Page numbers listed correspond to the print edition of this book. You can use your device’s search function to locate particular terms in the text.
Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations; page numbers beginning with 321 indicate endnotes.
Abbott, Lynn, 92
Adams, Tom, 288
advertising wagons, 1, 20, 113, 149, 204, 219, 220–21, 224, 238, 243, 267, 351
Africa, 14, 59, 75
religions in, 4, 36, 41, 138, 142
tonal languages in, 64–65
see also West Africa; specific countries
African-American musical vernacular:
African cultural legacies in, 4, 30, 45–46, 59, 62, 64–65, 86, 89–90, 92, 103, 106, 107, 122, 132, 137, 138–40, 141, 143, 146–47, 209, 214, 268, 324, 362
Armstrong’s relationship to, 5, 6, 8
as defensive weapon, 51
evolution of, 4, 21, 22
improvisation’s role in, 208–9
parades and, 19
whites as irrelevant to, 166, 169
African Americans:
African identity and, 138, 172, 338
and Armstrong’s audience, 58
blues abandoned by, 67–68, 69
bonding with grandmothers by, 32–33
in Chicago, 274
contractualized adultery between French settlers and, 170
ornamentation and, 160–61
popularity of, 160
racial awareness of, 19
racial slurs used against, 81
restrictions on movements of, 13–20
skin color prejudice and, 5, 25–27, 178–79, 182–85, 257, 359
subversive anti-white rudeness of, 21–22
where whites were outnumbered by, 137
see also black/uptown musicians; Creoles, Creoles of color; freedmen; slaves
aid societies, 211, 214
Albert, Don, 71, 106, 112, 172, 173, 179, 266, 267
Albert, Ike (uncle), 33, 34, 108
Albert, Mary Ann “May Ann” (mother), 45, 54, 80, 88, 96, 105, 107, 114, 117, 134, 137, 272, 273
Armstrong given “physics” by, 74–75
Armstrong’s relationship with, 1, 32–33, 98, 249, 324
Armstrong’s “stepfathers”/boyfriends and, 2, 33–34, 76, 108, 110
character of, 50
domestic work by, 35, 167
Oliver’s meeting of, 129
as prostitute, 34
religious conversions of, 2, 34–35, 37–38, 50
Alexander, Adolphe, Sr., 346
Algiers, La., 68, 148–49, 212, 237, 340, 345
Allen, Henry, Sr., 134, 212
Allen, Henry “Red”, Jr., 134
Allen, Richard, 127
alto (“peck”) horn, 12, 94, 101–2
“American section”, 24–25, 170
see also uptown
A.M.E. Zion Church, 38
Anderson, Tom, 13, 255, 260, 261, 262
Arlington, Josie, 261
Armstrong, Beatrice “Mama Lucy” (sister), 1, 2, 33, 75, 110, 114, 273
Armstrong, Clarence (adopted son), 168
Armstrong, Daisy Parker (first wife), 3, 16, 168, 249, 250
Armstrong, Josephine (grandmother), 1, 31–33
Armstrong, Lillian Hardin (second wife), 50, 70, 108, 130, 274, 296
in Armstrong’s band, 276
Armstrong’s collaborations with, 230–31, 275
classical training of, 121, 275
in Creole Jazz Band, 121, 276
marriage of Armstrong and, 275
Armstrong, Louis, 104, 192, 252
accommodating nature of, 48
assimilative impulse absent in, 6–8, 49–50, 188–89, 299
audience identification of, 48, 58
baptism of, 31–32
birth of, 1, 332
childhood arrest of, 2, 96, 98
childhood of, 1–2, 4, 31–32, 74–77
childhood vocal quartet of, 2
communal upbringing of, 76
competitiveness of, 207, 348
daily laxative regimen of, 74–75, 239
dark skin color of, 27
early professional period of, 263–69
early religious exposure of, 31–32, 37–38, 52
first composition of, 228, 229–30, 353
first instruments played by, 101–2
first musical experiences of, 2, 4, 20, 40, 41, 45, 91
first professional playing by, 29, 110–12
formal education of, 100
on his soloing, 292
as King of the Zulus, 83
as “low class hustler,” 200
male teenage world of, 52, 53
in move to Chicago, 3, 19–20, 24
musical apprenticeship period of, 219, 222, 224–39, 247–48
New Orleans style in mature music of, 277–78
nicknames of, 95, 198, 212
nonmusical jobs held by, 2, 32, 59, 90, 110, 112, 114, 180, 224, 225, 239, 240, 255
physical size of, 226, 272
popular image of, 5, 83
pronunciation of first name, 31
on race relations in New Orleans, 16–17
racial deference and, 19–20
reel-to-reel tape collection of, 161
showmanship of, 231–32
slang of, 203
social and historical position of, 66, 73
songwriting collaborators of, 353
street fighting of, 17, 18, 96, 228
street schooling of, 2, 52, 54, 55–56, 58, 60, 62, 71, 73, 74, 88
teenage musical reputation of, 60–61
unreliability of later memories of, 261
as unreligious, 47, 52, 53, 108
women’s raising of, 52, 108–9
writings of, 16–17, 24, 26–27, 55, 56, 71, 73, 100, 185–86, 247–48, 256, 275, 322, 328
Armstrong, Lucille (fourth wife), 31
Armstrong’s relationship with, 50
dark skin color of, 27
Armstrong, Willie (father), 1, 80, 107
Armstrong placed in custody of, 52, 107–8, 168
Armstrong’s relationship with, 20, 32, 33, 77, 98, 110
as parade grand marshal, 20–21, 77–78, 255
artisan class, 173–74, 175, 180, 343, 344–45
