden, 2001), 238, 248–51.
13. Annual Review of Internal Conditions and External Relations of Saudi Arabia during 1953, FO 371/110095/1011/1; From Bahrain to Foreign Office, 19 June 1956, FO 371/120754/1015/13; Norman Walpole et al., Area Handbook for Saudi Arabia (Washington, D.C., 1966), 265; Anon., “Madha fi al-mamlaka al-‘arabiyya al-su‘udiyya,” al-‘Irfan 44 (1956): 198; Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 2:287, 290, 295–300, 324–25, 377; Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia, 97, 100; Robert Vitalis, “Aramco World: Business and Culture on the Arabian Oil Frontier,” in The Modern Worlds of Business and Industry: Cultures, Technology, Labor, ed. Karen Merrill (Brepols, 1999), 10.
14. Anon., “al-Yamani li al-amirikaniyyin: shukran lakum ‘ala ‘isti‘marina,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 38 (June 1983): 15–20; Anon., “al-Naft: min al-mus-tafid?” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 40 (August 1983): 7–9; Anon., “As‘ar al-bitrul: wahm al-irtifa‘ wa-bu’s al-tajmid,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 56 (December 1984): 24–30; Anon., “Lusus al-naft,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 71 (February 1986): 11– 19; Anon., “al-Wilayat al-muttahida al-amirikiyya wa-aramco: haqiqa isti‘ma-riyya,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 72 (March 1986): 50–58; Anon., “al-Siyasa al-‘umaliyya li-sharikat aramco,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 74 (May 1986): 63–70; Anon., “al-Haraka al-‘umaliyya fi al-jazira al-‘arabiyya: qiyamuha wa-tataw-wuruha,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 92 (November 1987): 54–56; Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 2:287–89, 323–29; J. B. Kelly, Arabia, the Gulf, and the West (New York, 1980), 252–62; Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia, 96; Robert Vitalis, “The Closing of the Arabian Oil Frontier and the Future of Saudi-American Relations,” MERIP 204 (1997): 17. On Kuwait, see Mudayris, “al-Shi‘a,” 30, 41.
15. Anon., “al-Hukm al-su‘udi: istratijiyyat al-takfir wa-sulukiyyat al-irhab,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 65 (September 1985): 7–9; Anon., “Hal al-zira‘a fi taqaddum?” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 48 (April 1984): 30–33; M. al-Dughaythir, “Mulahazat hawla al-zira‘a wa al-intaj al-zira‘i,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 50 (June 1984): 24–27; Anon., “al-Zira‘a,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 59 (March 1985): 66; Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 1:317–18, 322, 2:91, 306–14, 329–37; Muhammad Sa‘id al-Muslim, Waha ‘ala difaf al-khalij: al-qatif, 2d ed. (Riyadh, 1991), 29, 269–71, 319–22. See also King to Stewart, Internal Security in Saudi Arabia, 14 August 1969, FCO 8/1165/1; ‘Abdallah Nasir al-Subay‘i, Iktishaf al-naft wa-atharuhu ‘ala al-haya al-iqtisadiyya fi al-mintaqa al-sharqiyya, 1933–1960, 2d ed. (Khobar, 1989), 258–63; Nasir al-Sa‘id, ‘Alam al-muluk (Beirut, n.d.), 4; Sharif Elmusa, “Faust without the Devil? The Interplay of Technology and Culture in Saudi Arabia,” MEJ 51 (1997): 356.
16. Rabitat ‘Umum al-Shi‘a fi al-Su‘udiyya, al-Shi‘a, 40–41, 112–15; Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 2:319, 392–93, 396–98; Anon., “Ila mata yastamir al-nizam al-su‘udi fi idtihad al-Shi‘a?” Risalat al-Haramayn 36 (January 1993): 16; Anon., “al-Wajh al-haqiqi li-nizam al-fasl al-madhhabi,” Risalat al-Haramayn 42 (July 1993): 25; Hasan al-Saffar, “Nurahhib bi al-ta‘awun ma‘a atraf al-mu‘arada fi al-bilad,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 2 (March 1991): 45.
17. Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia, 144–48; Jacob Goldberg, “The Shi‘i Minority in Saudi Arabia,” in Shi‘ism and Social Protest, ed. Juan Cole and Nikki Keddie (New Haven, 1986), 238–45; Amnesty International, “Saudi Arabia: Detention without Trial of Suspected Political Prisoners” (January 1990), 7.
18. ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Shaykh et al., Intifadat al-mintaqa al-sharqiyya, 1400h/1979 (n.p., 1981), 22–25, 34, 105–6, 108–9, 113–15, 119, 125, 128, 136, 153, 160–63, 227–28, 280, 288; Munazamat al-Thawra al-Islamiyya bi al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya al-Su‘udiyya, Intifadat al-muharram fi al-mintaqa al-sharqiyya (n.p., n.d.), 22; Anon., “The Regimes of Hypocrisy,” Mekka Calling 11 (November 1984): 6–7; Anon., “Makasib al-intifada,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 90–91 (September–October 1987): 3; Anon., “Fi al-dhikra al-sanawiyya al-tasi‘a li-intifadat muharram ‘am 1400,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 103 (October 1988): 8, 10; Anon., “Intifadat al-muharram wa al-asala al-islamiyya,” Risalat al-Haramayn 22 (August 1991): 19; Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 2:384.
19. Shaykh, Intifadat al-mintaqa al-sharqiyya, 16, 98–99, 101, 106–7, 111– 12, 129–30, 137, 172–75; Munazamat al-Thawra al-Islamiyya bi al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya al-Su‘udiyya, Intifadat al-muharram, 24; Anon., “al-Intifada tasugh al-sha‘b min jadid,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 78 (September 1986): 33; Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 2:385–86.
20. Shaykh, Intifadat al-mintaqa al-sharqiyya, 19, 61–85, 94–98, 117, 120, 135, 199–210; Munazamat al-Thawra al-Islamiyya bi al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya al-Su‘udiyya, Intifadat al-muharram, 14, 39; Anon., “al-Thawra al-islamiyya bi-khayr wafi kull makan,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 59 (March 1985): 14–15; Anon., “al-Intifada wa al-khiyar al-jamahiri,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 78 (September 1986): 1–6; Anon., “Intifadat al-muharram,” 19–21; Hasan al-Saffar, al-Husayn wa-masu’liyyat al-thawra (Beirut, n.d.), esp. 7–8, 55–65.
21. Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 2:389–91; Anon., “al-Shi‘a wa al-‘alam: hiwar ma‘a al-shaykh hasan al-saffar,” al-Mawsim 11 (1991): 1045–48.
22. Hawali, Wa‘d kisinjr, 91–92; idem, “Mudhakkirat al-nasiha,” 18; Nasir ibn Sulayman al-‘Umar, “Waqi‘ al-rafida fi bilad al-tawhid” (May 1993), esp. 23– 25. See also Hamza al-Hasan, “Mawqif al-tayar al-salafi min al-muwatinin al-Shi‘a fi al-mamlaka,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 6 (July 1991): 25–26; Anon., “Harb ta’ifiyya..harb taqsim,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 30 (July 1993): 31.
23. Said Aburish, The Rise, Corruption, and Coming Fall of the House of Saud (London, 1994), 110–11; Hamid Algar, Wahhabism: A Critical Essay (New York, 2002), 62.
24. Anon., “Ta’jij al-ta’ifiyya lan yuharrif al-ra’y ‘an al-mutalaba bi al-huquq al-masluba,” Risalat al-Haramayn 26 (December 1991): 4–5; Anon., “al-Su-‘udiyya wa-siyasat al-tamyiz al-madhhabi didd al-Shi‘a,” Risalat al-Haramayn 35 (December 1992): 22–23; Anon., “Mu‘aradat al-sulta am mu‘aradat al-Shi‘a: min wara’ intishar ashritat al-jabhan?” Risalat al-Haramayn 29 (June 1992): 33; Anon., “I‘tiqal wa-ta‘dhib wa-tamyiz bi-haqq abna’ al-ta’ifa al-Shi‘iyya,” Risalat al-Haramayn 48 (June 1994): 19, 21; Hamza al-Hasan, “Ta’ifiyyat al-tayar al-salafi tahudd min tawassu‘ sha‘biyatihi fi al-wasat al-ijtima‘i,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 6 (July 1991): 27–28; idem, al-Shi‘a, 2:400–409; Mirza al-Khuwaylidi, “al-Hukuma al-su‘udiyya wara’ ‘arida sawda’ tutalib bi-sahq al-muwatinin al-Shi‘a wa-hadm masajidihim,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 21 (October 1992): 15–18.
25. Hasan ibn Farhan al-Maliki, “Mata kana sayf ibn ‘umar mu‘tamad al-‘ulama’?” al-Riyadh, 17 March 1996; Sa‘d al-Hamazani, “Bahith su‘udi yanfi ‘an ibn saba’ dawruhu fi ish‘al al-fitna al-kubra,” al-Hayat, 13 January 1999.
26. British Embassy, Tehran, 2 September and 26 November 1966, FO 371/ 185331/BB103134/1 and FO 371/185331/BB103134/5; Good Offices Mission, Bahrain, The 1970 Referendum, 24 April 1970, FCO 8/1370; The Settlement of the Iranian Claim to Bahrain, 6 July 1970, FCO 8/1372; J. B. Kelly, Britain and the Persian Gulf, 1795–1880 (Oxford, 1968), 319, 515–16; idem, Arabia, 54–55, 58–59, 179, 315; Fereydoun Adamiyat, Bahrein Islands: A Legal and Diplomatic Study of the British-Iranian Controversy (New York, 1955), esp. 124–252, 255– 58; Majid Khadduri, “Iran’s Claim to the Sovereignty of Bahrain,” AJIL 45 (1951): 631–47; idem, ed., Major Middle Eastern Problems in International Law (Washington, D.C., 1972), 95–105.
27. L. Haworth to the Foreign Secretary to the Government of India, Enclosure 1 in No. 33, 1 September 1927, FO 406/60; Political Resident in the Persian Gulf to the Foreign Secretary to the Government of India, 22 July 1922, FO 371/7721/ 8918; From Viceroy, Foreign and Political Department, to Secretary of State for India, 11 May 1923, FO 371/8941/4838; From Political Resident in the Persian Gulf to Emir Faisal, 8 February 1862, IO 15/2/29; J. B. Kelly, Eastern Arabian Frontiers (New York, 1964), 62, 74, 78–79, 303–4; idem, Britain, 103–4, 126, 229–30; Mahdi Abdalla al-Tajir, Bahrain, 1920–1945: Britain, the Shaikh, and the Administration (London, 1987), 39–40, 65–66, 84–88; Fa’iq Hamdi Tahbub, Ta’rikh al-bahrayn al-siyasi, 1783–1870 (Kuwait, 1983), 70–84, 128–35, 226, 245–52; Jamal Zakariya Qasim, al-Khalij al-‘arabi: dirasa li-ta’rikh al-imarat al-‘arabiyya fi ‘asr al-tawassu‘ al-urubi al-awwal (Cairo, 1985), 423–28; idem, al-Khalij al-‘arabi: dirasa li-ta’rikh al-imarat al-‘arabiyya, 1914–1945 (Cairo, 1973), esp. 225–37.
28. Anon., “al-Su‘udiyya wa al-da‘m al-la mahdud li-himayat amn wa-istiqlal al-bahrayn,” al-Mawaqif 404 (28 December 1981): 3; ‘Abd al-Latif Jasim Kanu, “al-Malik ‘abd al-‘aziz al su‘ud wa al-bahrayn,” al-Wathiqa 4 (January 1986):32–48; ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Rahman Aba Husayn, “al-Silla al-ta’rikhiyya bayn al-bahrayn wa al-mamlaka fi ‘ahd al-malik ‘abd al-‘aziz,” al-Wathiqa 5 (July 1986): 64–95; Nadav Safran, Saudi Arabia: The Ceaseless Quest for Security (Cambridge, Mass., 1985), 134–37; Emile Nakhleh, Bahrain: Political Development in a Modernizing Society (Lexington, Mass., 1976), 96; Ghasan Qasim al-Mulla, Riyah al-taghyir fi al-bahrayn (n.p., n.d.), 231; Bahrain Briefing, March 2001, http://vob.org; Fuller and Rahim Francke, The Arab Shi‘a, 152.
29. J. G. Lorimer, Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, ‘Oman and Central Arabia, 5 pts. in 2 vols. (Calcutta, 1908–15), 2A:48, 62–64, 68, 238–41, 249, 252, 1162, 1244, 1282–83, 1304–6, 1634, 1842–44, 1917–19, 1935, 1946; From Political Agent, Bahrain, to the Deputy Political Resident in the Persian Gulf, No. 284-G, 2 September 1920, IO 15/2/23; C. F. Daly to Political Resident, Bushire, 11 April 1922, FO 371/7721/5373; Talal Toufic Farah, Protection and Politics in Bahrain, 1869–1915 (Beirut, 1985), 2–5, 10, 86–88; R. B. Serjent, “Fisher-Folk and Fish-Traps in al-Bahrain,” BSOAS 31 (1968): 486–87; Charles Belgrave, Personal Column (London, 1960), 55; Tajir, Bahrain, 3, 15, 54; Fuad Khuri, Tribe and State in Bahrain: The Transformation of Social and Political Authority in an Arab State (Chicago, 1980), 48–49; Muhammad Ghanim al-Rumayhi, al-Bahrayn: mushkilat al-taghyir al-siyasi wa al-ijtima‘i, 4th ed. (Beirut, 1995), 59, 313–14; Anon., “al-Bahrayn: al-Masar al-iqlimi wa-mustaqbal al-haraka al-islamiyya,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 102 (September 1988): 27.
30. From Political Agent, Bahrain, to Political Resident in the Persian Gulf, No. 111/C, 13 July 1922, IO 15/1/336; Lorimer, Gazetteer, 2A:391–96; Belgrave, Personal Column, 20, 127; Tajir, Bahrain, 39–40, 56–58, 65–66, 84; Sa‘id al-Shihabi, al-Bahrayn, 1920–1971: qira’a fi al-watha’iq al-baritaniyya (London, 1996), 34–38, 73, 86–88; Hasan, al-Shi‘a, 2:176–79.
31. Telegram from Political Resident to the S.S.C.O., 31 January 1924, IO L/ P&S 10/1039; Translation of a letter from A. P. Trevor to the Sultan of Najd, No. 49, 14 February 1924, IO L/P&S 10/1042; Translation of a letter from the Sultan of Najd to the Resident, No. 77, 22 February 1924, IO L/P&S 10/1042; Daly to Trevor, No. 88/C, 31 March 1924, IO 15/2/87; Haworth to F.S.G.I., No. 87-S, 27 March 1927, IO L/P&S 10/1042; Prideaux to F.S.G.I., No. 517-S, 4 December 1926, IO L/P&S 10/1042; Advisor to the Government of Bahrein to the Political Agent, No. 934, 20th Shawwal 1345, IO 15/2/87; Barrett to the Secretary to the Political Resident, No. C-53, 14 April 1927, IO L/P&S 10/1042; Haworth to F.S.G.I., No. 138-S, 1 May 1927, IO L/P&S 10/1042; Tajir, Bahrain, 84–88; Shihabi, al-Bahrayn, 38–43.
32. Translation of an Undated Petition from the Baharna to the Political Agent, IO 15/1/336; Daly to Trevor, Enclosures to Serials Nos. 2 and 3, November 1921 and 3 January 1922, IO 15/2/131; F. B. Prideaux to F.S.G.I., No. 521-S, 6 September 1924, IO 15/2/73; Belgrave to Political Agent, No. 105/SF, 5 Safar 1350, IO L/P&S 10/1044; Belgrave to Political Agent, No. 326/SF, 30 June 1935, IO 15/2/ 195; Belgrave to Loch, Nos. C/882 and C/129, 7 November 1934 and 28 January 1935, IO 15/2/176. See also Rupert Hay, The Persian Gulf States (Washington, D.C., 1955), 91; Rumayhi, al-Bahrayn, 100–105; Ibrahim Khalaf al-‘Ubaydi, al-Haraka al-wataniyya fi al-bahrayn, 1914–1971 (Baghdad, 1976), 91–93; Yusuf al-Falaki, Qadiyyat al-bahrayn bayn al-madi wa al-hadir (n.p., n.d.), 17–20; Tajir, Bahrain, 2, 162–69; Bahrain Freedom Movement, 25 November 1997; Bahrain Briefing, March 2001,http://vob.org.