Artisans Hall, 344–45
Ash Wednesday, 53
Atkins, Boyd, 252
“At the Animal’s Ball,” 101
Audubon Park, 168
Autocrat Club, 179
“Back of Town” district, 33, 98, 135
back-to-Africa movement, 14
Bailey, Buster, 128
Bakongo people, 138
band leaders, 232, 244
band managers, 244
banquette, 90
baptism, 31–32, 34, 35, 36
Baptist Church:
African heritage in, 36
Albert’s conversion to, 34–35
Armstrong’s childhood exposure to, 31–32, 37
four-beat rhythm in music of, 43
lay preachers in, 36, 38
percentage of women in, 326
post-Emancipation growth of, 36, 37
preaching style in, 35, 43
religious tracts of, 37
Sanctified Church and, 38, 50, 217
singing in, 36–37, 94
social ranking of, 38, 53
social role of, 28, 32, 36–37, 50, 53
trained preachers in, 38
Baptists, 21, 117, 264
plantation immigrants as, 35
Baquet, Achille, 175, 176, 289
Baquet, George, 85, 149, 175, 176, 265, 353
Barbarin, Isidore, 9–13, 12, 29, 48, 88, 180, 212, 344, 346
Armstrong’s letter to, 24
light skin color of, 27
nonmusical work of, 9, 174
racial self-image of, 15, 172, 173
on “ratty” and “routine” musicians, 27–28, 29, 65–66, 304
Barbarin, Paul, 88, 91, 120, 227, 262, 285, 336
barbershop quartets, 92–93
Barès, Basile, 342
Barker, Danny, 18, 23, 25, 27–28, 168, 185, 207, 222, 258, 264, 268, 276, 323, 346
Barnes, Emile, 9, 184–85, 194, 221, 260, 266, 275
Barnes, Harrison, 13, 36, 134
Barnes, Paul, 269
Barrett, Emma, 260
Bartley, Buddy, 152–53
Basin Street, 115, 257
bass, 120
Battlefield district, 98–99, 135, 228
bebop, 67, 69, 138, 208, 295, 301
Bechet, Leonard, 193, 194, 347, 348
Bechet, Sidney, 3, 51, 79, 90, 133, 157, 193, 206, 208, 226, 242, 256, 260, 261, 263, 265–66, 271, 273, 277, 278, 363
Armstrong’s advertising job with, 220
Armstrong’s childhood street encounter with, 95
Armstrong’s rivalry with, 95–96
background and personality of, 194
baptism of, 178–79
black/uptown musicians and, 192–95
blues and, 67, 68
freak music and, 194–95
funerals with music as described by, 87
illiteracy of, 100
musical stature of, 194, 289–90
on ragtime, 156, 291
Benbow’s Old Plantation Minstrels, 231
Berlin, Irving, 92, 324
Bernhardt, Clyde, 185, 203, 217
berry selling, 57, 347
Big 25 gambling house, 190, 206, 206, 225, 233, 265, 295
Bigard, Alex, 265
Bigard, Barney, 27, 76, 172, 174, 181, 203, 223, 235, 257, 303, 336
Bigard, Emile, 234, 247
“Big Butter and Egg Man,” 300
Big Nose Sidney (childhood friend of Armstrong), 91
binary rhythm patterns, 145–46
blackface, 231
Black Man of the South and the Rebels, The (Stearns), 22
“black pathology” thinking, 77
black/uptown musicians, 29–30, 126
blues and, 66
collective improvisation and, 119–21
contests between Creole musicians and, 206
Creole attitude toward, 23, 27–28, 44, 126–27, 164, 178, 181–86, 195, 220
Creole musicians playing with, 186, 189–96, 345
improvising ability of, 208
nonmusical jobs held by, 124, 137, 174, 180, 225–26
oral tradition and, 65, 71, 127–29
outdoor venues of, 220–24
tune endings and, 160, 342
viewed as “out of towners,” 178, 195, 259–60
see also “routine” musicians
“blue notes,” 62, 67, 68, 181, 266
blues, 2, 29, 54, 55, 112, 134, 194, 195, 278, 293, 347
Armstrong as player of, 60–61, 65, 66, 69, 70, 71–72, 113, 117, 211, 227, 270–71, 285
Bolden and, 43, 61, 63, 66, 70, 72, 122, 150–51, 152, 158, 229, 269, 270
church music compared with, 63
commercial craze for, 275
as continuum of speaking and singing, 63–65
deep, 65, 69, 71, 235
first playing of, at a funeral, 268
harmony in, 70, 72, 293–94
in honky tonks, 112–14, 210, 269
improvisation in, 210, 270
jazz and, 66–73
loss of black audience of, 67–68, 69
in Mississippi delta, 59, 72, 122, 123, 138
musical form of, 62, 70
as music of seduction, 63
in New Orleans, 60–66, 113–14
new urban forms of, 269–71
Oliver and, 61, 70, 117, 121–22, 269
as oral tradition, 65, 71, 229, 235–36
pianists and, 72, 73, 158
playing behind the beat in, 68, 69, 70
rags-bottles-and-bones men and, 57, 62, 72, 73, 327
singing, 62–64, 72
slow tempos for, 151
social origins and standing of, 65–66, 150, 328
Southern regions lacking in, 61
standard poetic form used in, 159
street cries and, 59
universality of, 61, 69
uptown and downtown musicians separated by, 66–67
use of term, 158
vocality of, 158, 159
wind instruments and, 72–73
work songs and, 59–60
“blues on Saturday night, church on Sunday morning,” 52
Bocage, Peter, 194, 195, 234, 260
Bolden, Charles “Buddy,” 26, 28, 115, 118, 137, 140–43, 148–55, 178, 187, 188, 190, 238, 242, 268, 277, 282, 283–84, 288, 290, 346, 363
Armstrong’s hearing of, 90, 140–41
asylum years of, 141
band of, 151
blues and, 43, 61, 63, 66, 70, 72, 122, 150–51, 152, 158, 229, 269, 270
class identity and, 152–53, 155
clothing style worn by, 149
cornet tone of, 104
counting off by, 244
dance halls associated with, 149–50
“King” as nickname of, 154
loudness of cornet playing, 152–54, 341
music reading and, 152
pimping by, 149–50
rag men’s influence on, 56–57, 229
ragtime and, 140–41, 148, 155, 156, 163
repertoire of, 42, 148, 152, 155, 341
Robichaux’s competitions with, 152–53, 155
types of dances played by, 141–42
women and, 150, 199
Bolton, James “Red Happy,” 91, 95, 191, 227, 244, 352
Boogus (pianist), 240
Borneman, Ernest, 59
Bourdieu, Pierre, 153, 180
Boutte, La., 35, 38, 134
boxing, 14, 188
Brady, Senator, 103, 106
Brashear, George, 252
brass bands, 9, 44
advertising wagons and, 1, 20, 113, 149, 204, 219, 220–21, 224, 238, 243, 267, 351
allowed into Storyville, 119, 179
in Baptist Churches, 36
in parades, 79
popularity of, 25
quartet singing and, 331
street competitions between, 204–6
white patronage of, 103
Braud, Wellman, 289, 290
breaks, 123, 148, 230
definition of, 105, 210
importance of, 210
Oliver’s ability in, 209
Bremer, Fredrika, 324
Bricher, Alfred T., 22
“bright,” 15, 184
Brown, Johnny, 160
“Brown Skin Who You For,” 228–29, 245
Brundy, Walter, 118
Brunies, George, 233
“bucking” or “cutting” contests, 202, 204–8, 210, 237
bugles, 55, 101, 102
Bull’s Club, 115
Bushell, Garvin, 68, 69
CA Andrews coal yard, 110
Cable, George Washington, 166–67
Cagnolatti, Ernie, 268
California, 231, 273
Canal Street, 11, 33, 75, 96, 112, 122
Armstrong’s crossing of, 182, 186–87, 207
meaning of crossing of, 119, 176–96
Oliver’s crossing of, 119, 182, 186–87, 207
as uptown-downtown boundary, 24, 29, 164, 170, 323
capitalism, 51
Capitol, 253
“Careless Love,” 264
Carey, Jack, 204, 208, 221, 232, 233, 295
Carey, Mutt, 123, 181, 227, 244, 269, 273
Caribbean, 122, 139, 147
Carrie (prostitute), 66
Carter, Buddy, 66
“Cascades,” 137
caste system, 164–65, 172, 177, 179–80, 184, 185
Catalonia, 174
“catching” tunes, 208, 233
Catholic Church:
Armstrong’s baptism in, 31–32
clubs opposed by, 214–15
voodoo adaptation of saints of, 147
Catholics, 25, 38, 53, 139, 189
excluded from having funerals with music, 214, 350
Protestant view of Sunday behavior of, 222–23
Celestin, Oscar “Papa,” 28, 29, 135, 178, 212, 355–56
census of 1860, 171
chain gangs, 59
Chaligny, Paul, 220
Charcoal Schooners, 213
Charles, Hypolite, 9, 23, 43–44, 135, 186, 212, 219, 227, 256, 260, 333
Charles, Jessie, 21
Charles, Ray, 43
Charles, Robert, 14, 154, 282, 321
Charles race riot, 14, 15, 15, 19, 33, 154, 168, 184, 282–83, 321
Charleston, S.C., 59
Chernoff, Joan, 46
Chicago, Ill., 54, 76, 109, 124, 130, 141, 230, 236, 268
Armstrong’s move to, 3, 19–20, 24, 272, 274–75
Creoles in, 275
goal of southern immigrants in, 292
Great Migration and, 136
ODJB’s arrival in, 228, 245
Oliver’s band in, see Creole Jazz Band
Oliver’s move to, 3, 116, 219, 240, 269
South Side of, 274
Chicago Defender, 275
children, 7, 58, 60, 90, 91, 111, 178, 220
see also second lining
Chilton, John, 347
Chinatown, 201
Chinese immigrants, 165
chords, 266, 287, 295–96, 300
see also harmony
Christensen, Alex, 86
“Christmas” horns, 327
churches, 274
concert halls as imitative of, 20, 54
dance halls and, 52–53, 326
social ranking of, 38
storefront, 4, 42, 51, 53, 198
see also preachers; specific churches
circle-dance, 21
civil rights era, 215
Civil War, U.S., 14, 138, 171, 180
“Clarinet Marmalade,” 266
clarinets, 85, 120, 190, 265, 286, 288, 289
Clark, Aaron, 9
classical music:
concert halls as venue for, 20
French, 179, 180
popular songs and, 260, 299, 360
class identity, 152–53, 155, 179, 181
Clayton, Jimmy, 135
Clem, Edward, 135
Cleveland, Miss., 160
clubs:
Armstrong’s memberships in, 212
Catholic Church opposition to, 214–15
in funerals with music, 84, 212, 214–16
Morton’s class ranking of, 213
multiple memberships in, 84, 212
origins of, 211
in parades, 77–79, 212–13
“Coal Cart Blues,” 239
coal delivering or selling, 2, 32, 59, 110, 114, 225, 239, 255
Cole, Betsy, 198, 215, 222, 243
collective improvisation, 181, 194, 221, 253
Armstrong’s ability in, 210–11
Armstrong’s innovations in, 290–93
congregational heterophony transformed into, 45, 119, 121
description of, 120–21, 162, 288–93
history of, 119–20
Oliver’s mastery of, 119, 121
playing second in, 288–90
rhythm and, 286–87
as unique to New Orleans, 287–88
Collier, James Lincoln, 129, 131
Collins, Wallace, 64, 288
“color caste,” 179
Colored Waif’s Home for Boys, 11, 55, 76, 114, 194, 227, 248, 264, 328
Armstrong sent to, 97, 98
Armstrong’s musical education in, 2, 94, 97, 99–105, 102, 157, 299, 305, 360
Armstrong’s release from, 52, 107–9, 168, 199, 332