33. From Political Agent, Bahrain, to Political Resident in the Persian Gulf, Enclosure to Serial No. 29, 13 July 1922, IO 15/2/131; Belgrave to Prior, No. 1337/48, 9 February 1930, IO R/15/2/122; Belgrave, Personal Column, 41–42, 49–50, 126, 134; Tajir, Bahrain, 104–34; P.T.H. Unwin, Bahrain, World Bibliographical Series, vol. 49 (Denver, 1984), 24; Rumayhi, al-Bahrayn, 83–100; Shihabi, al-Bahrayn, 43–49, 77; Munira Fakhro, “The Uprising in Bahrain: An Assessment,” in The Persian Gulf at the Millennium: Essays in Politics, Economy, Security, and Religion, ed. Gary Sick and Lawrence Potter (New York, 1997), 169.
34. Belgrave to Loch, 28 January 1935, IO R/15/2/176; Resident to F.S.G.I., No. C-43, 18 March 1935, FO 371/18920; Kelly, Arabia, 183; Khuri, Tribe and State, 217; Rumayhi, al-Bahrayn, 65–70, 144; Gause, Oil Monarchies, 150; Sick and Potter, The Persian Gulf at the Millennium, 18; Fuller and Rahim Francke, The Arab Shi‘a, 137–38; Bahrain Freedom Movement, 29 September 1999 and 23 January 2004; Bahrain Briefing, March 2001, http://vob.org.
35. Belgrave, Personal Column, 81–85; Kelly, Arabia, 180–81; Jamal Zakariya Qasim, al-Khalij al-‘arabi: dirasa li-ta’rikhihi al-mu‘asir, 1945–1971 (Cairo, 1974), 121.
36. Tajir, Bahrain, 173–78; Shihabi, al-Bahrayn, 120–26; Rumayhi, al-Bahrayn, 146–53; Belgrave, Personal Column, 86.
37. Qasim, al-Khalij al-‘arabi, 122; Rumayhi, al-Bahrain, 154–60, 176–78; Khuri, Tribe and State, 224; Anthony Cordesman, The Gulf and the Search for Strategic Stability (Boulder, Colo., 1984), 407; Rodney Wilson, “The Evolution of the Saudi Banking System and Its Relationship with Bahrain,” in State, Society, and Economy in Saudi Arabia, ed. Tim Niblock (London, 1982), 293–94, 297.
38. Belgrave, Personal Column, 10.
39. The information on Belgrave is derived largely from his Personal Column. See also Robert Belgrave, “Charles belgrave: mustashar qadim fi al-bahrayn,” al-Wathiqa 3 (January 1985): 39–53; Khuri, Tribe and State, 115.
40. Falaki, Qadiyyat al-bahrayn, 58, 68–69; Anon., “Safahat min masar al-haraka al-islamiyya fi al-bahrayn,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 92 (November 1982): 61; Shihabi, al-Bahrayn, 196–97, 204, 206–23, 241; ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Bakir, Min al-bahrayn ila al-manfa (Beirut, 1965), 42–43; Qasim, al-Khalij al-‘arabi, 120; Rumayhi, al-Bahrayn, 203–4, 379, 408–9; Anti-Belgrave Feelings in Bahrain between 10 July 1946 and 28 February 1948, FO 371/68331/2901.
41. Cordesman, The Gulf, 583–84, 586; ‘Abd al-Hadi Khalaf, Bina’ al-dawla fi al-bahrayn: al-muhimma ghayr al-munjaza (Beirut, 2000), 80–81, 91; Michelle Wallin, “U.S.-Bahrain Accord Stirs Persian Gulf Trade Partners,” NYT, 24 December 2004.
42. Anon., “al-Bahrayn ila ayna?” al-Bilad 215 (7 January 1995): 32; Khalaf, Bina’ al-dawla fi al-bahrayn, 86–89; Muhammad Mahdi, al-Bahrayn: intihakat huquq al-insan, 1979–1990 (n.p., n.d.), 18–21; Mansur al-Jamri, “Prospects of a Moderate Islamist Discourse: The Case of Bahrain,” 22 November 1997, http://vob.org; Fuller and Rahim Francke, The Arab Shi‘a, 126.
43. Khalaf, Bina’ al-dawla fi al-bahrayn, 92–99, 140, 142–47; idem, “Hal Yaq-bal sha‘b al-bahrayn majlis al-shura al-mu‘ayyan?” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 26 (March 1993): 38–42; Anon., “al-Majlis al-istishari laysa badilan ‘an al-majlis al-watani,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 23 (December 1992): 22–23; Anon., “Jadid al-bahrayn laysa jadidan,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 24 (January 1993): 28–30; Karim al-Mahrus, “Fi al-bahrayn: majlis al-shura al-mu‘ayyan yufaqim azmat al-‘a’ila al-hakima,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 27 (April 1993): 16; Fakhro, “The Uprising in Bahrain,” 180–82; Bahrain Freedom Movement, 2 June 2000; Profile of Sheikh al-Jamri, http://vob.org.
44. From Political Resident in the Persian Gulf to the Foreign Secretary to the Government of India, 18 March 1935, FO 371/18920; Belgrave to Weightman, 13 November 1938, IO R/15/2/176.
45. Sheikh al-Jamri’s Statements, http://vob.org; “Khutbat al-jum‘a allati al-qaha al-shaykh ‘abd al-amir al-jamri fi jami‘ al-imam al-sadiq bi al-daraz yawm al-jum‘a,” 5 January 1996, in al-Haraka al-dusturiyya: nidal sha‘b min ajl al-dimuqratiyya, ed. Ahmad al-Shamlan et al. (n.p., 1997), 129; Khalaf, Bina’ al-dawla fi al-bahrayn, 105; Qasim, Riyah al-taghyir fi al-bahrayn, 130, 249–50, 267–68, 281–86, 301–2.
46. “Bahrain Holds 44 It Says Are Tied to Pro-Iran Plot,” NYT, 5 June 1996; “Bahrain Coup Suspects Say They Trained in Iran,” NYT, 6 June 1996; Joe Stork, “Bahrain Regime Stages Confessions, Rejects Compromise,” MERIP 200 (July– September 1996): 44; Bahrain Freedom Movement, 3, 6, 9, and 10 June 1996; 2 July 1996; 8 December 1996; 28 February 1997; 2, 9, and 17 March 1997; 30 April 1997, http://vob.org; Fakhro, “The Uprising in Bahrain,” 182–83. See also Fuller and Rahim Francke, The Arab Shi‘a, 135; Anon., “Ahdath al-bahrayn: taqrir khass,” al-Mawsim 28 (1996): 294–304.
47. Mulla, Riyah al-taghyir fi al-bahrayn, 89–91, 114; Shihabi, al-Bahrayn, 277, 280–84, 300–301; Anon., “al-Bahrayn ila ayna?” 31; Bahrain Freedom Movement, 1, 7, 10, 14, and 16 July 1996, 14 September 1996, 1 and 28 October, and 24 December 1996; 7, 10, and 16 January, and 15 February 1997; 18 February, 5, 8 March, and 14 April 1998; 19 July, 18 August, 1, 13, 28, and 29 September, and 23 November 1999; 23 March 2000; Bahrain Briefing, March 2001, http://vob.org. See also Dispatch No. 7 from Political Agent in Bahrain to the Political Resident in the Persian Gulf, 5 October 1953, FO 371/104263/10110-2; K. V. Abraham, British Justice in Bahrain (Kerala, 1963), 58, 82; Khuri, Tribe and State, 122–23; Fuller and Rahim Francke, The Arab Shi‘a, 144, 147.
48. Khalid Hamade, “Qadiyyat al-mahrumin min haqq al-jinsiyya fi al-bahrayn,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 11 (December 1991): 28–29; Bahrain Freedom Movement, 22 February and 1 June 1997, 29 September 1999, 12 October 2000, http://vob.org. See also ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Nu‘aymi, “al-Ifraj ‘an ‘adad min al-mu‘taqalin wa al-matlub hall siyasi,” al-Quds al-‘Arabi, 24 August 1995; Munira Fakhru, al-Mujtama‘ al-madani wa al-tahawwul al-dimuqrati fi al-bahrayn (Cairo, 1996), 77.
49. Fakhro, “The Uprising in Bahrain,” 175–76; Bahrain Briefing, March 2001; Bahrain Freedom Movement, 25 November 1997 and 30 March 2001, http://vob.org; Ibrahim Bashmi, Mashru‘ al-bahrayn al-islahi (Manama, 2002), 87; Khalaf, Bina’ al-dawla fi al-bahrayn, 45–48; “Bayan ‘Ulama’ al-Din fi al-Bahrayn,” 18 December 1994, in Mulla, Riyah al-taghyir fi al-bahrayn, 24; Bakir, Min al-bahrayn ila al-manfa, 12–13.
50. See, for example, Muhammad ‘Abd al-Qadir al-Jasim and Sawsan ‘Ali al-Sha‘ir, al-Bahrayn: qissat al-sira‘ al-siyasi, 1904–1956 (n.p., 2000), esp. 345–49.
51. Bahrain Freedom Movement, 15 December 2000, and for the months of January and February 2001, http://vob.org; Khalaf, Bina’ al-dawla fi al-bahrayn, 107–8.
Chapter 3
The Struggle for Power in Iraq
1. These affairs are discussed in Yitzhak Nakash, The Shi‘is of Iraq, 2d ed. (Princeton, 2003), 61–72.
2. Fariq al-Muzhir Al Fir‘awn, al-Haqa’iq al-nasi‘a fi al-thawra al-‘iraqiyya sanat 1920 wa-nata’ijuha (Baghdad, 1952), 55. See also Kamil Salman al-Juburi, al-Kufa fi thawrat al-‘ishrin (Najaf, 1972), 6, 13–15, 21–23; Ja‘far al-Mahbuba, Madi al-najaf wa-hadiruha, 3 vols. (Najaf, 1955–1958), esp. 1:374–75.
3. Salman Hadi Al Tu‘ma, Turath Karbala’ (Najaf, 1964), 282–93.
4. Furati, “al-Haqa’iq al-nasi‘a fi al-thawra al-‘iraqiyya al-kubra” (a response to Fir‘awn), al-Hatif 1181 (23 June 1953): 2; ‘Abud Shalash, “al-Najaf wa al-bayt al-hashimi,” al-‘Irfan 29 (1939): 839–40.
5. Nakash, The Shi‘is of Iraq, 94–95.
6. Karim Wahid Salih, Najm al-baqqal: qa’id thawrat al-najaf al-kubra didd al-ihtilal al-inglizi ‘am 1918 (Najaf, 1980), esp. 5, 16–18, 24, 29–33, 43, 67–68, 71, 72, 92; Zuhayr Sadiq Rida, Fi sabil al-watan: riwaya ‘an thawrat al-‘ishrin fi al-‘iraq (Beirut, 1979), esp. 7, 9, 12, 18, 20–23, 33, 67–68, 81, 89–94, 99–102, 120, 125–26. See also Yihya al-Safi al-Najafi, “Dhikra thawrat al-najaf,” al-‘Irfan 42 (1955): 427–28; Mahbuba, Madi al-najaf, 1:344–51; ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Ha-sani, Thawrat al-najaf ba‘da maqtal hakimuha al-kabtan marshal (Sidon, 1978), 35–36; ‘Abd al-Shahid al-Yasiri, al-Butula fi thawrat al-‘ishrin (Najaf, 1966), 103, 107; ‘Ali al-Wardi, Lamahat ijtima‘iyya min ta’rikh al-‘iraq al-hadith, 6 vols. (Baghdad, 1969–78), 5,2:216–21; Muhammad Mahdi al-Jawahiri, Dhikrayati, 2 vols. (Damascus, 1988–91), 1:97.
7. Rida, Fi sabil al-watan, esp. 49, 110–11, 115–16.
8. Salih, Najm al-baqqal, 15, 20–21; Hasan al-Asadi, Thawrat al-najaf ‘ala al-ingliz aw al-sharara al-ula li-thawrat al-‘ishrin (Baghdad, 1975), 371, 383–86;Anon., “al-Thawrat wa-thawrata al-najaf,” al-‘Irfan 10 (1925): 629, 635; Anon., “al-Thawra fi al-najaf,” al-‘Irfan 24 (1934): 541; Hasani, Thawrat al-najaf, 69, 71, 133–34; idem, al-‘Iraq fi dawray al-ihtilal wa al-intidab (Sidon, 1935), 38; Kazim al-Muzaffar, Thawrat al-‘iraq al-taharruriyya ‘am 1920, 3 pts. in 2 vols. (Najaf, 1972), 1:119; Muhammad ‘Ali Kamal al-Din, Thawrat al-‘ishrin fi al-‘iraq fi dhikriha al-khamsin (Baghdad, 1970), 35, 66–67; Jawahiri, Dhikrayati, 1:98.
9. Kamal al-Din, Thawrat al-‘ishrin, 71–74, 187, 214–18; ‘Abdallah al-Fayyad, al-Thawra al-‘iraqiyya al-kubra sanat 1920 (Baghdad, 1963), 12, 81; Wardi, Lamahat, 5,1:19, 33, 36, 39, 65, 92, 124, 129, 172–76, 197, 200, 310, and 6:253; Ra’uf al-Wa‘iz, al-Ittijahat al-wataniyya fi al-Shi‘r al-‘iraqi al-hadith, 1914–1941 (Baghdad, 1974), 86–87, 95; Ibrahim al-Wa’ili, Thawrat al-‘ishrin fi al-Shi‘r al-‘iraqi (Baghdad, 1968), 91, 93; Husayn al-Zalimi al-Rumaythi, “al-Dhikra al-rabi‘a wa al-sab‘in li al-thawra al-‘iraqiyya al-kubra,” Nida’ al-Rafidayn, 8 July 1994.
10. Musa al-Karbasi, ed., Mawsu‘at al-shaykh ‘ali al-sharqi al-nathriyya, 2 vols. (Baghdad, 1988–89), 2:44–46; ‘Ali al-Sharqi, al-Ahlam (Baghdad, 1963), 102–3; Muhammad Mahdi al-Basir, Ta’rikh al-qadiyya al-‘iraqiyya, 2d ed., 2 pts. (London, 1990), 1:35, 46–47; Muhammad Mahdi Kubba, Mudhakkirati fi samim al-ahdath, 1918–1958 (Beirut, 1965), 18–21; ‘Adnan ‘Ali, “Thawrat al-‘ishrin fi dhikriha al-sittin,” al-Thaqafa al-Jadida 123 (August 1980): 46.
11. See the correspondence of ‘Abd al-Karim al-Jaza’iri, Sahib al-Jawahir, and Hibat al-Din al-Shahrastani in ‘Abd al-Razzaq al-Hasani, al-Thawra al-‘iraqiyya al-kubra (Sidon, 1952), 208–10; Muhammad Bahr al-‘Ulum, “Dawr al-‘ulama’ al-qiyadi fi thawrat al-‘ishrin” (London, n.d.), 2, 10, 13; ‘Abd al-Sahib al-Musawi, Harakat al-Shi‘r fi al-najaf al-ashraf wa-atwaruhu khilal al-qarn al-rabi‘ ‘ashar al-hijri (Beirut, 1988), 91–92; Hasan Shubbar, Ta’rikh al-‘iraq al-siyasi al-mu‘asir, 2 vols. (Beirut, 1990), 2:219–24, 229–33; Salim al-Hasani, Dawr ‘ulama’ al-Shi‘a fi muwajahat al-isti‘mar, 1900–1920 (Beirut, 1995), esp. 236–37, 244; ‘Ali al-Tamimi, “al-‘Ulama’ qadat al-thawra wa al-masajid qawa‘id li al-intilaq,” al-Jihad 142 (25 June 1984): 7; Anon., “Qarar al-marja‘iyya bi-i‘lan al-thawra didd al-ingliz,” al-Jihad 185 (6 May 1985): 7; a special issue on the occasion of the sixty-fifth anniversary of the 1920 revolt, al-Jihad 193 (1 July 1985): 5–15; Diya’ al-Kufi, “Thawrat al-‘ishrin: bidayat al-rafd al-mumtadda,” al-Jihad 600 (28 July 1993): 6; Ayman al-Najafi, “Dawr al-marja‘iyya al-diniyya fi thawrat al-‘ishrin,” Liwa’ al-Sadr 556 (5 July 1992): 6.
12. Fayyad, al-Thawra al-‘iraqiyya, 14, 78, 235–37, 243–47; Wardi, Lamahat, 5,1:15, 104, 341–45, 5,2:200, 205, 269, and 6:310. See also Hasan al-‘Alawi, Dawlat al-isti‘ara al-qawmiyya: min faysal al-awwal ila saddam husayn (London, 1993), 64.
13. Yasiri, al-Butula, 348–52; Wardi, Lamahat, 6:89, 106–10, 114; Sharqi, al-Ahlam, 126–27, 160–61; Ibrahim al-Wa’ili and Musa al-Karbasi, eds., Diwan al-sharqi, 2d ed. (Baghdad, 1986), 119–23. See also Pierre-Jean Luizard, “Shaykh Muhammad al-Khalisi (1890–1963) and His Political Role in Iraq and Iran in the 1910s and 1920s,” in The Twelver Shia in Modern Times: Religious Culture and Political History, ed. Rainer Brunner and Werner Ende (Leiden, 2001), 228–29; Elie Kedourie, England and the Middle East: The Destruction of the Ottoman Empire, 1914–1921 (London, 1956), 208, 210, 212.
14. Sharqi, al-Ahlam, 132–37, 190; Karbasi, Mawsu‘at al-shaykh ‘ali al-sharqi, 2:47–49; ‘Arabi, “al-Shi‘a fi biladihim: ‘ibar wa-‘izza li-katib siyasi kabir min aqtab al-Shi‘a fi al-‘iraq,” al-‘Irfan 20 (1930): 563–66; Muhammad Rida al-Shabibi’s introduction in Fayyad, al-Thawra al-‘iraqiyya, 3–4; Kamal al-Din, Thawrat al-‘ishrin, 382–83, 385; Ibrahim al-Wa’ili, “Fi dhikra thawrat al-‘ishrin,” al-Rabita 3 (1975): 9, 11; idem, Thawrat al-‘ishrin, 167, 171; idem, Diwan al-wa’ili, 2 vols. (Baghdad, 1981–82), 2:345; ‘Abd al-Karim al-Dujayli, al-Jawahiri: sha‘ir al-‘arabiyya (Najaf, 1972), 273–74; Musawi, Harakat al-Shi‘r, 94–99; Muhammad Salih Bahr al-‘Ulum, Diwan bahr al-‘ulum, 2 vols. (Baghdad, 1968–69), 1:30, 33–34, 59, 73–75; Hasan al-‘Alawi, al-Shi‘a wa al-dawla al-qawmiyya fi al-‘iraq (Paris, 1989), 254–58, 264–65; idem, Dawlat al-isti‘ara al-qawmiyya, 39; Sa‘id al-Samarra’i, Saddam wa-Shi‘at al-‘iraq (London, 1991), 21–22. See also the poetry of Muhammad Mahdi al-Basir, Muhammad Baqir al-Shabibi, and Muhammad Salih Bahr al-‘Ulum in al-Shi‘r al-‘iraqi al-hadith wa-athar al-tayarat al-siyasiyya wa al-ijtima‘iyya, ed. Yusuf ‘Izz al-Din (Cairo, 1965), 160–61, 198–200, 204.
15. ‘Abd al-Hamid al-Radi, Thawrat al-‘iraq al-kubra: riwaya ta’rikhiyya sha‘biyya (Baghdad, 1938), esp. 23, 77–78, 93–94, 143–45; ‘Ali al-Bazirgan, al-Waqa’i‘ al-haqiqiyya fi al-thawra al-‘iraqiyya, 2d ed. (Baghdad, 1991), 19, 41.
16. Salim Taha, “Sahafat thawrat al-‘ishrin,” al-Mawrid 5 (1976): 7; Kamal Muzhir Ahmad, Safahat min ta’rikh al-‘iraq al-mu‘asir: dirasat tahliliyya (Baghdad, 1987), esp. 48, 53, 55, 65, 140.
17. See the introductions of ‘Imad ‘Abd al-Salam Ra’uf and Hasan ‘Ali al-Bazirgan in Bazirgan, al-Waqa’i‘ al-haqiqiyya, 10, 12, 16.
18. Cited in Judith Yaphe, “The Challenge of Nation Building in Iraq,” in U.S. Policy in Post-Saddam Iraq: Lessons from the British Experience, ed. Michael Eisenstadt and Eric Mathewson (Washington, D.C., 2003), 50.
19. Sati‘ al-Husri, Abhath mukhtara fi al-qawmiyya al-‘arabiyya, 1923–1963 (Cairo, 1964), 140; Mahmud al-Mallah, al-Ara’ al-sariha li-bina’ qawmiyya sahiha (Baghdad, n.d.), 61–65, 84–85; idem, al-Mujiz ‘ala al-wajiz wa-mabahith ukhra (Baghdad, 1956), 119; Malik Mufti, Sovereign Creations: Pan-Arabism and Political Order in Syria and Iraq (Ithaca, 1996), 21–22, 29–42; A. Shikara, “Faysal’s Ambitions of Leadership in the Fertile Crescent: Aspirations and Constraints,” in The Integration of Modern Iraq, ed. Abbas Kelidar (London, 1979), 32–45; Elie Kedourie, “The Iraqi Shi‘is and Their Fate,” in Shi‘ism, Resistance, and Revolution, ed. Martin Kramer (Boulder, Colo., 1987), 153–54; Michael Eppel, “The Elite, the Effendiyya, and the Growth of Nationalism and Pan-Arabism in Hashemite Iraq, 1921–1958,” IJMES 30 (1998): 228, 232–35; Bassam Tibi, Arab Nationalism: Between Islam and the Nation State, 3d ed. (New York, 1997), esp. 116–22, 164–70; Adeed Dawisha, Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century: From Triumph to Despair (Princeton, 2003), 47–74.
20. Hani al-Fukayki, Awkar al-hazima: tajrrubati fi hizb al-ba‘th al-‘iraqi (London, 1993), 65–68, 79, 83–84, 96–106. See also Farhad Ibrahim, al-Ta’ifiyya wa al-siyasa fi al-‘alam al-‘arabi: namudhaj al-Shi‘a fi al-‘iraq (Cairo, 1996), 336–38.
21. Majid Ahmad al-Samarra’i, al-Tayar al-qawmi fi al-Shi‘r al-‘iraqi al-hadith mundhu al-harb al-‘alamiyya al-thaniyya 1939 hatta naksat huziran 1967 (Baghdad, 1983), esp. 5, 44; Tarad al-Kubaysi, al-Tajruba al-khaliqa: qira’a jadida fi fikr al-ra’is saddam husayn (Baghdad, 1984), 158–63, 166–67; Hasan Muhammad Tawaliba, Muqtatafat min ahadith saddam husayn (Beirut, 1979), 31–33; Fadil al-Barrak, Hukumat al-difa‘ al-watani: al-badhra al-qawmiyya li al-thawra al-‘arabiyya (Baghdad, 1980), esp. 37–40; Sa‘dun Hamadi, Mulahazat hawla qadiyyat al-harb ma‘a iran (Baghdad, 1982), esp. 162–73; Ofra Bengio, Saddam’s Word: Political Discourse in Iraq (Oxford, 1998), 45–48, 90–91, 168– 70; Amatzia Baram, Culture, History, and Ideology in the Formation of Ba‘thist Iraq, 1968–1989 (New York, 1991), 121–22.
22. Many of Sharqi’s articles were reproduced in Karbasi, Mawsu‘at al-shaykh ‘ali al-sharqi, esp. 1:55–58, 203–8, 2:52–54, 56, 61–68, 96–108, 163–66, 189– 94. See also ‘Ali al-Sharqi, “Lawhat al-qawmiyya al-‘arabiyya fi al-‘iraq,” al-‘Irfan 26 (1936): 773; idem, al-Ahlam, 194–95; Dujayli, al-Jawahiri, 404–6; Sami Zubaida, “The Fragments Imagine the Nation: The Case of Iraq,” IJMES 34 (2002): 213.
23. ‘Alawi, Dawlat al-isti‘ara al-qawmiyya, 6, 8, 13, 15–19, 21–25, 27, 41, 42–44, 56–57, 63, 83–95; idem, al-Shi‘a wa al-dawla al-qawmiyya, 254–58, 264– 67, 299–302; Salim Matar, al-Dhat al-jariha: ishkalat al-huwiyya fi al-‘iraq wa al-‘alam al-‘arabi al-sharqani (Beirut, 1997), 88, 126–31, 181–82, 185; Sa‘id al-Samarra’i, al-Ta’ifiyya fi al-‘iraq: al-waqi‘ wa al-hall (London, 1993), 108, 111– 14; idem, Saddam, 22.
24. Sharqi, al-Ahlam, 143, 149–52; Mudhakkirat al-Shaykh Muhammad Rida al-Shabibi, 28 October 1965, reproduced in Anon., “Rijal min al-‘iraq: al-shaykh muhammad rida al-shabibi,” al-Tayar al-Jadid 21 (26 November 1984): 21. See also Hamid al-Bayati, Shi‘at al-‘iraq: bayn al-ta’ifiyya wa al-shubuhat fi al-watha’iq al-sirriyya al-baritaniyya, 1963–1966 (London, 1997), 245–50; Ibrahim, al-Ta’ifiyya, 235–39; Sir Roger Allen to Mr. Stewart, Baghdad, 10 March 1965, FO 371/80807/1015/13.
25. Nakash, The Shi‘is of Iraq, 82, 101–2; ‘Abd al-Amir Hadi al-‘Akkam, al-Haraka al-wataniyya fi al-‘iraq, 1921–1933 (Baghdad, 1975), 127–28; Majid Khadduri, Republican Iraq: A Study of Iraqi Politics since the Revolution of 1958 (London, 1969), 226; Ibrahim, al-Ta’ifiyya, 297, 359; Ali Babakhan, L’Irak, 1970–1990: De´portations des chiites (Paris, n.d.), 46–47, 50, 54, 56, 61–63, 71– 74, 102–6; ‘Abd al-Husayn Sha‘ban, ‘Asifa ‘ala bilad al-shams: dirasat fi qadaya al-harb wa al-fikr al-siyasi al-‘iraqi (Beirut, 1994), 223–26, 230–33; Ahmad ‘Abd al-Hamid, “Mashakil al-jinsiyya fi al-‘iraq,” al-Tayar al-Jadid 13 (1 October 1984): 21–22; Abu Haydar, “al-Jinsiyya al-‘iraqiyya wa-‘amaliyyat al-tahjir,” al-Tayar al-Jadid 22 (3 December 1984): 1, 11.
26. Jawahiri, Dhikrayati, 1:141, 146; Karbasi, Mawsu‘at al-shaykh ‘ali al-sharqi, 2:64; ‘Arabi, “al-Shi‘a fi biladihim,” 564; Fukayki, Awkar al-hazima, 61; Hasan al-‘Alawi, al-Ta’thirat al-turkiyya fi al-mashru‘ al-qawmi al-‘arabi fi al-‘iraq (London, 1988), 10, 71–75, 91–95, 102–5; idem, al-Shi‘a wa al-dawla al-qawmiyya, 52; idem, Dawlat al-isti‘ara al-qawmiyya, 34; Anon., “al-Jinsiyya al-‘iraqiyya wa-‘amaliyyat al-tahjir,” al-Tayar al-Jadid 19 (12 November 1984): 12; ‘Abd al-Karim al-Uzri, Mushkilat al-hukm fi al-‘iraq (London, 1991), 253–54, 281–94; Samarra’i, Saddam, 27; idem, al-Ta’ifiyya, 56–57, 301–4, 309; Bayati, Shi‘at al-‘iraq, 35; ‘Adnan ‘Alian, “al-Shi‘a wa-nash’at al-dawla al-‘iraqiyya al-haditha wa al-badil al-matlub,” and Sa‘id Muhsin, “Hawla al-tamyiz al-ta’ifi fi al-‘iraq,” al-Mawsim 18 (1994): 36, 39, 81, 84; Hasan Isma‘il, Minhajiyyat al-ada’ al-islami wa al-muwajaha ma‘a al-nizam al-damawi fi al-‘iraq (n.p., 1984), 133–38. See also Lutfi Ja‘far Faraj, ‘Abd al-muhsin al-sa‘dun wa-dawruhu fi ta’ rikh al-‘iraq al-siyasi al-mu‘asir (Baghdad, 1978), 346–47; Neil MacFarquhar, “Iraqis in Iran: Unwanted in Both Countries,” NYT, 12 June 2003.
27. The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed., s.v. “al-Shu‘ubiyya”; H. Norris, “Shu‘ubiyyah in Arabic Literature,” in The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature, ‘Abbasid Belles-Letters (Cambridge, 1990), 31–38; Ignaz Goldziher, Muslim Studies, ed. S. M. Stern, 2 vols. (Chicago, 1966), esp. 1:137, 144, 146–48, 161; Sami Hanna and George Gardner, “Al-Shu‘ubiyyah Updated: A Study of the Twentieth Century Revival of an Eighth Century Concept,” MEJ 20 (1966): 336; Werner Ende, Arabische Nation und Islamische Geschichte (Beirut, 1977), 236, 292; Ibrahim, al-Ta’ifiyya, 271, 276.
28. Nakash, The Shi‘is of Iraq, 82, 91.
29. Sati‘ al-Husri, Mudhakkirati fi al-‘iraq, 1921–1941, 2 vols. (Beirut, 1967– 68), 1:588–90; Jawahiri, Dhikrayati, esp. 1:147–50, 160, 163–64, 171–72; Hasan al-‘Alawi, al-Jawahiri: diwan al-‘asr (Damascus, 1986), 37, 39–40, 43. See also Samir al-Khalil, Republic of Fear: The Inside Story of Saddam’s Iraq, 2d ed. (Berkeley, 1998), 153–55.
30. ‘Abd al-Sahib al-Dujayli, al-Shu‘ubiyya wa-adwaruha al-ta’rikhiyya fi al-‘alam al-‘arabi, 2d ed. (Najaf, 1960), 3–4, 22, 24–31; Michel ‘Aflaq, Fi sabil al-ba‘th (Beirut, 1959), 29–30, 71–72; Zaki al-Arsuzi, al-Mu’allafat al-kamila, 6 vols. (Damascus, 1972–76), 3:49–69; Sa‘dun Hamadi, Nahnu wa al-shuyu‘iyya fi al-azma al-hadira (Beirut, n.d.), 18–19; ‘Abd al-‘Aziz al-Duri, Dirasat fi al-qawmiyya (Beirut, 1960), esp. 14–15; idem, al-judhur al-ta’rikhiyya li al-qawmiyya al-‘arabiyya (Beirut, 1960), 37–38; idem, al-Judhur al-ta’rikhiyya li al-shu‘ubiyya (Beirut, 1962), 120–25; ‘Abd al-Hadi al-Fukayki, al-Shu‘ubiyya wa al-qawmiyya al-‘arabiyya (Beirut, 1962), esp. 30–32, 41, 43–44, 97–100; Khayrallah Tulfah, al-Shu‘ubiyya: ‘adu al-‘arab al-awwal (Baghdad, 1973), esp. 3–6, 169–72, 179– 82, 188; Samir ‘Abd al-Karim, Adwa’ ‘ala al-haraka al-shuyu‘iyya fi al-‘iraq, 5 vols. (Beirut, 1979), 3:83–85; Khalil, Republic of Fear, 216–20, 226, 264; Bengio, Saddam’s Word, 104; Silvia Naef, “Shi‘i-Shuyu‘i or How to Become a Communist in a Holy City,” in Brunner and Ende, The Twelver Shia, 255; Ibrahim, al-Ta’ifiyya, 273.