Armstrong’s return to, 103
brass band of, see Maple Leaf Band
description of, 99–101
male identity fostered in, 108–9
Coltrane, John, 342
comedians, 95
“Come On in My Kitchen,” 123
concert halls, 20, 23, 54
“Congo” dancers, 89
Congo people, 4, 138, 139, 143
Congo Square, see Place Congo
congregational heterophony, 41, 44–45, 113, 118–19, 121, 134, 161, 162, 221, 278, 288, 291–92, 294, 325
Cooperator’s Hall, 243, 249
copyright, 159, 230–31, 275, 342
“Cornet Chop Suey,” 267
cornets, 2, 12, 85
of Armstrong, 73, 102, 102, 110, 112, 250, 332–33
Armstrong’s competitors on, 263–69
Armstrong’s skill on, 265–66, 275–77, 284
Armstrong’s tone on, 104–5, 106, 253, 254, 333
Armstrong’s upper range playing on, 264
Armstrong’s volume on, 154
blues and, 70–71
Bolden as legendary prime player of, 140–41
Bolden’s volume on, 152–54, 341
cups and mutes for, 43, 122, 264–65, 336
freak music and, 122, 123–24
in “front line,” 286
Keppard’s style on, 191
as lead instrument in collective improvisation, 119–20, 288–89
nickname for, 112, 334
Oliver as Armstrong’s mentor on, 108, 109, 110, 115–16, 117–18, 124, 127, 129
Oliver’s study and technique on, 117–20, 122, 128, 191, 218
as primary wind instrument, 73
second, 266, 289
tones of Armstrong’s predecessors on, 104
upper range specialists on, 264
Cornish, Willie, 151, 268
corn-shucking celebrations, 209
Cottrell, Louis, 125, 195
counterpoint, 120
counting off, 244
Cozy, Elder, 35
“Crazy Blues,” 275
Creole Jazz Band:
Armstrong in, 121, 154, 272, 275, 276
balanced texture of, 121
“freak music” and, 123–24
other members of, 121, 123
Creoles, Creoles of color, 133, 163, 164–96, 205, 282
Armstrong’s description of, 164, 191–92
Armstrong with, 23, 28, 182, 186–87
in artisan class, 173–74, 175, 180, 343, 344–45
black/uptown musicians as viewed by, 23, 27–28, 44, 126–27, 164, 178, 181–86, 195, 220
black/uptown musicians with, 186, 189–96, 345
Catholicism of, 25, 38
in Chicago, 275
contests between black/uptown musicians and, 206
dance types favored by, 355
definitions and use of terms, 25, 165, 171, 189, 342
early jazz and, 186–87
freedom of movement of, 15
“full blooded,” 183
and funerals with music, 350
history of, 169–76
improvising inability of, 208, 234–35
Jim Crow legislation and, 171, 177, 181
musical pedagogy and, 25, 65, 67, 124–26, 174, 175
music business advantages of, 229–30
as “musicianers,” 237
Oliver’s playing with, 119, 164, 182–83, 186–87
“passing” by, 173, 175–76, 187
plantation immigrants looked down on by, 25
Plessy v. Ferguson and, 171
racial identity and, 171–73, 175–76
as rebels, 189–96
second lining and, 17, 23, 282
sense of superiority of, 23, 25, 164, 171, 177, 181, 185, 195, 237
Seventh Ward neighborhood of, 19
standards of “good” musicianship of, 29, 106, 176, 180–81
in Storyville, 257, 260, 262
see also downtown
Crescent Band, 204, 221
cross-dressing, 201, 351
crossroads, 138
cultural fragmentation, 51
“cutting” or “bucking” contests, 202, 204–8, 210, 237
Dailey, Jane, 218
dance, 205, 281
African to African American evolution of, 4, 21, 22, 139–42
animal names for, 143
in Baptist churches, 36–37
Creoles and, 355
“cutting” and, 202
in funeral second-lining, 86
in Place Congo, 202
“ratty,” 140–48, 149
in Sanctified churches, 21, 142
slaves and, 89
slow tempos favored for, 141, 151
tap, 231
techniques used in, 142–43, 144
uptown types of, 141–42, 150, 233
dance halls, 2, 20, 45, 95, 137, 151–52, 178, 238, 240, 274
in Algiers, 148–49, 340
associated with Bolden, 149–50
church space shared with, 52–53, 326
eroticism and, 89–90
evolution of music from Sanctified Church to, 42–46
number of, 136
prostitution in, 258
renting of, 243
Davis, Allison, 203
Davis, Ida, 108
Davis, Miles, 295, 342
Davis, Peter, 98, 99, 102, 104, 105, 108, 109, 110, 157, 299, 305, 360
Dawson, Eddie, 72, 118, 127, 203, 214
Decoration Day, 90
deep blues, 65, 69, 71, 235
Deer Range Plantation, 134, 264
Dekemel, “Buglin’ Sam,” 326
delta blues, 59, 72, 122, 123, 138
Dennis, Walter, 203
Desvigne, Sidney, 125
DeVore, Charlie, 127–28, 245
Dewberry’s Shaving Parlor and Social Club, 92
“dicty,” 6–7, 8, 66, 150, 238, 242, 251, 299
“Dime Museum,” 122–23
“Dippermouth Blues,” 130
“dirt music,” 151
“dives,” 66
Dixie Belle, 250, 357
Dixie Hummingbirds, 94
“Dixie Jazz Band One-Step,” 245
Dixon, Melvin, 41
Dockery’s Plantation, 59
Doctors and Druggists Ball, 263
Dodds, Johnny, 126, 133, 134, 191, 225, 241, 244–45, 258, 265, 276, 276, 277, 290, 354, 549
Dodds, Warren, Sr., 134
Dodds, Warren “Baby,” 27, 29, 117, 125, 134, 191, 221, 225, 233, 234, 235, 265, 276, 362
altered waltz rhythm as described by, 141
Armstrong as described by, 200
Creole children forbidden as playmates for, 178