31. Muhammad Baqir Shirri, al-‘Iraq al-tha’ir (Beirut, n.d.), 72, 107.
32. Hasan al-‘Alawi, ‘Abd al-karim qasim: ru’ya ba‘d al-‘ishrin (London, 1983), 5–6, 69–71, 90–91, 102–5, 157, 164–65; idem, Dawlat al-isti‘ara al-qawmiyya, 28, 36, 81–82; Fukayki, Awkar al-hazima, 106, 116, 118, 219; Uzri, Mushkilat al-hukm, 269–71; Samarra’i, al-Ta’ifiyya, 47; Jawahiri, Dhikrayati, 2:176, 179; Ahmad al-Zaydi, al-Bina’ al-ma‘nawi li al-quwwat al-musallaha al-‘iraqiyya (Beirut, 1990), 76–80; ‘Adnan Fadil, “‘Abd al-karim qasim wa al-ta’ ifiyya,” al-Mu’tamar 162 (2 August 1996): 15. See also Ibrahim, al-Ta’ifiyya, 236, 239, 257; ‘Aflaq, Fi sabil al-ba‘th, 246–51; Hamadi, Nahnu wa al-shuyu‘iyya, 47, 49; Ahmad Fawzi, Qissat ‘abd al-karim qasim kamilatan (Cairo, 1963), 109–113; Subhi ‘Abd al-Hamid, Asrar thawrat 14 tamuz 1958 fi al-‘iraq, 2d ed. (Beirut, 1994), 134, 136, 160–61; Uriel Dann, Iraq under Qassem: A Political History, 1958–1963 (New York, 1969), 67; Eric Davis, Memories of State: Politics, History, and Collective Identity in Modern Iraq (Berkeley, 2005), 118–19; Lutfi al-Sayyid in al-Musawwar, 5 May 1950, as cited by Husri, Abhath mukhtara fi al-qawmiyya al-‘arabiyya, 218.
33. Bengio, Saddam’s Word, 100–102; Nakash, The Shi‘is of Iraq, 113.
34. ‘Abdallah Salum al-Samarra’i, al-Shu‘ubiyya: haraka mudadda li al-islam wa al-umma al-‘arabiyya (Baghdad, 1984), esp. 5, 11, 48–53, 126, 137, 145–52, 155–56; Mustafa ‘Abd al-Qadir al-Najjar et al., Ta’rikh al-khalij al-‘arabi al-ha-dith wa al-mu‘asir (Basra, 1984), 6; Subhi Muhammad Jamil et al., al-Shu‘ubiyya wa-dawruha al-takhribi fi al-fikr al-‘arabi al-islami (Baghdad, 1988), 122–32; Ibrahim Khalil Ahmad, “Judhur al-sira‘ al-‘arabi al-farisi wa al-‘alaqat al-‘iraqiyya al-iraniyya,” and Tawfiq Sultan al-Yuzbiki, “al-Khumayniyya al-‘unsuriyya al-farisiyya wa-silatuha bi al-majusiyya,” al-Jami‘a 2 (1980): 8–12 and 108–111; Muhammad Jalub Farhan, “al-Shu‘ubiyya: barnamaj tathqif mudadd wa-mashru‘ tamarrud,” 2 pts., al-Jami‘a 8 (1981): 8–13, 28–35. See also Adeed Dawisha, “Arabism and Islam in Iraq’s War with Iran,” MEI 2 (1984): 32; Bengio, Saddam’s Word, 139–44; Ibrahim, al-Ta’ifiyya, 274.
35. Eric Davis and Nicolas Gavrielides, “Statecraft, Historical Memory, and Popular Culture in Iraq and Kuwait,” in Statecraft in the Middle East: Historical Memory and Popular Culture, ed. Davis and Gavrielides, (Miami, Fla., 1991), 135–37; Samarra’i, al-Shu‘ubiyya, 166, 181–82.
36. Anon., “Madha hasala fi awakhir ‘am 1990 wa-hadhihi al-ashhur min ‘am 1991 wa-limadha hasala alladhi hasala?” reproduced by the Center for Iraqi Studies as Maqalat jaridat al-thawra al-‘iraqiyya bi-sha’n al-harb wa-intifadat a’dhar 1991 fi al-‘iraq (London, 1993), esp. 7–24. See also Khalid ‘Abd al-Rahman, “Hadha ma fa‘alahu al-‘umala’ ashab al-fitna fi babil,” Alif Ba’ 1174 (27 March 1991): 26–27; Hasan Hamid ‘Ubayyid al-Gharbawi, al-Shu‘ubiyya wa-dawruha al-takhribi fi majal al-‘aqida al-islamiyya (Baghdad, 1993), esp. 34–39, 218–20.
37. Ahmad al-Wa’ili, Huwiyyat al-tashayyu‘ (Beirut, 1980), esp. 53, 63–64, 84–85, 226–42; Tawfiq al-Fukayki, Difa‘ ‘an shu‘ara’ (Beirut, 1975), esp. 8–12; ‘Alawi, al-Ta’thirat al-turkiyya, 142–56; idem, Dawlat al-isti‘ara al-qawmiyya, 20; Uzri, Mushkilat al-hukm, 255–61; Anon., “al-Shu‘ubiyya al-mu‘asira,” al-Tayar al-Jadid 64 (9 March 1987): 1, 6, 7; Samarra’i, Saddam, 28, 43–47; Bayati, Shi‘at al-‘iraq, 215–17; Zaydi, al-Bina’ al-ma‘nawi, 83–84, 87–93, 157– 63, 212–13.
38. ‘Alawi, al-Shi‘a, 235–48, 276, 288–89; Fukayki, Awkar al-hazima, 22–27; Samarra’i, al-Ta’ifiyya, 35, 36, 43–48, 81, 98, 123–28, 141, 150–51, 162–63, 186–87, 264–66; idem, Saddam, 10–11, 90; Matar, al-Dhat al-jariha, 58, 394– 99; Bayati, Shi‘at al-‘iraq, 14–19, 25–26, 29, 259; Muhammad Salih Bahr al-‘Ulum, Diwan, 1:59, 93–94; Mudhakkirat al-Shaykh Muhammad Rida al-Sha-bibi, 21–22; Uzri, Mushkilat al-hukm, 273–80; Muhammad Baqir al-Nasiri, “‘Alayna takhlis al-sha‘b al-‘iraqi min al-ta’ifiyya al-siyasiyya,” al-Jihad 569 (9 November 1992): 5; Isma‘il, Minhajiyyat al-ada’ al-islami, 126; Musawi, Harakat al-Shi‘r, 71–73; Kanan Makiya, Cruelty and Silence: War, Tyranny, Uprising, and the Arab World (New York, 1993), 223, 225; Sami al-‘Askari, “Shi‘at al-‘iraq bayn al-mawqif al-watani wa al-tarh al-ta’ifi,” al-Hayat, 19 December 2002. See also Davis, Memories of State, 261–62.
39. Nakash, The Shi‘is of Iraq, 128–32.
40. D. K. Haskell to C. M. St. E. Burton, Baghdad, 14 May 1965, FO 371/ 80807/1015/22; S. L. Egerton to C. T. Brant, Baghdad, 26 November 1965, FO 371/180809/1015/98.
41. Salim al-Hasani, al-Ma‘alim al-jadida li al-marja‘iyya al-Shi‘iyya (Beirut, 1993), 87–90, 159–75; Anon., “Wasiyyat al-imam al-sadr,” and Jalal al-Hadi, “Umma fi rajul,” al-Rafidayn 9 (7 April 1984): 1, 9–10; Zayn al-‘Abidayn al-Bakri, “Shurut al-thawra ‘ind al-sayyid al-shahid al-sadr,” Liwa’ al-Sadr 544 (12 April 1992): 4–5; Ghalib Hasan, “Shi‘at al-‘iraq ila ayn?” al-Raya al-‘Alawiyya 1 (February 1997): 4–5; Talib Aziz, “The Political Theory of Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr,” in Ayatollahs, Sufis, and Ideologues: State, Religion, and Social Movements in Iraq, ed. Faleh Abdul-Jabar (London, 2002), 238–39.
42. ‘Adil Ra’uf, Muhammad muhammad sadiq al-sadr, marja‘iyyat al-maydan: mashru‘uhu al-taghyiri wa-waqa’i‘ al-ightiyal (Damascus, 1999), esp. 15, 27–32, 55–57, 69, 78, 86–97, 113–57, 171–86, 198–200, 208–18, 228, 233, 247; Mukhtar al-Asadi, al-Sadr al-thani: al-shahid wa al-shahid (n.p., 1999), esp. 12–13, 17–19, 62, 79, 102, 125, 133–35; Faleh Jabar, The Shi‘ite Movement in Iraq (London, 2003), 183–84; Juan Cole, “The United States and Shi‘ite Religious Factions in Post-Ba‘thist Iraq,” MEJ 57 (2003): 550–54; Pierre-Jean Luizard, La question irakienne, 2d ed. (Paris, 2004), 187, 400–401.
43. Fukayki, Awkar al-hazima, 274–75; ‘Alawi, Dawlat al-isti‘ara al-qawmiyya, 73; Ibrahim, al-Ta’ifiyya, 257; Dann, Iraq under Qassem, 246–47; Khad-duri, Republican Iraq, 226; British Embassy, Baghdad, 29 January 1966 and 20 December 1969, FO 371/186743/EQ1015/3 and FCO 17/871.
44. Amir Iskandar, Saddam husayn: munadilan wa-mufakkiran wa-insanan (Paris, 1980), 17–18, 21; Yunis Ibrahim al-Samarra’i, al-Qaba’il al-‘iraqiyya, 2d ed., 2 vols. (Baghdad, 1989), 2:655–58; Anon., “Bayn al-qa’id saddam husayn wa al-najaf al-ashraf,” al-Turath al-Sha‘bi 3 (1990): 4–5; Anon., “Madha hasala fi awakhir ‘am 1990 wa-hadhihi al-ashhur min ‘am 1991,” 12.
45. Talal Salim al-Hudaythi, “Min suwwar al-muqawama wa al-tahaddi fi al-amthal al-sha‘biyya,” al-Turath al-Sha‘bi, nos. 11 and 12 (1980): 21–30; Muhammad Husayn al-Zubaydi, “al-Batal al-sha‘bi fi al-ta’rikh,” and Shakir al-Barmaki, “al-Ahazij wa al-aghani al-sha‘biyya al-‘iraqiyya fi al-harb,” al-Turath al-Sha‘bi, nos. 7 and 8 (1984): 17–44; Salih Mahdi al-‘Azzawi, “Qira’at fi adab al-harb ‘ind al-‘arab,” al-Turath al-Sha‘bi, no. 2 (1985): 17–22; Suhayl Qasha, “al-Harb fi al‘ab al-sibyan al-‘iraqiyyin,” al-Turath al-Sha‘bi, no. 4 (1985): 17–31; Khalid ibn Muhammad al-Qasimi, “al-Dawr al-qawmi li al-aghniya al-‘iraqiyya fi muwajahat al-atma‘ al-farisiyya,” al-Turath al-Sha‘bi, no. 3 (1988): 5–8. See also Ibrahim, al-Ta’ifiyya, 411–12.
46. See the many articles in a special issue entitled “Millaf al-basra,” al-Mawrid 14 (1985): esp. 4, 7, 10–11, 17–18, 51–53, 65–66; Mundhir ‘Abd al-Karim al-Bakir, “Dawlat maysan al-‘arabiyya,” Muhammad Baqir al-Husayni, “Nuqud mamlakat maysan al-‘arabiyya wa-dawruha al-ta’rikhi wa al-hadari wa al-i‘lami,” and Faruq ‘Umar Fawzi, “Dawr ahl maysan fi al-difa‘ ‘an ‘urubat al-‘iraq,” al-Mawrid 15 (1986): 19, 21, 35–42; Jabbar ‘Abdallah al-Juwaybrawi, Ta’rikh maysan wa-‘asha’ir al-‘amara: dirasa ijtima‘iyya, iqtisadiyya, siyasiyya (Baghdad, 1990), esp. 1–20, 69–73, 99–111, 165–71, 190–97, 282–91.
47. Amir Tahiri, “Saddam husayn yuhawil ihya’ nizam al-‘asha’ir ba‘da inhiyar nizam al-saytara al-hizbiyya,” al-Sharq al-Awsat, 15 May 1996, reproduced by the Center for Iraqi Studies (London, 1996), 23–24; Nakash, The Shi‘is of Iraq, 88–89, 93–94, 278; Amatzia Baram, “Neo-Tribalism in Iraq: Saddam Hussein’s Tribal Policies, 1991–1996,” IJMES 29 (1997): 7, 12–13, 19–20; Faleh Jabar, “Shaykhs and Ideologues: Detribalization and Retribalization in Iraq, 1968– 1998,” MERIP 215 (2000): 31, 48; Keiko Sakai, “Tribalization as a Tool of State Control in Iraq: Observations on the Army, the Cabinets, and the National Assembly,” in Tribes and Power: Nationalism and Ethnicity in the Middle East, ed. Faleh Abdul-Jabar and Hosham Dawod (London, 2003), 137–38, 149, 152, 156–59; Asadi, al-Sadr al-thani, 139–44; Ra‘d Kamil, “Saddam assasa jaysh muhammad qabla suqutihi,” al-Sharq al-Awsat, 17 November 2004.
Chapter 4
The Revival of Shi‘ism in Lebanon
1. “al-Su’al wa al-jawab,” al-‘Irfan 17 (1929): 624.
2. Kamal Salibi, A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered (Berkeley, 1988), 25–26, 32–33, 35, 183; Elizabeth Picard, Lebanon, a Shattered Country: Myths and Realities of the Wars in Lebanon, trans. Franklin Philip (New York, 1996), 66–67; Meir Zamir, The Formation of Modern Lebanon (London, 1985), 126–32; idem, Lebanon’s Quest: The Road to Statehood, 1926– 1939, 2d ed. (New York, 2000), esp. 108–12, 206; Najla ‘Atiyya, Lubnan: al-mushkila wa al-ma’sa (Beirut, 1977), 30–38; Muhammad Jamil Bayhum, Lubnan bayna mashriq wa-maghrib, 1920–1969 (Beirut, 1969), 34; Muhammad ‘Ali Dannawi, al-Muslimun fi lubnan: muwatinun la ra‘aya (Beirut, 1973), 46–47.
3. Salibi, A House of Many Mansions, 27, 31–33, 37, 41, 53, 180; Fouad Ajami, The Arab Predicament: Arab Political Thought and Practice since 1967, 2d ed. (Cambridge, 1992), 192; Samir Khalaf, Lebanon’s Predicament (New York, 1987), 274; Michael Hudson, The Precarious Republic: Political Modernization in Lebanon (New York, 1968), 190–97; Malcolm Kerr, “Political Decision Making in a Confessional Democracy,” in Politics in Lebanon, ed. Leonard Binder (New York, 1966), 209; Clovis Maksoud, “Lebanon and Arab Nationalism,” in Binder, Politics in Lebanon, 239; John Entelis, Pluralism and Party Transformation in Lebanon: Al-Kata’ib, 1936–1970 (Leiden, 1974), 29–32; Nazih Ayubi, Over-Stating the Arab State: Politics and Society in the Middle East (London, 1995), 115–16; ‘Atiyya, Lubnan, 60.
4. Hani Fahs, al-Shi‘a wa al-dawla fi lubnan: malamih fi al-ru’ya wa al-dhakira (Beirut, 1996), 67–68; Fouad Ajami, The Vanished Imam: Musa al-Sadr and the Shia of Lebanon (Ithaca, 1986), 205.