on crossing Canal Street, 186
on importance of lead melody, 45, 210
playing behind the beat as described by, 68
in riverboat bands, 251–55, 252
Dollard, John, 19, 203
domestic work, 35, 180
Dominguez, Paul, 242, 259, 261–62
Dominique, Natty, 125
“Don’t Go ’Way Nobody,” 143, 150
Douglass, Frederick, 59
downtown, 323
as Creole neighborhood, 24–25, 140, 164
location of, 24
white Creoles’ leaving of, 172
“dozens,” 202–3, 348
drugs, 201, 347
drum, talking, 122
drum ensembles, African, 62, 145–46, 287
drums, 268, 362
see also percussion
Du Bois, W. E. B., 49, 136, 166, 197, 280
Duhé, Lawrence, 132, 135, 141, 156–57, 158, 290
Dunn, Johnny, 207
Dusen, Frankie, 118, 119, 142, 148–49, 178, 221, 232, 233, 238, 268, 345
Dutrey, Honore, 276
Dutrey, Sam, 226
Eagle Band, 90, 118–19, 142, 194, 206, 221, 232, 234, 238, 250, 252, 267
ear cupping, 92
Easter, 53
“East St. Louis Toodle-oo,” 68
“Eccentric Rag,” 123
Economy Hall, 200, 227, 243, 244, 269
Eldridge, Roy, 264
Elkins, Herman, 203
Ellington, Duke, 68, 69, 124, 130–31, 210, 301, 336, 360
Ellison, Ralph, 277–78, 292
Emancipation, 35, 49, 189, 197
Eurocentric musical pedagogy and technique, see musical pedagogy
European art music, 23
evil eye, 51
Ewe people, 41, 46
Excelsior Brass Band, 174, 175, 221, 226
Fate Marable and His Jazz Maniacs, 250, 252
festival days, 77
Fewclothes’ Cabaret, 260
field hollers, 59–60
Fihle, George, 174, 178, 195
“filling in,” 161
First Baptist Church, 37
First Lessons in Harmony (Steiner), 298
Fisk School, 74
Fisk University, 67
Florence, Ala., 61
folk medicine, 75
Forest, J. F., 35
Foster, Abby “Chinee,” 120, 146, 234–35
Foster, Frank, 354
Foster, George “Pops,” 59, 62–63, 84, 111, 134, 141, 142, 160, 181, 189, 194, 217, 219, 233, 234, 238, 247, 251, 257, 260, 279
Armstrong hired by, 113
as coal deliverer, 225–26
Creole musicians and, 186, 344
Creoles as described by, 164
dance halls as described by, 150, 151
Eagle Band and, 118
music reading and, 126–27
pianists viewed as homosexuals by, 201
pimping by, 259
on pimping by musicians, 199
in riverboat bands, 251, 252, 253
unreliability of dates given by, 334, 359
four-beat rhythm, 43, 191, 227, 245, 285–86
fragmentation, cultural, 51
France, 96, 170, 180
Francis, Albert, 261
Francis, Edna, 261
Francs Amis dance hall, 178, 183, 183, 230
fraternal organizations, see clubs
freak music, 176, 190, 264–65
Armstrong’s rejection of, 130–31, 238, 264, 302
Bechet and, 194–95
description of, 122–23
Ellington’s band and, 124, 130–31, 336
Oliver and, 122, 123–24, 126, 130, 181, 245, 261, 269, 284–85
freedmen, 4, 18, 35–36, 49, 197, 280
see also plantation immigrants
French, Maurice, 232
French and French Canadian settlers, 169–70
Frenchman’s, The, 201, 225
French music, 179, 180
French Opera House, 12, 25
French Quarter, 11, 24
“front line,” 286
funerals with music, 4, 84–88, 85, 212, 216, 221
African antecedents for, 214
decline of, 215
duration of, 87
European models for, 214
first blues played at, 268
heterophonic playing of hymns in, 44–45
Masonic, 213, 350
military elements of, 215
number of clubs and bands in, 84
for prominent pimps, 200
as public display of manly dignity, 211, 214–16
religion absent from, 214
slow music played in first portion of, 84–85
three groups excluded from, 214–15
“turning the body loose” in, 213, 216
uptempo music played on return portion of, 21, 86, 214, 215
see also second lining
“funky,” Congolese source of term, 138
Funky Butt Hall, 2, 4, 52, 88–89, 90, 143, 150, 225, 238, 326
Gabe (“stepfather”), 110, 130
Gabriel, Manny, 120
Gallatin Street, 75
Gambia, 62
gambling, 2, 90, 112, 200, 223, 258, 259, 261
Ganga people, 4
Garden district, 185, 261
Garland, Ed, 17, 52
Garland, Montudie, 92
Gaspard, Vic, 125–26
gens de couleur libres, 170, 171–72, 173–74, 177, 180, 189, 343
George VI, King of England, 82
Georgia Minstrels, 175
German immigrants, 25
Ghana, 62
Gillespie, John Birks “Dizzy,” 38–39, 40, 69, 72, 295, 328
“gitbox,” 101
Glaser, Joe, 32, 167
Goffin, Robert, 331
gospel music, 62, 94
grand marshals:
description of, 77, 78, 213
in funerals with music, 84, 86–87, 87
Willie Armstrong as, 20–21, 77–78, 255
grandmothers, 32–33
Grant, William, 229
Great Britain, 214, 247
Great Migration:
blues and, 68
jazz and, 23, 133, 136, 256, 274, 286
“Great White South’s Perpetual Proclamation,” 168
Green, Eddie, 232
Guesnon, George, 296
guitar, 70
slide or bottleneck, 61, 122, 123
“gutbucket,” origin of term, 66
Hahn, Steven, 211
Haiti, 50–51, 139, 140
Hall, Edmond, 295–96
Hamilton, Charlie, 134
ham-kicking contests, 149
Handy, W. C., 61, 67, 122, 160, 227, 228, 229, 297–98, 301
Hardin, Lillian, see Armstrong, Lillian Hardin
Harker, Brian, 300
Harmon, Paddy, 336
harmonic rhythm, 287, 301
Harmon mute, 336
harmony, 293–302
Armstrong’s command of, 293, 300
blues and, 70, 72, 293–94
definition of, 293
as evolved in jazz, 293–302, 365
Hawkins’s grounding in, 69
ignored in syncopated riffing, 44
in “mansion of the muses,” 8
in quartet singing, 93–94
in Sanctified Church singing, 41
Young’s approach to, 69, 301
Hawkins, Coleman, 68–69, 72, 301, 328
Hayes, Roland, 94
Hazeur, Louis, 174
“Heebie Jeebies,” 94, 268
“Hello Dolly,” 163
Henderson, Fletcher, 185, 209–10, 250, 276
Henry, Charles “Sunny,” 36, 37, 134, 291
heterophony, 86
in African music, 41, 62
in brass bands, 44–45
congregational, 41, 44–45, 113, 118–19, 121, 134, 161, 162, 221, 278, 288, 291–92, 294, 325
definition of term, 41, 118–19
see also collective improvisation
“High Society,” 128, 229, 230, 245, 265–66
Hightower, Willie, 122, 135, 137, 168–69
Hilaire, Andrew, 76
“hincty,” 66
Hinton, Milt, 272, 276, 296–97, 298
Hobsbawm, Eric, 188, 282, 346
Hoffman, Max, 145
“hokum,” 130
Holiday, Billie, 158
Holiness Church, 324
Holmes, George Palmer, 78
“Home Sweet Home,” 73, 102
homosexuals, 201, 348
“honky tonk music,” 113
honky tonks, 2, 20, 60–61, 72, 88, 136, 167, 220, 258
Armstrong in, 110–14, 116, 199, 219, 238, 239
blues played in, 112–14, 210, 269
description of, 112
hop houses, 201
Hopkins, Lightnin’, 59
Hot Five and Hot Seven recordings, 94, 100, 246, 276, 351
“hot” music, 157
House, Son, 59
Howard, Joe, 252, 254
Howard, Kid, 221
“humming bands,” 91, 93
Humphrey, James, 79, 101, 103, 135, 137, 203
Huntz’s Cabaret, 257–58, 359
Hurston, Zora Neale, 41, 44, 45, 46, 50, 89, 160–61, 181, 209, 294
“hustling bands,” 257
hymns:
heterophonic playing of, 44–45, 86, 119, 325, 335
singing of, 32, 36–37
“If the Man on the Moon,” 233
“I’ll Be Glad When You’re Dead You Rascal You,” 82, 83
immigrants:
“American”/Yankee/Protestant, 13, 25, 222
nationalities of, 25, 165, 280, 303
see also plantation immigrants
“I’m Not Rough,” 124, 128
Imperial Orchestra, 260
improvisation, 29, 208–10
Armstrong’s ability in, 208, 264, 277
in blues, 210, 270
Creole difficulty with, 208, 234–35
ragtime and, 161–62
see also collective improvisation
“Indian” processions, 99
Institute of Jazz Studies, 322
integration, 19, 184–85
intonation, 29, 94
“inventing,” 161–62, 208, 279, 342
Invisible Man (Ellison), 277–78
Irish Channel, 17, 19, 44, 135
Irish immigrants, 25
Iroquois Theater, 231
itinerant workers, 140
Ives, Charles, 145
“I Wish That I Could Shimmy Like My Sister Kate,” 228, 353
Jackson, Eddie, 268
Jackson, Mahalia, 53, 214, 283
in Baptist Church, 35, 37
family background of, 35, 134
move to Chicago of, 54, 274
preachers as described by, 43
on Sanctified Church singing and music, 31, 39–40, 41
Jackson, Preston, 82, 105, 124, 185, 264
Jackson, Tony, 66
hit song of, 230
homosexuality of, 201, 348
Morton’s description of, 26
scat singing and, 94–95
Jackson Brewery, 222
Jacksonville, Fla., 92, 93
Jamaica, 89
James, Louis, 44, 134, 233
Jane Alley, 11, 33
jazz:
African and American elements combined in, 139–40
Armstrong’s innovations in, 3, 54, 276, 290–93
arranged vs. improvised elements in, 209–10
behind-the-beat phrasing in, 128
blues and, 66–73
as classical music, 53–54
Creoles and, 186–87
early names for, 157
Ellington’s definition of, 301
everyday life in evolution of, 56, 57–58, 304–5
evolution of harmony in, 293–302, 365
first musician associated with, see Bolden, Charles “Buddy”
first phonograph recording of, 245
first recordings of, 5
four-beat rhythm in, 43
French music and, 179
Great Migration and, 23, 133, 136, 256, 274, 286
“gumbo” metaphor for, 5, 302–3
historical antecedents of, 278, 293, 303–4
integration and, 19, 184–85
internationalization of, 246–47
melody and variations patterns in, 28
memorization of solos in, 128–29
move away from church by, 207
New Orleans as birthplace of, 132–40
ODJB’s role in creation of, 229, 245–46
originality in, 279
prehistory of, 5
presence of melody in, 45
preworked musical tricks reused in, 208
Sanctified Church roots of, 42–46
social interaction promoted by, 46
as specialist and instrumental activity, 281
travel and, 18
two social movements contributing to, 186
use of term, 158–59
violin’s early role in, 234, 247, 288, 354, 363
West African music as conceptual model for, 301
as white people’s term, 133
see also African-American musical vernacular; Ragtime (musical genre); ragtime (musical practice)
Jefferson Parish, 103
Jeffries, Jim, 14
Jewish immigrants, 25, 165
Jim Crow, 3, 5, 8, 16, 19, 22, 25, 50, 83, 103, 165, 171, 172–73, 176, 177, 181, 197–98, 200, 217, 278, 280
see also segregation
Johnson, Bill, 123–24, 276