5. Muhammad Jabir Al Safa’, Ta’rikh jabal ‘amil, 2d ed. (Beirut, n.d.), 213– 15, 223–24; Sulayman Zahir, Jabal ‘amil fi al-harb al-kawniyya (Beirut, 1986), 72–73; Ahmad Rida, “Li al-ta’rikh: min mudhakkirat al-ustadh al-shaykh ahmad rida,” al-‘Irfan 33 (1946–47): 257, 989; ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Mun‘im Shu‘ayb, Matalib jabal ‘amil: al-wahda, al-musawa fi lubnan al-kabir, 1900–1936 (Beirut, 1986), 66–77, 80–85; idem, “Ittijahat qadat al-ra’y fi jabal ‘amil, 1914–1936,” al-Muntalaq 104 (1993): 89–96; Mustafa Muhammad Bazzi, Jabal ‘amil fi muhitihi al-‘arabi, 1864–1948 (Beirut, 1993), 89–91, 161–83, 200–236, 244; Waddah Sharara, al-Umma al-qaliqa: al-‘amiliyyun wa al-‘asabiyya al-‘amiliyya ‘ala ‘ata-bat al-dawla al-lubnaniyya (Beirut, 1996), 249–51, 267–71, 277, 298, 305–9; Fahs, al-Shi‘a, 31, 87; Muhammad Murad, “Jabal ‘amil wa-ishkaliyyat al-khiyarat fi marhalat ta’sis lubnan al-kabir, 1918–1926,” al-Muntalaq 106 (1994): 158; Anon., “al-Shi‘a wa al-waza’if” and “huquq al-Shi‘a al-mahduma,” al-‘Irfan 6 (1921): 293–94, 405; Zamir, Modern Lebanon, 68, 82, 84–86, 135–36; idem, Lebanon’s Quest, 111.
6. Murad, “Jabal ‘amil,” 163–64; Shu‘ayb, Matalib jabal ‘amil, 94–98; idem, “Ittijahat qadat al-ra’y,” 96; Bazzi, Jabal ‘amil, 253–62; Zamir, Modern Lebanon, 175, 182–83, 188–90, 210–11; idem, Lebanon’s Quest, 111; Majed Halawi, A Lebanon Defied: Musa al-Sadr and the Shi‘a Community (Boulder, Colo., 1992), 40–41.
7. Nawal Fayyad, Safahat min ta’rikh jabal ‘amil fi al-‘ahdayn al-‘uthmani wa al-faransi (Beirut, 1998), 89; Shu‘ayb, Matalib jabal ‘amil, esp. 113–20, 151–63; idem, “Ittijahat qadat al-ra’y,” 97–104; Bazzi, Jabal ‘amil, 262, 346–57; Zamir, Lebanon’s Quest, 59, 156–57, 196–97, 205–8.
8. Iskandar al-Riyashi, Qabla wa-ba‘d: 1918 ila 1941 (Beirut, n.d.), 215. See also Hani Faris, al-Niza‘at al-ta’ifiyya fi ta’rikh lubnan al-hadith (Beirut, 1980), 121; Fahs, al-Shi‘a, 65, 69–72, 87–95; Theodor Hanf, Coexistence in WartimeLebanon: Decline of a State and Rise of a Nation, trans. John Richardson (London, 1993), 406.
9. Muhsin al-Amin, Khitat jabal ‘amil (Beirut, 1961), 47–52; Muhammad Kazim Makki, Muntalaq al-hayah al-thaqafiyya fi jabal ‘amil (Beirut, 1991), 46; Muhammad Kurd ‘Ali, Khitat al-sha’m, 6 pts. in 3 vols. (Damascus, 1925–28), 3,6:253; Shu‘ayb, Matalib jabal ‘amil, 43, 89–90; Salam al-Ra’si, Li-’ala tadi‘, 2 vols. (Beirut, n.d.), 1:60–63; Mas‘ud Zahir, Ta’rikh lubnan al-ijtima‘i, 1914–1926 (Beirut, 1974), 85–87; al-Majlis al-Thaqafi li-Lubnan al-Janubi, Safahat min ta’ rikh jabal ‘amil (Beirut, 1979), 84, 94–95; Muhammad Taqi al-Faqih, Jabal ‘amil fi al-ta’rikh (Beirut, 1986), 15–16; Muhammad Zu‘aytar, al-Maruniyya fi lubnan: qadiman wa-hadithan (Beirut, 1994), 84.
10. Muhammad Jawad Mughniyya, al-Wad‘ al-hadir fi jabal ‘amil fi matla‘ al-istiqlal: bidayat al-qahr wa al-hirman, 2d ed. (Beirut, 1984), 29–35, 81–87; idem, “al-‘Ulama’ wa al-zu‘ama’ fi jabal ‘amil,” al-‘Irfan 32 (1946): 364; Nabil Khalifa, al-Shi‘a fi lubnan: thawrat al-dimugrafiyya wa al-hirman (Beirut, 1984), 54; Augustus Richard Norton, Amal and the Shi‘a: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon (Austin, 1987), 16–18; Halawi, Lebanon Defied, 42, 74–75; Ajami, The Vanished Imam, 60–61; Farid el-Khazen, The Breakdown of the State in Lebanon, 1967– 1976 (London, 2000), 42; Hanf, Coexistence, 79, 93–94, 110, 554.
11. Mughniyya, al-Wad‘ al-hadir, 41–63, 67–71, 75; Waddah Sharara, Dawlat hizballah: lubnan mujtama‘an islamiyan (Beirut, 1996), 24–46, 58–59; al-Majlis al-Thaqafi li-Lubnan al-Janubi, Wujuh thaqafiyya min al-janub, 2 vols. (Beirut, 1981–1984), 1:7–24; Bazzi, Jabal ‘amil, 279–85; Fahs, al-Shi‘a, 52–53; ‘Ali al-Sha’mi, “‘Ulama’ jabal ‘amil wa-mushkilat al-intima’ al-siyasi,” Amal 406 (1985): 61; Ajami, The Vanished Imam, 72–73, 112; Halawi, Lebanon Defied, 90, 103–6.
12. Mughniyya, al-Wad‘ al-hadir, 13–25, 67–71, 75; idem, “‘Ulama’ al-din: ma lahum wa-ma ‘alayhum,” al-‘Irfan 31 (1945): 326, 483–84; idem, “al-‘Ulama’ wa al-zu‘ama’,” 362–65; idem, Tajarub muhammad jawad mughniyya (Beirut, 1980), 452–57. See also Muhammad Kurani, al-Judhur al-ta’rikhiyya li al-muqawama al-islamiyya fi jabal ‘amil (Beirut, 1993), 266–68; Murad, “Jabal ‘amil,” 164.
13. Yusuf Qazma Khuri, al-Ta’ifiyya fi lubnan: min khilal munaqashat majlis al-nuwwab (Beirut, 1989), esp. 20–24, 26, 29–30, 42–44, 50–56, 88, 186–96, 280, 289–92, 296–99, 346. See also al-‘Irfan 49 (1962): 698–702, 1011–14; 50 (1962–63): 114–21, 333–35; and 51 (1963–64): 117–22, 776.
14. Fahs, al-Shi‘a, 77–84.
15. Bishara Khalil al-Khuri, Haqa’iq lubnaniyya, 2 vols. (Harisa, 1960), 2:7– 9, 17, 289–99; George Dib, “Selections from Riyad Solh’s Speech in the Lebanese Assembly (October 1943) Embodying the Main Principles of the Lebanese National Pact,” MEF 34 (January 1959): 6–7. See also Basim al-Jisr, Mithaq 1943: li-madha kana wa-hal saqata? (Beirut, 1978), 14, 133, 142–59; Riyad al-Samad, al-Ta’ifiyya wa-lu‘bat al-hukm fi lubnan (Beirut, 1977), 94; Entelis, Pluralism, 25–26; Salibi, A House of Many Mansions, 179, 185–86.
16. Hasan al-‘Alawi, al-Shi‘a wa al-dawla al-qawmiyya fi al-‘iraq (Paris, 1989), 235, 237–38; Sa‘id al-Samarra’i, al-Ta’ifiyya fi al-‘iraq: al-waqi‘ wa al-hall (London, 1993), 141; Farhad Ibrahim, al-Ta’ifiyya wa al-siyasa fi al-‘alam al-‘arabi: namudhaj al-Shi‘a fi al-‘iraq (Cairo, 1996), 355; Sami Ofeish, “Lebanon’s Second Republic: Secular Talk, Sectarian Application,” ASQ 21 (1999): 100.
17. Anis Sayigh, Lubnan al-ta’ifi (Beirut, 1955), 17, 19, 22–23, 145–47, 157– 58, 162; Mishal Gharib, al-Ta’ifiyya wa al-iqta‘iyya fi lubnan (Beirut, 1964), esp. 48–52; Nasif Nassar, Nahwa mujtama‘ jadid: muqaddamat asasiyya fi naqd al-mujtama‘ al-ta’ifi (Beirut, 1970), 64, 103–29; Iliya Hariq, Man yahkum lubnan (Beirut, 1972), esp. 61–62; Samad, al-Ta’ifiyya, 97–99, 101, 107; Dannawi, al-Muslimun, 55–57; Fu’ad Shahin, al-Ta’ifiyya fi lubnan: hadiruha wa-judhuruha al-ta’rikhiyya wa al-ijtima‘iyya (Beirut, 1980), 5–6, 18–19, 169–75; Mahdi ‘Amil, Fi al-dawla al-ta’ifiyya (Beirut, 1986), esp. 186–90; Burhan Ghalyun, Nizam al-ta’ifiyya: min al-dawla ila al-qabila (Beirut, 1990), 5–7, 25–26, 42–43, 109, 202; Sami Makarim, “al-Ta’ifiyya wa al-musawa: al-waqi‘ wa al-mustaqbal,” al-Ghadir, nos. 23–24 (1993): 106–9. See also Hisham Sharabi, “The Problems of the Lebanese Intellectual Today,” in Binder, Politics in Lebanon, 258; Ralph Crow, “Religious Sectarianism in the Lebanese Political System,” JP 24 (1962): 489– 520; Ussama Makdisi, The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon (Berkeley, 2000), esp. 6–7, 164–65.
18. Kamal Yusuf al-Hajj, al-Ta’ifiyya al-bana’a aw falsafat al-mithaq al-watani (Beirut, 1961), esp. 14, 140–43, 150, 155, 157–63, 194–96, 241, 251–55.
19. Henri Lammens, La Syrie: Pre´cis historiques, 2 pts. (Beirut, 1921), esp. 2:8–22; Asad Rustum and Fu’ad Afram al-Bustani, Ta’rikh lubnan al-mujaz litalabat al-shahada al-ibtida’iyya (Beirut, 1937), esp. 57–64; Antwan Najm, al-Wahda al-lubnaniyya (Beirut, 1960), 16–22, 104–6, 115–17; Jawad Bulus, Lubnan wa al-buldan al-mujawira, 2d ed. (Beirut, 1969), 414; Philip Hitti, Lebanon in History (New York, 1957), 246–47, 257; Salibi, A House of Many Mansions, 36, 130–36, 186, 198; Khazen, Breakdown of the State, 131; Anon., Fi al-qadiyya al-lubnaniyya: maqalat jaridat al-‘amal, 1974–1976 (Beirut, 1979), 29.
20. Ajami, The Vanished Imam, 61–62, 72–73, 112, 114–15, 157; Faris, al-Niza‘at al-ta’ifiyya, 128–29; Salibi, A House of Many Mansions, 47–48, 50–53; idem, Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon, 1958–1976 (New York, 1976), 143; Hudson, The Precarious Republic, 199; Riyashi, Qabla wa-ba‘d, 211.
21. Graham Fuller and Rend Rahim Francke, The Arab Shi‘a: The Forgotten Muslims (New York, 1999), 203.
22. Meir Zamir, “Emile Edde´ and the Territorial Integrity of Lebanon,” MES 14 (1978): 232–35. See also Zu‘aytar, al-Maruniyya fi lubnan, esp. 479–85.
23. Eliahu Sasson, Baderekh El ha-Shalom: Igrot ve-Sihot (Tel-Aviv, 1978), 224–25. See also Moshe Sharett, Yoman Medini, 4 vols. (Tel-Aviv, 1968–74), 2:141; Eliahu Elath, Shivat Tzion ve-‘Arav (Tel-Aviv, 1974), 294–96, 308; Zamir, Lebanon’s Quest, 221; Itamar Rabinovich, The War for Lebanon, 1970–1985 (Ithaca, 1985), 21–22; Avner Yaniv, Dilemmas of Security: Politics, Strategy, and the Israeli Experience in Lebanon (Oxford, 1987), esp. 29–30; Badr al-Hajj, al-Judhur al-ta’rikhiyya li al-mashru‘ al-sahyuni fi lubnan (Beirut, 1982), 102–4; Zu‘aytar, al-Maruniyya fi lubnan, 486.
24. Ajami, The Vanished Imam, 91, 112, 116, 160.
25. Leila Fawaz, Merchants and Migrants in Nineteenth-Century Beirut (Cambridge, 1983), 50, 155; Halawi, Lebanon Defied, 52, 59–60, 68–70, 74–75; Norton, Amal and the Shi‘a, 23, 27, 91; Hala Jaber, Hezbollah: Born with a Vengeance (New York, 1997), 1.
26. “Aham al-akhbar wa al-’ara’,” al-‘Irfan 54 (1966): 407; Musa al-Sadr, “al-Watan haqq wa-wajib wa la yumkin fasluhuma abadan,” 2 pts., Amal 493 and 494 (3 and 10 July 1987): 1:41–43 and 2:47–49; idem, “Mafhum al-watan wa al-muwatin wa al-muwatiniyya,” Amal 584 (31 March 1989): 4–5; Najib Jamal al-Din, al-Shi‘a ‘ala al-muftaraq aw musa al-sadr (n.p., n.d.), 71; ‘Adil Rida, Ma‘a al-i‘tidhar li al-imam al-sadr (Cairo, 1981), 93–94. See also ‘Ali al-Sha’mi, “Lubnan al-kabir wa-ma’ziq al-ijtima‘ al-‘amili,” al-Muntalaq 104 (1993): 73; “Mu-dhakkirat al-majlis al-islami al-Shi‘i al-a‘la al-sadira ‘am 1977,” reproduced in Fahs, al-Shi‘a, 20, 185–87; Ajami, The Vanished Imam, 27, 62, 127.
27. “Aham al-akhbar wa al-’ara’,” 406, 408–9; Muhammad Husayn Shams al-Din, “al-Majlis al-islami al-Shi‘i al-a‘la,” al-‘Irfan 47 (1960): 767–68; “Nida’ min al-‘allama muhammad jawad shirri ila ‘ulama’ al-muslimin fi lubnan hawla qadiyyat insha’ al-majlis al-milli,” al-Nahar, 17 December 1966; “Bayan al-ta’ifa al-islamiyya al-Shi‘iyya fi lubnan,” Amal 614 (27 October 1989): 42–43; Hasan S., “Hakadha wulida al-majlis al-Shi‘i,” al-Shira‘ 97 (23 January 1984): 12–13; Rida, Ma‘a al-i‘tidhar, 94–97; Faris, al-Niza‘at al-ta’ifiyya, 129–30; Jamal al-Din, al-Shi‘a ‘ala al-muftaraq, 113–22; Fahs, al-Shi‘a, 22; Ajami, The Vanished Imam, 113–19; Halawi, Lebanon Defied, 139–42, 157.
28. Mustafa Sadr al-Din, “Yaqzat jabal ‘amil,” Amal 209 (26 March 1982): 6–7; Fahs, al-Shi‘a, 26; Hasan S., “al-Shi‘a hum sabab al-harb fi lubnan,” al-Shira‘ 94 (2 January 1984): 16; idem, “al-Infijar alladhi walada amal,” al-Shira‘ 98 (30 January 1984): 18–19; Ajami, The Vanished Imam, 123–57; Norton, Amal and the Shi‘a, 35, 40–41, 46–48; Halawi, Lebanon Defied, 129, 131–32, 150–51, 165, 183–84; Andreas Rieck, Die Schiiten und der Kampf um den Libanon: Politische Chronik, 1958–1988 (Hamburg, 1989), 94–98.
29. Hudson, The Precarious Republic, 194; Shahin, al-Ta’ifiyya fi lubnan, 117–23, 153–63, 186–87; Fouad Ajami, “The End of Pan-Arabism,” in Pan-Arabism and Arab Nationalism: The Continuing Debate, ed. Tawfic Farah (Boulder, Colo., 1987), 102–3; idem, The Arab Predicament, 193–94; Najm, al-Wahda al-lubnaniyya, esp. 9, 111; Entelis, Pluralism, 36–37, 77–79; Tewfik Khalaf, “The Phalange and the Maronite Community: From Lebanonism to Maronitism,” in Essays on the Crisis in Lebanon, ed. Roger Owen (London, 1976), 44–45, 51, 55; Salibi, Crossroads to Civil War, 3–4, 7, 21–22, 126–27, 144; idem, The Modern History of Lebanon (London, 1965), 198–202; idem, A House of Many Mansions, 170–75; Anon., Fi al-qadiyya al-lubnaniyya, 210, 215, 219, 224–25, 427, 436, 468; ‘Ali Muhammad Lagha, al-Ittijahat al-siyasiyya fi lubnan, 1920–1982 (Beirut, 1991), 389–401, 421–36; Khazen, Breakdown of the State, esp. 108, 379–81; Asher Kaufman, Reviving Phoenicia: The Search for Identity in Lebanon (London, 2004), 141–83.
30. Ajami, The Vanished Imam, 161–63, 173, 178–79, 205, 213, 218; idem, “Lebanon and Its Inheritors,” FA 63 (1985): 779, 784–87; Augustus Richard Norton, “Shi‘ism and Social Protest in Lebanon,” in Shi‘ism and Social Protest, ed. Juan Cole and Nikki Keddie (New Haven, 1986), 168–70; Khazen, Breakdown of the State, 367.
31. Ajami, The Vanished Imam, 169–70; Norton, Amal and the Shi‘a, 88–106; Magnus Ranstorp, Hizballah in Lebanon: The Politics of the Western Hostage Crisis (New York, 1997), 25–34; Jaber, Hezbollah, 67; Martin Kramer, “Muhammad Husayn Fadlallah,” Orient 26 (1985): 148; Hasan Fadlallah, al-Khiyar al-akhar: hizballah, al-sira al-dhatiyya wa al-mawqif (Beirut, 1994), 88; Sharif al-Husayni, “Hizballah: haraka ‘askariyya am siyasiyya am diniyya?” al-Shira‘ 209 (17 March 1986): 14–21; Muhammad al-Safwani, “Ihtiwa’ hizb al-da‘wa bi-hizballah,” al-Shira‘ 625 (25 April 1994): 38–39; Khalifa, al-Shi‘a fi lubnan, 21–25; ‘Akif Haydar, al-Ashya’ bi-asma’iha: min jabal lubnan afdal (Beirut, 1995), 70; Shimon Shapira, Hizballah: Bein Iran ve-Levanon (Tel-Aviv, 2000), 96–114.
32. Sharara, Dawlat hizballah, 56, 60–61, 71, 85, 88–89, 97, 103, 116, 153, 178–80, 189, 195–24; Fahs, al-Shi‘a, 132–34; ‘Ali Kurani, Tariqat hizballah fi al-‘amal al-islami (Beirut, 1986), 77–78; Hasan Fadlallah, al-Khiyar al-akhar, 85; Shapira, Hizballah, 116–44. For the citation, see Jaber, Hezbollah, 168.
33. Anon., “al-Khawarij yutliqun qadhifa ‘ala al-nas wa-tasrihan didd al-majlis,” Amal 540 (28 May 1988): 16–17; Anon., “al-khawarij yujhidun furas al-hall al-amni isti‘dadan li-mughamara jadida” and “Rafa‘u Shi‘ar al-muqawama al-islamiyya li al-tastir ‘ala jara’imihim,” Amal 574 (20 January 1989): 28– 29, 44. See also Jad al-Amin and Sina’ ‘Aytani, “Hal yasqut qarar ahl al-janub?” al-Shira‘ 406 (1 January 1990): 14–17.
34. Anon., “Hizballah yatruh afkaran li-tanzim al-‘alaqa ma‘a amal: al-matlub hafz al-muqawama wa-tafwit al-furas ‘ala al-muta’amirin,” al-‘Ahd 208 (17 June 1988): 1 and 11; Anon., “al-Majlis al-Shi‘i: waqi‘ murr wa-dawr mawhum,” al-‘Ahd 210 (1 July 1988): 5.
35. Sharara, Dawlat hizballah, 337, 339; Anon., “Berri yasta‘id qarar al-janub,” al-Shira‘ 285 (7 September 1987): 10; Muhammad Baqir Shirri, “‘Uqdat al-awhadiyya fi za‘amat al-janub,” al-Shira‘ 288 (28 September 1987): 19–22; Zayn Hamud, “Hasan nasrallah: sayyi’ al-tali‘,” al-Shira‘ 603 (22 November 1993): 17–22. See also Ranstorp, Hizballah, 34–39; Hanf, Coexistence, 317–18; Martin Kramer, Arab Awakening and Islamic Revival: The Politics of Ideas in the Middle East (New Brunswick, 1996), 242; Shapira, Hizballah, 170.
36. Picard, Lebanon, 145, 156–59; Hanf, Coexistence, esp. 583–90, 610, 617– 18, 622; Augustus Richard Norton, “Lebanon after Ta’if: Is the Civil War Over?” MEJ 45 (1991): 460–64; Ofeish, “Lebanon’s Second Republic,” 104–13; Neil MacFarquhar, “President of Syria Defends His Nation’s Role in Lebanon,” NYT, 10 October 2004. For the text of the Ta’if accord, see Ahmad Sirhal, Azmat al-hukm fi lubnan: ‘awamil wa-hulul (Beirut, 1990), 149–60.
37. News interview with Muhammad Mahdi Shams al-Din, al-Bilad 18 (8 October 1990): 13–14; Nasir Sharara, “Rabi‘ intikhabat al-majlis al-islami al-Shi‘i: al-ma‘raka fi muntasaf al-tariq,” al-Shira‘ 563 (1 February 1993): 24; Zayn Hamud, “Amal-hizballah: sira‘ ‘ala haffat al-huwiyya,” al-Shira‘ 710 (18 December 1995): 19; idem, “al-Imam shams al-din: law ‘ada stalin,” al-Shira‘ 731 (27 May 1996): 15–20; Hasan Sabra, “Harb salat al-jum‘a: safqa bayna fadlallah wa-nasrallah,” al-Shira‘ 731 (27 May 1996): 3–7; Anon., “Lubnan: qissat khilafat al-Shi‘a,” al-Majalla 852 (15 June 1996): 36.
38. Anon., “Li-hadha qarara hizballah dukhul al-intikhabat al-niyabiyya,” al-Bilad 87 (4 July 1992): 16; Muhammad Husayn Fadlallah, “Hizb al-umma aw ummat al-hizb,” al-Muntalaq 29 (1985): 4–12; news interviews with Fadlallah, “li-Nanfatih ma‘an ‘ala al-masih wa-muhammad,” al-Bilad 64 (11 January 1992): 46–50, and “Da‘watuna li al-hiwar ba‘ida ‘an ayy istihlak mahhali,” 2 pts., al-Bilad 103 and 104 (24 and 31 October 1992): 1:48–53, 2:46–49; Ahmad Khalid, “Hizballah: budhur inshiqaq yantazir al-daw’ al-akhdar al-irani,” al-Shira‘ 562 (25 January 1993): 22–23; Zayn Hamud, “Nasrallah: ‘uqdat musa-darat al-intisar,” al-Shira‘ 729 (13 May 1996): 14–16; Hasan Sabra, “Hizballah yaltazim al-labnana rasmiyyan al-’an,” al-Shira‘ 889 (5 July 1999): 3; Hasan Fadlallah, al-Khiyar al-akhar, 96, 104–17; Fahs, al-Shi‘a, 126–30, 137, 149–56; Ahmad Nizar Hamzeh, “Lebanon’s Hizbullah: From Islamic Revolution to Parliamentary Accommodation,” TWQ 14 (1993): 321, 324, 334; Fuller and Rahim Francke, The Arab Shi‘a, 218–19; Ranstorp, Hizballah, 51–52, 119–33; Jaber, Hezbollah, 66, 71–74, 210–11; Kramer, Arab Awakening, 227; Shapira, Hizballah, 184–92, 203–4.
39. News interview with Hasan Nasrallah, “Itma’inu: sa-abqa aminan ‘amman,” al-Shira‘ 826 (30 March 1998): 17; Amal Saad-Ghorayeb, Hizbu’llah: Politics and Religion (London, 2002), 32–33, 46, 53–54, 117; Sami Hajjar, “Hizballah: Terrorism, National Liberation, or Menace?” Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College (Washington, D.C., August 2002), 16, http://au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/ssi/hizbala.pdf; Judith Palmer Harik, Hezbollah: The Changing Face of Terrorism (London, 2004), 50, 77, 96, 100–101, 149; Anon., “Hizballah: al-hiwar ma‘a ‘awn mustamir wa-nu’ayyid baqa’ lahud,” al-Anwar, 16 June 2005; Anon., “Washinton sara‘at ila al-tarhib lakinnaha tarfid al-ta‘amul ma‘a wazir hizballah,” al-Nahar, 20 July 2005.
40. Haydar, al-Ashya’ bi-asma’iha, 71–72; Amin Sha‘lan, “al-Janub ila ayn? hizballah yataqadam wa-harakat amal ma zalat tahlum,” al-Shira‘ 622 (4 April 1994): 19–22; Amir Qansuh, “Siyasat al-sulta tajhil abna’ al-biqa‘,” al-‘Ahd 644 (25 June 1996): 8; Anon., “Berri-Nasrallah: i’tilaf am ikhtilaf?” al-Shira‘ 742 (12 August 1996): 13–15; Zayn Hamud, “Berri: isti‘adat al-mubadara,” al-Shira‘ 730 (20 May 1996): 17–22; Husayn ‘Abdallah, “Hizballah-harakat amal: ta‘awun ‘ala thalath mahawir,” al-Bilad 327 (15 March 1997): 12; Hasan Sabra, “Amal-hizballah: sira‘ ma ba‘d 425,” al-Shira‘ 832 (18 May 1998): 3–5; Wisam al-Amin,“Amal tabhath ‘an nasiha wa-hizballah yughliq al-abwab,” al-Shira‘ 942 (24 July 2000): 25–27; Nasir Sharara, “Hizbuna hizballah wa-amal tanzimuna,” al-Shira‘ 984 (28 May 2001): 20–22; Anon., “Hizballah yud‘if amal wa la yaktasihha,” al-Hayat, 25 May 2004; Augustus Richard Norton, “Hizballah of Lebanon: Extremist Ideals vs. Mundane Politics,” Council on Foreign Relations (New York, 1999), 9, 20, http://cfr.org/pdf/Norton.pdf; Graham Usher, “Why Hizbullah’s Wings Have Been Clipped,” MEINT 535 (4 October 1996): 18–19; Farid el-Kha-zen, “Political Parties in Postwar Lebanon: Parties in Search of Partisans,” MEJ 57 (2003): 615, 617, 619; Palmer Harik, Hezbollah, 51, 95, 107–9, 151; Ahmad Nizar Hamzeh, In the Path of Hizbullah (New York, 2004), 116–35.
Chapter 5
Between Aspirations and Reality
1. From Jedda to Foreign Office, 1 July 1964, FO 371/174672/1017/2; Possible Change of Regime in Saudi Arabia, 1963, FO 371/174671/1015/8/G; Hamza al-Hasan, “al-Shi‘a wa-masar al-‘amal al-watani fi al-mamlaka,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 8 (September 1991): 19; idem, “al-Mu‘arada fi al-su‘udiyya: al-ta’rjuh bayn al-hawa al-iqlimi wa al-wataniyya al-jami‘a,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 18 (July 1992): 44–47; idem, al-Shi‘a fi al-mamlaka al-‘arabiyya al-su‘udiyya, 2 vols. (Beirut, 1993), 2:379–83; Tawfiq al-Shaykh, “‘Ala hamish ijtima‘ al-qimma li-duwwal majlis al-ta‘awun fi al-kuwayt: da‘wa li-tahwil al-majlis ila itar li al-wahda,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 11 (December 1991): 2–5; Rabitat ‘Umum al-Shi‘a fi al-Su‘udi-yya, al-Shi‘a fi al-su‘udiyya: al-waqi‘ al-sa‘b wa al-tatallu‘at al-mashru‘a (London, 1991), 77–90.
2. Anon., “Mahzalat al-‘alam: al-aktaf al-‘ariyya tahmi al-shawarib,” “al-Mu-thaqqafun wa al-shakhsiyyat al-wataniyya yutalibun al-usra al-malika bi al-tagh-yir,” “al-ta‘addudiyya: waqi‘ ma‘ash tantazir al-i‘tiraf al-rasmi,” “al-‘A’ila al-ma-lika wa al-‘amaliyya al-dusturiyya,” and “al-Adyan tajtami‘ fi jazirat al-‘arab,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 1 (January 1991): 1–3, 20, 26–27, 49; Anon., “al-Infitah al-fikri bayn al-madhahib al-islamiyya,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 2 (February 1991): 35–37; Anon., “Risala ila al-malik tutalib bi al-islah al-siyasi” and “Watha’iq muta‘addida tasubb fi majra al-taghyir,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 3 (March 1991): 24–25, 31; Anon., “I‘adat al-tasalluh wa-durus al-azma,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 6 (July 1991): 5–6; Anon., “al-Amn al-watani bayn mafhumayn: al-sha‘bi al-da‘i li al-tatwir wa al-rasmi al-qa’im ‘ala ta‘ziz al-rad‘ al-khariji li-mushkilat al-da-khil,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 9 (October 1991): 8; Hasan al-Saffar, “al-Wahda al-wataniyya: man yaduqq naqus al-khatar?” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 12 (January 1992): 3–7; Hasan ‘Abd al-Hadi, “Mafhum al-wahda wa-ishkaliyyat al-intima’ al-khass,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 28 (May 1993): 34–35; Anon., “al-quwwat al-su‘udiyya al-musallaha wa al-taghyir,” al-Jazira al-‘Arabiyya 31 (August 1993): 32–34.
3. Anon., “Da‘wa ila al-hiwar wa al-musalaha al-wataniyya,” al-Jazira al-‘Ar-abiyya 31 (August 1993): 2–4; Anon., “Hal yasbah al-Shi‘a muwatinun am fatrat naqaha yastaghilluha al-nizam didd al-tayar al-salafi?” Risalat al-Haramayn 45 (November 1993): 2; Anon., “Fatawa al-takfir tulahiq al-Shi‘a wa al-‘a’idun fi mu‘taqal kabir,” Risalat al-Haramayn 49 (August 1994): 29; Riyad Najib al-Ray-yis, “Safqat al-‘asr al-siyasiyya: al-qissa al-kamila li al-ittifaq al-su‘udi al-Shi‘i,” al-Nahar, 7 March 1994; Madawi al-Rasheed, “The Shi‘a of Saudi Arabia: A Minority in Search of Cultural Authenticity,” BJMES 25 (1998): 136; Mamoun Fandy, Saudi Arabia and the Politics of Dissent (New York, 1999), 200–201; Graham Fuller and Rend Rahim Francke, The Arab Shi‘a: The Forgotten Muslims (New York, 1999), 189–91.
4. David Johnston, “14 Indicted by U.S. in 96 Saudi Blast; Iran Link Is Cited,” NYT, 22 June 2001; Anon., “Saudi Militants Are Sentenced in 96 Bombing,” NYT, 2 June 2002; Anon., “Al Qaeda Is Now Suspected in 1996 Bombing Barracks,” NYT, 14 May 2003. See also Reuven Paz, “From Riyadh 1995 to Sinai 2004: The Return of al-Qaeda to the Arab World,” PRISM 3 (October 2004): 4.
5. Hamza al-Hasan, “Nahwa mashru‘ watani jadid,” Qadaya al-Khalij, December 2002,http://gulfissues.net; Nora Boustany, “Shiite Muslims in Saudi Arabia Emboldened by Hussein’s Fall,” WP, 23 April 2003; Abdulali, “Shia in Saudi Arabia Demand Basic Rights,” 12 May 2003, http://jafariyanews.com; Michael Doran, “The Saudi Paradox,” FA 83 (January/February 2004): 46–49.