Johnson, Buddy, 135
Johnson, Jack, 14, 19, 188
Johnson, James Weldon, 93
Johnson, Jimmy, 151
Johnson, Joe, 214, 219, 225, 267
Johnson, Robert, 123, 138, 141
Johnson, Willie “Bunk,” 17, 70, 88, 90, 95, 104, 118, 119, 124, 164, 209, 225, 255, 256, 260, 263, 273, 289, 290, 328
Johnson, Yank, 135
Johnson Park, 11, 63, 152–53, 187, 242, 341
Jones, David, 249, 251, 252, 252, 253, 255, 289, 296
Jones, George, 203
Jones, Joseph, 101
Jones, Louis, 134
Jones, Richard, 206, 220, 225
Jones, Tad, 332
Joplin, Scott, 132, 137, 143–44, 145, 148, 152, 155, 157, 158, 159, 236, 237, 285, 288, 295, 298, 301
Joseph, Papa John, 152
“jubilee time,” 36
Judaism, Jews, 31–32
“Jump Jim Crow,” 157
“jump up” bands, 221, 226
Karnofsky, Alex, 225
Karnofsky family, 32, 49, 94, 114, 324
“Keep Off Katie’s Head,” 227
Kelly, Chris, 23, 134, 185, 188, 221, 264, 269, 282, 360
Kenchen, Walter, 117
Keppard, Freddie, 3, 15, 99, 133, 184, 192, 193, 210, 218, 225, 230, 234, 255, 260, 263, 273, 289, 290
background of, 190, 346
black/uptown musicians and, 190–91
competitions between Oliver and, 206, 261
as first brass player in Storyville, 119, 206, 257, 359
“freak music” and, 122
recording offer refused by, 208, 216–17, 246, 349
Keppard, Louis, 176, 190, 191, 257, 359
Kersands, Billy, 175
Ki-Kongo language, 138
Kimball, Henry, 252
Kirwin, Maurice, 237
“Kiss My Funky Ass,” 149, 204, 243
Knights of Pythias, 212
Kress family, 327
Kress horn, 57, 327
Kubik, Gerhard, 62, 146
Ku Klux Klan, 82
labor camps, 134
Labor Day, 80
Lala, Pete, 114, 115, 116, 129, 206–7, 225, 238, 260
languages, tonal, 64–65
LaPlace, La., 91, 93, 135, 156, 242
Larenzo, 2, 56, 59, 106, 108, 127, 140, 225, 293
Armstrong as street student of, 55, 58, 60, 62, 71, 113
as rags-bottles-and-bones man, 55
tinhorn played by, 55, 57, 63, 73
LaRocca, Nick, 229
Latin dance rhythms, 187
Latrobe, Benjamin, 139, 214
lawn parties, 136, 198, 215, 221, 222, 243
lead instruments, 120, 234
lead sheets, 230
Leiding, Harriette Kershaw, 59
Lenares, Zeb, 266, 268
Lent, 53
levee camp music, 58, 151, 304
Lewis, Frank, 148, 151, 288
Lewis, George, 185
Lewis, Steve, 229
Liberty and Perdido neighborhood, 1–2, 11, 33–34, 33, 74, 75, 99, 110, 112, 113, 150
life force, 142
“Life Story of Louis Armstrong (autobiography)” (Armstrong), 322
Lincoln Gardens, 272
Lincoln Park, 11, 152–53, 187, 242, 341
Lindsay, Joe, 232, 238, 240
literacy, 35, 65, 171, 235–36
Little Mack (childhood friend), 91
“Livery Stable Blues,” 245, 246
Lomax, Alan, 59, 283, 327, 337, 346, 348
longshoremen, 304, 304
Louisiana, 36, 137
colonial status of, 170
French and French Canadian settlers in, 169–70
rural black migration in, see plantation immigrants
state legislature of, 261
Louisiana Purchase, 13, 25, 170, 222
Louisiana State Museum, 282
Love, Charlie, 143
“love numbers,” 260
lu-fuki, 138
Lyons, Bob, 143, 247, 265
Lyre Musical Society, 175
lyres, 29, 268–69
Lyric Theater, 156, 231
McCall Plantation, 134
McClain, Billy, 92
Madison, “Kid Shots,” 268
Magnolia Band, 118–19, 257, 258
Magnolia Plantation, 23, 36, 37, 103, 134
Mahogany Hall, 256–57
“making variations,” 161
male identity, 105–9, 153, 196, 201, 202, 211, 217–18, 280
“Mama’s Baby Boy,” 229
Mande people, 50
Mandingo people, 4
Manetta, Manuel, 74, 91, 127, 148–50, 151, 156, 157, 178, 195, 200, 201, 220, 226, 227–28, 230, 234, 237, 244, 245, 247, 257, 259–60, 289, 295, 345
“mansion of the muses,” 8, 166
Maple Leaf Band, 101–3, 104, 105, 112, 260
“Maple Leaf Rag,” 143–44, 159, 163, 295
Marable, Fate:
Armstrong in riverboat bands of, 3, 248, 249–55, 252, 299
parentage of, 251, 357
Mardi Gras, 6, 57, 150, 154, 228, 350–51
“Indian” processions during, 99
parades during, 80–81, 81
Mares, Paul, 254
marijuana, 75
Marine Band, 144
Marrero, Lawrence, 279
Martin, “Cocaine Buddy,” 110–11, 114
Martin, Henry, 268
Martin, Wilhelmenia, 185
“Maryland, My Maryland,” 80, 264
Mason, Norman, 252
Masonic Hall, 150, 225, 244
Masons, 212, 213, 350
Matranga, Henry, 167, 239
Matthews, Bill, 43, 63, 226
medicine, folk, 75
melody, 28
in African music, 62
Armstrong’s innovations in, 290–93, 364
in blues, 70
doubling of, 120
in “mansion of the muses,” 8
in New Orleans jazz, 45, 210, 287
in street cries, 59
Melrose, Walter, 217
Melton, Laddie, 92
Memphis, Tenn., 82, 253
“Memphis Blues,” 228
Metcalf, Gus, 268
Methodists, 21, 38
Metoyer, Arnold, 25, 125, 175, 195, 234, 260, 262
Miles, Flora, 168
Miles, Ike, 168
Miley, Bubber, 68, 124, 336
military bands, 214
Miller, Ernest “Punch,” 72, 74, 116, 121, 122, 134, 142, 143, 156, 159, 221, 224, 227, 233, 250, 264–65, 266, 268, 270–71, 276, 289, 362
Minah people, 4
minstrelsy, 92, 95, 145, 156, 231–32
missionaries, 37