6. Hasan bin Farhan al-Maliki, “Manahij al-ta‘lim: qira’a naqdiyya li-muqara-rat al-tawhid li-marahil al-ta‘lim al-‘am” (n.p., n.d.), esp. 5–8; Neil MacFarquhar, “Under Pressure to Change, Saudis Debate Their Future,” NYT, 23 November 2003; idem, “Saudis Uneasily Balance Desires for Change and Stability,” NYT, 4 May 2004; idem, “Saudi Shiites, Long Kept Down, Look to Iraq and Assert Rights,” NYT, 2 March 2005; David Ottaway, “U.S.-Saudi Relations Show Signs of Stress,” WP, 21 April 2004; International Crisis Group, “Can Saudi Arabia Reform Itself?” (Cairo and Brussels, 14 July 2004); idem, “Saudi Arabia Backgrounder: Who Are the Islamists?” (Amman, Riyadh, and Brussels, 21 September 2004),http://crisisgroup.org.
7. Muhammad ‘Abd al-Qadir al-Jasim and Sawsan ‘Ali al-Sha‘ir, al-Bahrayn: qissat al-sira‘ al-siyasi, 1904–1956 (n.p., 2000), 175–200, 229–48, 269–71, 277– 91, 306–7, 311–14, 333, 341–42, 353; Muhammad Ghanim al-Rumayhi, al-Bahrayn: mushkilat al-taghyir al-siyasi wa al-ijtima‘i (Beirut, 1995), 345–53, 367– 72, 379–83, 386–89, 392–95; Sa‘id al-Shihabi, al-Bahrayn, 1920–1971: qira’a fi al-watha’iq al-baritaniyya (London, 1996), 97–119, 194, 199–200, 206–8, 230– 39; ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Bakir, Min al-bahrayn ila al-manfa (Beirut, 1965), 15–29, 75–141, 171–74; Charles Belgrave, Personal Column (London, 1960), 202–5, 210–13, 216, 218–23, 226–33; From Belgrave to Loch, 28 January 1935, IO R/ 15/2/176; From Political Resident, Bahrain, to Political Resident, Bushire, 18 February 1935, and From Political Resident in the Persian Gulf to the Foreign Secretary to the Government of India, 18 March 1935, FO 371/18920; From Belgrave to Weightman, 13 November 1938, IO R/15/2/176; British Residency, Bahrain, 26 December 1954, FO 371/114586/EA1016/1; Annual Administration Report on Bahrain, 1954, FO 371/114576/EA1011/5; Political Agency, Bahrain, 20 November 1955, FO 371/114587/EA1016/43; Update on the Situation, Bahrain, 17 March 1956, FO 371/120544/EA1016/30; British Residency, Bahrain, 31 July 1956, FO 371/120548/EA1016/135; Resume of the Proceedings against Five Members of the Committee of National Union, 22–23 December 1956, FO 371/ 126894/EA1016/17.
8. Emile Nakhleh, Bahrain: Political Development in a Modernizing Society (Lexington, Mass., 1976), 117, 124–25, 129, 135, 149, 154–61; Fuad Khuri, Tribe and State in Bahrain (Chicago, 1980), 214. For the text of the constitution, see Ghasan Qasim al-Mulla, Riyah al-taghyir fi al-bahrayn (n.p., n.d.), 330–56.
9. Khuri, Tribe and State, 191–93, 219–23, 225–30; Munira Fakhro, “The Uprising in Bahrain: An Assessment,” in The Persian Gulf at the Millennium: Essays in Politics, Economy, Security, and Religion, ed. Gary Sick and Lawrence Potter (New York, 1997), 173–74.
10. ‘Abdallah al-Madani, “Madha yahduth fi al-bahrayn?” al-Mawaqif 96 (1 September 1975): 3. See also idem, “Tawahhadat kalimat nuwwab al-sha‘b,” al-Mawaqif 84 (9 June 1975): 3, 6; idem, “Ma hall al-azma al-mutafajjira bayn al-hukuma wa al-majlis al-watani?” and ‘Abd al-Amir al-Jamri, “Qanun amn al-dawla la yakhda‘ li-dawabit islamiyya,” al-Mawaqif 85 (16 June 1975): 3–4, 5; ‘Isa Ahmad Qasim, “al-Itaha bi-bina’ al-dimuqratiyya,” al-Mawaqif 87 (30 June 1975): 5; Anon., “li-Madha istaqallat al-wizara?” al-Mawaqif 95 (25 August 1975): 5; Khuri, Tribe and State, 230–34.
11. Nakhleh, Bahrain, 135, 144, 149; Khuri, Tribe and State, 11, 234, 242, 246; Fakhro, “The Uprising in Bahrain,” 174–75; Anon., “Qadaya al-musharaka al-siyasiyya fi al-khalij wa al-jazira al-‘arabiyya,” al-Thawra al-Islamiyya 115 (December 1989): 39–40; al-Jabha al-Sha‘biyya fi al-Bahrayn, Fi al-wahda al-wataniyya al-bahrayniyya (Beirut, 1979), 69–71, 104–5, 110–11; ‘Abd al-Hadi Khalaf, Bina’ al-dawla fi al-bahrayn: al-muhimma ghayr al-munjaza (Beirut, 2000), 67–68.
12. Bahrain Freedom Movement, 15 December 2000, and reports for the months of January and February 2001, http://vob.org; Khalaf, Bina’ al-dawla fi al-bahrayn, 107–8; Ahmad Munaysi, al-Bahrayn min al-imara ila al-mamlaka: dirasa fi al-tatawwur al-siyasi wa al-dimuqrati (Cairo, 2003), 132, 134, 136, 183.
13. Kingdom of Bahrain, “Constitution of the Kingdom of Bahrain,” 14 February 2002, http://bahrain.gov.bh/pdfs/constitution.pdf.
14. Sa‘id al-Shihabi, “al-Bahrayn: ‘awdat al-tawattur bayn al-hukuma wa al-mu‘arada,” 11 December 2002, and Mansur al-Jamri, “Khiyarat al-dimuqratiyya fi al-bahrayn,” Qadaya al-Khalij, n.d., http://gulfissues.net; Abdulhadi Khalaf, “A Year of Political Reform Brings Few Real Changes to Bahrain” and “Local Polls in Bahrain: A Royal Triumph,” DS, 11 February and 19 May 2002; Bahrain Freedom Movement, 21 September 2001; 13, 21, and 25 February, 2 March, 19 May, 22 and 29 June, 7, 10, 12, 18, and 21 July, 8 August, 3 and 4 September, 8, 15, 18, 19, 22, 24, 25, and 30 October, 8, 19, and 13 November, 3 and 18 December 2002; 5 March, 21 April, 3 June, 22 August, and 19 December 2003, 19 April and 28 May 2004; Voice of Bahrain Commentary, December 2001; Abduljalil Alsingace, “Bahrain: A Gateway to Reforms in the Persian Gulf,” December 2004, http://vob.org; Munaysi, al-Bahrayn, 137–45, 172, 176, 229–30.
15. On Jordan and Morocco, see Glenn Robinson, “Defensive Democratization in Jordan,” IJMES 30 (1998): 387–410; Kathrine Rath, “The Process of Democratization in Jordan,” MES 30 (1994): 540–43, 548–49; Abdeslam Magh-raoui, “Political Authority in Crisis: Mohammed VI’s Morocco,” MERIP 218 (Spring 2001): 12–17.
16. Anon., al-Haraka al-dusturiyya: nidal sha‘b al-bahrayn min ajl al-dimuq-ratiyya (Manama, 1997), 104; Bahrain Freedom Movement, 21 September 2001; 16 and 19 June, 7 and 10 July, 8 and 13 November, and 3 December 2002; 5 March, 21 April, 30 June, 24 July, 22 August, 5 September, and 29 October 2003, 13 February and 21 May 2004; Voice of Bahrain Commentary, December 2001; Anon., “Nahwa ‘amal sha‘bi mutawasil li-tahqiq al-mufasala bayn al-diktatu-riyya al-khalifiyya,” 24 March 2005; http://vob.org; Neil MacFarquhar, “Death in Bahrain Brings Demand That U.S. Leave,” NYT, 8 April 2002; Mahdi Rabi‘, “Malik al-bahrayn yuhaddir min itharat al-fitna wa al-mass bi al-wahda wa-rumuz al-hukm,” al-Hayat, 26 September 2004; idem, “al-Hukuma al-bahray-niyya tu’akkid ‘azmiha ittikhadh ijra’at ‘iqabiyya didd masirat al-wifaq,” al-Hayat, 28 March 2005.
17. “Kalima: al-jumhuriyya al-thaniyya jumhuriyyat al-muqawama,” Amal 555 (9 September 1988): 9. See also al-Majlis al-Thaqafi li-Lubnan al-Janubi, al-Muqawama al-wataniyya al-lubnaniyya: tariq al-tahrir wa al-wahda (Beirut, 1984), 45, 50–56; Harakat Amal, 6 Shubat 1984: al-maghza al-siyasi wa al-ab‘ad al-mustaqbaliyya (n.p., n.d.), 64; Anon., “Nadwa fikriyya fi al-nabatiyya hawla huwiyyat al-muqawama,” Amal 582 (17 March 1989): 42–46; Zayn Hamud, “Amal tath’ar li-hizballah,” al-Shira‘ 797 (8 September 1997): 23–24.
18. Anon., “Khususiyyat al-muqawama al-islamiyya wa a’faquhah al-mustaq-baliyya,” 2 pts., al-Ahd 121 (19 October 1986): 2:8; news interview with Muhammad Hasan al-Amin, “al-Haymana al-thaqafiyya tastatbi‘ haymana siyasiyya wa-iqtisadiyya,” al-Bilad 50 (28 September 1991): 48; Na‘im Qasim, “al-‘Alaqa bayn al-qawmiyya wa al-islam,” al-Bilad 244 (12 August 1995): 46–47; news interview with Hasan Nasrallah, “Itma’inu: sa-abqa aminan ‘amman,” al-Shira‘ 826 (30 March 1998): 22–23; Husayn ‘Abdallah, “al-Dars al-lubnani,” al-Bilad 476 (26 February 2000): 1; Hasan Sabra, “Ba‘da tahrir al-janub: mata yataghayyar hizballah?” al-Shira‘ 1034 (27 May 2002): 6–7; Hasan Fadlallah, al-Khiyar al-akhar: hizballah, al-sira al-dhatiyya wa al-mawqif (Beirut, 1994), 14, 55, 64–65; Amal Saad-Ghorayeb, Hizbu’llah: Politics and Religion (London, 2002), 78, 117, 187; International Crisis Group, “Old Games, New Rules: Conflict on the Israeli-Lebanon Border” (Amman and Brussels, 18 November 2002), 17–19; idem, “Hizbol-lah: Rebel without a Cause?” (Amman and Brussels, 30 July 2003), 7–10, 16– 18,http://crisisgroup.org; Judith Palmer Harik, Hezbollah: The Changing Face of Terrorism (London, 2004), x, 122–23, 161–62, 186–87, 191; Ahmad Nizar Hamzeh, In the Path of Hizbullah (New York, 2004), 135–41; Adam Shatz, “In Search of Hezbollah,” 2 pts., NYRB, 29 April and 13 May 2004; Anon., “Militant Urges Restraint as Lebanese Chafe under Syria’s Grip,” NYT, 20 February 2005; Riyad ‘Ilm al-Din, “Ma’ziq hizballah: bayn al-sistani wa-khamina’i,” al-Watan al-‘Arabi, 1461 (4 March 2005): 20–23; Anon., “Hizballah yubdi infitahihi ‘ala bahth silah al-muqawama lubnaniyyan wa-yatlub min al-mu‘taridin ‘alayhi taq-dim bada’il li-himayat al-watan,” al-Sharq al-Awsat, 23 March 2005; Anon., “Nasrallah: al-muqawama laysat mihna wa-musta‘idun li-hiwar hawla silahiha,” al-Anwar, 15 April 2005.
19. News interviews with Muhammad Husayn Fadlallah, “al-Zuruf al-mawdu‘iyya la tasmah bi-tahwil lubnan ila jumhuriyya islamiyya,” al-Shira‘ 122 (16 July 1984): 13, 15–16; “al-‘Allama Muhammad Husayn Fadlallah: al-jumhuriyya al-islamiyya fi iran laysat hukumat kull al-muslimin,” al-Shira‘ 219 (26 May 1986): 19. See also Fadlallah’s rulings in al-Mawsim 21–22 (1995): 659–60, 662– 63; Salim al-Hasani, Sira‘ al-iradat: dirasa fi al-fikr al-haraki li-samahat a’yatullah muhammad husayn fadlallah, 2d ed. (Beirut, 1990), 81, 99–100.
20. News interviews with Hasan Nasrallah, “Lubnan sha‘b wahid muta‘ddid al-adyan,” al-‘Ahd 602 (29 September 1995): 6; “Itma’inu: sa-abqa aminan ‘amman,” 15, 18; ‘Abd al-Mun‘im Mustafa Halima Abu Basir al-Tartusi, “Hizballah al-lubnani wa-tasdir al-madhhab al-Shi‘i al-rafidi,” 2 February 2004,http://abubaseer.bizland.com/articles/read/a65.doc; Augustus Richard Norton, “Hizballah of Lebanon: Extremist Ideals vs. Mundane Politics,” Council on Foreign Relations (New York, 1999), 11–12, 16, 20–21,http://cfr.org/pdf/Norton.pdf; Saad-Ghorayeb, Hizbu’llah, 36–37, 46, 49–50, 57; Shatz, “In Search of Hezbollah,” 29 April 2004.
21. Hani Fahs, al-Shi‘a wa al-dawla fi lubnan: malamih fi al-ru’ya wa al-dhakira (Beirut, 1996), 9–12, 17–18, 20, 39–40, 60, 119–20; idem, “al-Shi‘a wa al-mujtama‘ fi lubnan: al-i‘tiraf bi al-akhar,” al-Shira‘ 741 (5 August 1996): 31; idem, “Hizballah wa al-intikhabat: bayn al-siyasa wa al-tahrir,” al-Shira‘ 950 (18 September 2000): 16.
22. News interviews with Muhammad Mahdi Shams al-Din, “al-Dimuqratiyya al-‘addudiyya al-qa’ima ‘ala mabda’ al-shura,” al-Shira‘ 176 (29 July 1985): 8; “al-khutut al-‘amma li-nizam al-dimuqratiyya al-‘addudiyya ‘ala mabda’ al-shura,” al-Amal 519 (1 January 1988): 18–20; “Na‘am lubnan watan niha’i wa-dawla bi-la din: quburuna fi jizzin ‘umruha alf sana,” al-Ghadir 3 (1993): 23; “Hadha mashru‘i li-muwajahat al-tatbi‘ wa-man ladayhi badil fa li-yataqadam,” al-Bilad 157 (20 November 1993): 49; “Ad‘u li-mujtama‘ ahli mutadayyin wa li-dawla bi-la din,” al-Bilad 203 (15 October 1994): 45–46; “Lan askut ‘ala fasl al-Shi‘a min al-islam,” al-Shira‘ 683 (12 June 1995): 5–6; “Wasaya shams al-din li al-Shi‘a: al-mashari‘ al-khassa sharr mutlaq,” al-Shira‘ 1055 (21 October 2002): 14–17.
23. News interviews with Muhammad Husayn Fadlallah, “Li-nanfatih ma‘an ‘ala al-masih wa-muhammad,” al-Bilad 64 (11 January 1992): 49; “Da‘watuna li al-hiwar ba‘ida ‘an ayy istihlak mahalli,” al-Bilad 103 (24 October 1992): 50, 52–53; “al-Islam la yatanakar li al-khususiyyat al-qawmiyya,” al-Bilad 148 (18 September 1993): 48; Martin Kramer, “The Oracle of Hizbullah: Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Fadlallah,” in Spokesmen for the Despised: Fundamentalist Leaders in the Middle East, ed. R. Scott Appleby (Chicago, 1997), 125–28, 158; Saad-Ghorayeb, Hizbu’llah, 45.
24. Cited in Susan Sachs, “A Graveyard Window on Hussein’s Iraq,” NYT, 1 June 2003. See also Anthony Shadid, “In Shiite Slums, Focus Is on Survival, Not Revolt,” WP, 30 March 2003; Yaroslav Trofimov et al., “History of Betrayal Makes Iraqi Shiites Wary of Liberators,” WSJ, 1 April 2003; Peter Galbraith, “The Ghosts of 1991,” WP, 12 April 2003; Hazim Saghiya, “Qissat al-ba‘th fi al-‘iraq: mihnat al-Shi‘a bi-wasfihim taburan khamisan li al-iraniyyin,” al-Hayat, 22 April 2003; Ibrahim al-Zubaydi, “al-Suqut al-akhar li-baghdad: man saraqa timthal ‘abd al-muhsin al-sa‘dun?” al-Hayat, 16 July 2003.
25. Mu’assasat al-Imam al-Khu’i al-Khayriyya, Azmat shi‘at al-‘iraq (London, n.d.), 23, 42–44.
26. Hazim al-Amin, “Balad al-shi‘iyya tatanassal min muqawamat al-ihtilal wa al-dhulu‘iyya al-sunniyya amamaha ayam sa‘ba,” al-Hayat, 15 June 2003; idem, “al-Hakim li al-hayat: nuqawim silman wa la-nuqirr al-‘amaliyyat didd al-amirikiyyin,” al-Hayat, 18 June 2003; idem, “Jumhuriyyat muqtada al-sadr wa-jadid al-‘iraq II,” al-Hayat, 12 July 2003; ‘Isam al-‘Ariyan, “al-Ma’ziq al-amiriki yatafaqam fi al-‘iraq wa-bi’at al-muqawama tatashakkal,” al-Hayat, 20 June 2003; Anon., “Muhammad Baqir al-Hakim yu‘arid al-‘inf didd quwwat al-ihti-lal,” al-Hayat, 27 June 2003; ‘Abdallah al-Ash‘al, “al-Muqawama al-‘iraqiyya wa ab‘aduha al-qanuniyya wa al-siyasiyya,” al-Hayat, 5 July 2003; Rajiv Chandrasekaran, “Sunnis in Iraq Protest U.S. Occupation,” WP, 19 April 2003; Patrick Tyler, “In Iraq’s Disorder, the Ayatollahs May Save the Day,” NYT, 6 July 2003.
27. Neil MacFarquhar and Neela Banerjee, “Army Is Reluctant to Flaunt Photos of Hussein’s Sons,” NYT, 24 July 2003; Anthony Shadid, “A Struggle for Iraqi Clergy’s Soul,” WP, 30 June 2003; Anon., “Munazamat al-‘amal al-islami: namudhaj al-inqisam al-manatiqi li al-marja‘iyya” and “Hizb al-da‘wa al-dakhil: al-amirikiyyun azhaqu al-batil wa-‘alayhum ihqaq al-haqq,” al-Hayat, 15 July 2003.
28. Yitzhak Nakash, The Shi‘is of Iraq, 2d ed. (Princeton, 2003), esp. 108–11; Mu’assasat al-Khu’i, Azmat shi‘at al-‘iraq, 46–47; Anon., “Iraqi Shiite Leader Blasts Governing Council,” Reuters, 18 July 2003; Ian Fisher, “Anti-U.S. Iraqi Cleric Declares Own Government,” NYT, 12 October 2003; Anon., “Muqtada al-sadr yushakkil jaysh al-mahdi wa-‘ulama’ al-sunna yuhajimun majlis al-hukm,” al-Hayat, 19 July 2003; ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Amir, “Muqtada al-sadr yad‘u ila majlis sha‘bi: quwwat badr ja’at min al-kharij wa la tumaththil al-sha‘b,” al-Hayat, 27 July 2003; Anon., “Muqtada al-Sadr,” al-Hayat, 18 October 2003.
29. Larry Diamond, “What Went Wrong in Iraq,” FA 83 (September/October 2004): 34–56; Neil MacFarquhar, “Iraqi Shiites Flex Muscle Even as They Mourn” and “After Cleric’s Assassination, Fears for the Future,” NYT, 1 and 2 September 2003; Ian Fisher, “Iraqi Shiite Anger Raises New Fears for U.S. Soldiers,” NYT, 11 October 2003; idem, “For Hussein’s Ouster, Many Thanks, but Iraqis Are Expecting More,” NYT, 23 October 2003; Dexter Filkins and Eric Schmitt, “Other Attacks Averted in Iraq, a General Says,” NYT, 4 March 2004; “America Adrift in Iraq,” editorial, NYT 15 May 2004.
30. Cited in Jeffrey Gettleman, “Iraqis Start to Exercise Power Even before Date for Turnover,” NYT, 13 June 2004.
31. Noah Feldman, What We Owe Iraq: War and the Ethics of Nation Building (Princeton, 2004), 40–41; International Crisis Group, “Governing Iraq” (Washington and Brussels, 25 August 2003),http://crisisgroup.org; W. Andrew Terril, “The United States and Iraq’s Shi‘ite Clergy: Partners or Adversaries?” Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College (Washington, D.C., February 2004), 2, 33–34,http://carlisle.army.mil/ssi/pubs/2004/clergy.htm; Ibrahim Khayyat, “Hamlat shi‘iyya ‘ala al-dustur al-‘iraqi wa-muqtada al-sadr yatabarra‘ min al-khiyana,” al-Hayat, 10 March 2004; John Burns, “Shiites May Demand Lifting of Limits on Their Power,” NYT, 10 March 2004; idem, “Shiite Ayatollah Is Warning U.N. against Endorsing Charter Sponsored by U.S.,” NYT, 23 March 2004; Dexter Filkins, “Agreement by U.S. and Rebels to End Fighting in Najaf” and “Exile with Ties to CIA Is Named Premier of Iraq,” NYT, 28 and 29 May 2004; James Drummond, “Shia Party Voices Dissent over Iraqi Interim Government,” FT, 3 June 2004; Rajiv Chandrasekaran, “Mistakes Loom Large as Handover Nears,” WP, 20 June 2004; Peter Galbraith, “Iraq: The Bungled Transition,” NYRB, 23 September 2004.
32. Cited in Anthony Shadid, “Shiites Organize to Block U.S. Plan,” WP, 29 March 2004. See also Douglas Jehl, “CIA Report Suggests Iraqis Are Losing Faith in U.S. Efforts,” NYT, 13 November 2003; Hazim al-Amin, “Jumhuriyyat muqtada al-sadr wa-jadid al-‘iraq I,” al-Hayat, 18 June 2003; Jeffrey Gettleman and Douglas Jehl, “A Rebel Cleric’s Militia Keeps Up Attacks,” NYT, 7 April 2004.
33. Shadid, “A Struggle for Iraqi Clergy’s Soul”; idem, “Call of History Draws Iraqi Cleric to the Political Fore,” WP, 1 February 2004; Halim al-A‘raji, “Shaykh mashayikh bani zurayyij fi al-rumaytha: al-sistani da‘a ila muqata‘at al-ihtilal,” al-Hayat, 18 January 2004; Anon., “Ayatollah al-Sistani’s Silence Causes Divisions among Shiites,” http://asianews.it, 11 May 2004.
34. Jonathan Steele, “U.S. Bars Cleric from Iraq Elections,” Guardian, 8 June 2004; “The Road to Confrontation in Najaf,” editorial, NYT, 21 August 2004; Eric Schmitt and Thom Shanker, “Pentagon Sets Steps to Retake Iraq Rebel Sites,” NYT, 8 October 2004.
35. James Risen, “Account of Broad Shiite Revolt Contradicts White House Stand,” NYT, 8 April 2004; Neil MacFarquhar, “Arabs Worry over Extremism While Evoking Vindication,” NYT, 9 April 2004; Nazila Fathi, “Shiite Muslims Condemn U.S. for Attacks on Holy City,” NYT, 13 August 2004; Wahid Taja, “Liqa’ ma‘a samahat al-sayyid muhammad husayn fadlallah,” al-Tharwa, 8 April 2004,http://tharwaproject.com; Anon., “al-Sadr musta‘id li al-tafawud hawl al-insihab wa-‘allawi yutalibuhu bi-i‘lanihi rudukhihi shakhsiyyan,” al-Hayat, 8 August 2004; Anon., “al-Marinz yuhasirun al-sadr fi masjid al-imam ‘ali wa-mi’a qatil fi gharat ‘ala al-kut,” al-Hayat, 13 August 2004; Scott Baldauf, “Standoff Bolstered Sadr’s Support,” CSM, 30 August 2004.
36. James Bennet, “The Parallels of Wars Past,” NYT, 10 April 2004; Alex Berenson and John Burns, “Marines Pushing Deeper into City Held by Shiites,” NYT, 8 August 2004; Karl Vick, “For Iraqis Preparing to Invade Shrine, First an Internal Battle,” WP, 20 August 2004; John Burns, “Two Power Brokers Collide in Iraq,” NYT, 22 August 2004; Anne Barnard, “Shiite Support Eludes New Iraqi Government,” IHT, 6 September 2004; Anon., “Ma‘arik tahina fi al-najaf wa-waqf dakh naft al-basra wa ansar al-sadr yulawwihun bi-infisal iqlim al-janub,” al-Hayat, 10 August 2004; Roula Khalaf, “Southern Iraqi Provinces Push for Autonomy,” FT, 29 September 2004.
37. Jeffrey Gettleman, “The Re-Baathification of Falluja,” NYT (magazine), 20 June 2004; John Burns and Erik Eckholm, “In Western Iraq, Fundamentalists Hold U.S. at Bay,” NYT, 29 August 2004; Eric Schmitt and Thom Shanker, “Estimates by U.S. See More Rebels with More Funds,” NYT, 22 October 2004; Edward Wong, “Showing Their Resolve, Rebels Mount Attacks in Northern and Central Iraq,” NYT, 18 November 2004; idem, “Rebels Keep Up Attacks in Sunni-Dominated Cities of Central and North Iraq,” NYT, 21 November 2004; idem, “Iraqi Leaders Plan to Meet Insurgents in Jordan,” NYT, 26 November 2004; Kamil al-Tawil, “al-Zarqawi: hukuma islamiyya fi al-‘iraq wa al-intilaq minhu li-qalb anzimat duwwal al-jiwar,” al-Hayat, 10 September 2004.
38. Cited in Jackie Spinner and Saad Sarhan, “U.S. Battles Mahdi Army for Fifth Day,” WP, 9 August 2004. See also Abdul Razzaq al-Saeidy and Edward Wong, “Radical Cleric Is Unwanted by His Neighbors,” NYT, 24 April 2004; Edward Wong, “In Shift, Rebel Iraqi Cleric Backs New Government He Had Once Mocked,” NYT, 12 June 2004; Ian Fisher, “Iraqi Liquor Store Owners Fear Fundamentalists’ Rise,” NYT, 16 July 2004; idem, “Iraqi Insurgents Add an Egyptian Diplomat to Spate of Recent Kidnapping Victims,” NYT, 24 July 2004; idem, “Leading Muslim Clerics in Iraq Condemn Bombing of Churches,” NYT, 3 August 2004; Dexter Filkins and Alex Berenson, “Reporter Freed as Rebel Cleric Brokers a Deal,” NYT, 23 August 2004; Dexter Filkins and Eric Schmitt, “U.S. Intensifying Bombing Attacks on Falluja Sites,” NYT, 16 October 2004.
39. Robin Wright, “New Iraqi Government Facing Its First Big Test,” WP, 25 July 2004; Ian Fisher, “Early Steps, Maybe, toward a Democracy in Iraq,” NYT, 27 July 2004; Alex Berenson and Sabrina Tavernise, “Cleric Rebuffs Iraqi Mediators, Battle in Najaf Continues,” NYT, 18 August 2004.
40. Anon., “Muqtada al-Sadr (al-musab) yuhaddid 10 shurut li-waqf itlaq al-nar wa al-insihab min al-najaf,” al-Sharq al-Awsat, 14 August 2004; Anon., “al-Sadr yanju min shadhaya wa-yashtarit insihaban amirikiyan wa-idarat al-marja ‘iyya al-najaf,” al-Hayat, 14 August 2004.
41. Erik Eckholm, “Rebel Shiite Cleric’s Aides Hint He May Enter Politics,” NYT, 31 August 2004; Dexter Filkins and Erik Eckhom, “Talks to Disarm Shiites Collapse,” NYT, 1 September 2004; Dexter Filkins, “Militia Leaders Charging Betrayal by Iraqi Premier,” NYT, 3 September 2004; idem, “Battles in Baghdad Slum Leave 40 Iraqis and a G.I. Dead,” NYT, 8 September 2004; idem, “Raising the Pressure in Iraq,” NYT, 14 September 2004.
42. Cited in Nu‘man al-Haymas, “Mumaththil al-sistani yuhadir min al-ta-la‘ub fi nata’ij al-intikhabat wa al-sadr yushakkik fi sihhat ijra’iha,” al-Sharq al-Awsat, 11 January 2005. See also Istifta’ jam‘ min al-mu’minin hawl al-intikhabat, 26 Sha‘ban 1425; Istifta’ jam‘ min al-mu’minin hawla musharakat al-zawja fi al-intikhabat, 6 Dhi al-Hijja 1425, http://sistani.org; Ja‘far al-Ahmar, “al-Mar-ja‘iyya al-Shi‘iyya tad‘u al-‘iraqiyyin ila taghlib al-masalih al-‘amma,” al-Hayat, 17 November 2004; Su’dad al-Salihi, “al-Marja‘iyya fi al-najaf tanfi al-sa‘y ila iqamat dawla Shi‘iyya fi al-‘iraq,” al-Hayat, 30 December 2004; Wafiq Qansuh, “Marja‘iyyat al-najaf tu’ayyid tamthilan fa‘ilan li al-sunna fi al-hukuma,” al-Hayat, 9 January 2005; Anon., “Maktab al-marja‘ al-a‘la: al-sistani la yulzim muqallidihi ikhtiyar ayy min al-qawa’im al-intikhabiyya,” al-Ra’y al-‘Am, 16 December 2004; Rory McCarthy, “Sistani Pulls Main Shia Parties Together to Dominate Iraq Poll,” Guardian, 1 December 2004; Robin Wright and Peter Baker, “Iraq, Jordan See Threat to Election from Iran,” WP, 8 December 2004; Robert Worth, “Shiites Signal Concern over Sunni Turnout amid Violence,” NYT, 10 December 2004; John Burns and Robert Worth, “Iraqi Campaign Raises Question of Iran’s Sway,” NYT, 15 December 2004; Khaled Yacoub Oweis, “Sistani Pushes Shiites to Vote in Iraq Poll,” Reuters, 6 January 2005.
43. George Packer, “Testing Ground: In the Shiite South, Islamists and Secularists Struggle over Iraq’s Future,” New Yorker (28 February 2005): 43. See also Anthony Shadid, “In Cafe Debate, a Victory for Elections,” WP, 14 January 2005; Edward Wong, “Shiite Leader Inspires Many to Cast Ballots,” NYT, 31 January 2005.
44. Jim Hoagland, “Mickey Mouse and the U.N.,” WP, 20 June 2004; Dexter Filkins, “Top Shiite Cleric Is Said to Fear Voting in Iraq May Be Delayed,” NYT, 23 September 2004; “Iraq’s Disappearing Elections,” editorial, NYT, 26 September 2004; Steven Weisman, “U.S. Officials Are Haunted by Initial Plan for Nationwide Candidate Lists for Iraqi Election,” NYT, 9 January 2005; John Burns and James Glanz, “Iraqi Shiites Win, but Margin Is Less Than Projected,” NYT, 14 February 2005; “Democracy Wins,” WSJ, editorial, 15 February 2005; Basil Muhammad and Su’dad al-Salihi, “Tihran tudhakkir washinton bi al-ta‘awun fi al-‘iraq,” al-Hayat, 18 February 2005.
45. Edward Wong, “Iraq Takes Step toward New Government,” NYT, 4 April 2005; idem, “A Kurd Is Named Iraq’s President as Tensions Boil,” NYT, 7 April 2005; Robert Worth, “Shiite Leader Named Iraq Premier to End Two Months of Wrangling,” NYT, 8 April 2005; idem, “Iraq’s Assembly Accepts Cabinet despite Tension,” NYT, 29 April 2005.