Mississippi, 14, 50, 92
delta blues of, 59, 72, 122, 123, 138
plantations of, 137–38
rural black migration out of, see Great Migration; plantation immigrants
Mississippi River, 24, 35, 60, 136, 137, 144
Missouri, 61, 69, 134
monkeyshines, 120–21, 146, 238, 245, 289, 335
Morand, Herb, 47–48
Moret, George, 175
Morrison, Toni, 294
Morton, Jelly Roll, 14, 26, 133, 141, 149, 170, 190, 200, 204, 208, 211, 234, 257, 258, 281–82, 327, 348
African ancestry denied by, 172, 173, 359
Armstrong on skin color of, 185–86
birth name of, 172
as blackface comedian, 231
clubs ranked by, 213
on importance of breaks, 210
Oliver taunted by, 18, 178, 184
on origins of jazz, 303–4
on origins of scat singing, 94–95
on a “perfect death,” 84
pimping by, 201
on rags-bottles-and-bones men’s music, 57, 59
“ragtime” term as used by, 156, 341
on second lining, 17
skin color prejudice of, 184
as Storyville brothel pianist, 201, 257
uptown music heard by, 327
in vocal quartet, 94
Morton, Mabel, 184
Mount Moriah Baptist Church, 35, 37, 39, 53, 54
“Mr. Jefferson Lord—Play That Barbershop Chord,” 92–93
Muir, Lewis, 92
Mumford, Brock, 42, 149–50, 151
Muranyi, Joe, 40
music:
black/uptown vs. Creole/downtown standards for, 29–30
competition and, 118, 196, 198, 202–11
Easter and, 53
environment for innovation in, 222–24
European art, 23
and feelings of inferiority, 216–17
hierarchy of venues for, 223–24
indoor venues for, 20
male identity and, 105–9, 153, 196, 201, 211, 217–18
as opportunity, 278–84
outdoor venues for, 20–23
in Sanctified Church, 38–42, 39, 159
seduction through, 63, 150, 199, 347
social interaction through, 22–23, 159–60, 198, 208–9, 281
in West Africa, 62, 64–65, 122, 145–46, 210, 285, 287
women’s role in, 198
musical pedagogy:
Armstrong’s first exposure to, 103–4, 107
Creoles and, 25, 57, 65, 124–26, 174, 175
“musicianers,” 237, 281
musicians union, 251, 274
music publishing, 229–31
music reading, 190
by Armstrong, 29, 65, 127, 220, 226, 232, 236, 250, 252, 254, 297–98, 353
black/uptown musicians’ lack of ability in, 28, 29
Bolden and, 152
of Creole musicians, 29, 65, 67, 125–26, 235
non-reading, see “routine” musicians
perceived disadvantages to, 44, 65
rhythmic notation and, 127
“spelling” and, 126
and Storyville jobs, 260
Young’s resistance to, 69
“My Brazilian Beauty,” 91
Nashville, Tenn., 94, 135, 137
National Baptist Conventions, 37
“Nearer My God to Thee,” 84
Negro colleges and secondary schools, 37
“Negro ‘Rag’ Accompaniments,” 145
Nelson, “Big Eye” Louis, 192–93, 194, 230, 257, 258, 260, 265, 284, 290, 346, 350
black/uptown musicians and, 189–90
on influence of blues on jazz, 55, 66, 72
murder of father of, 184, 282–83
New Orleans, Battle of, 174
New Orleans, La., 7
antebellum caste system of, 165
Armstrong’s leaving of, 3, 19–20, 24, 269, 272
Armstrong’s reputation in, 3, 112, 247, 255
as birthplace of jazz, 132–40
blacks’ movements restricted in, 13–20
blues in, 60–66, 113–14
collective improvisation style unique to, 287–88
cultural birth of, 42–43
distance covered by outdoor music in, 88, 153–54
diverse population of, 280, 302–3
exodus of musicians from, 256, 272–74
freshness of great musicians from, 271
illegal slave trade and, 138
immigration to, see immigrants; plantation immigrants
maps of, 11, 33, 75, 165, 225
number of Baptist Churches in, 37
Oliver’s leaving of, 3, 116, 219, 240
outdoor music venues in, 20–23, 220–24
Plessy v. Ferguson based on incident in, 3–4, 171
race riots in, see race riots
relaxed racial reputation of, 13, 26, 166, 168
rural black migration to, see plantation immigrants
slow dance tempos favored in, 141
three municipalities of, 24, 171
three-part caste system in, 164–65, 172, 177, 179–80, 184, 185
see also downtown; Liberty and Perdido neighborhood; Storyville; uptown
New Orleans Country Club, 13, 179, 229, 247, 295
New Orleans Daily States, 282–83
New Orleans Item, 15, 90, 143
New Orleans Mascot, 122
New Orleans Rhythm Kings, 124
New Orleans Times-Democrat, 98
New Orleans Times-Picayune, 8
New Orleans Tribune, 197, 216
New Year’s Eve, 57
Armstrong’s arrest on, 2, 96
New York, N.Y., 3, 18, 109, 136, 225
Armstrong’s move to, 185, 276
ODJB in, 245
slavery-related club names in, 257
Nicholas, Albert, 121, 233, 262, 262
Nicodeemus (childhood friend), 26, 141, 231
Nigeria, 62
“Nigger hunting time,” 184
“nigger rich,” 76
Noone, Jimmie, 205, 240, 273
obbligatos, 289, 290
“Octoroon” prostitutes, 170, 179
Odd Fellows club, 77, 212
Odd Fellows Hall, 149, 150, 225
ODJB (Original Dixieland Jazz Band), 124, 217, 228–29, 245–46, 247, 266
“Oh Didn’t He Ramble,” 86
“Oh Lord have mercy!,” 149
“Ole Miss,” 227
Oliver, Joe “King,” 11, 17, 79, 105, 114, 133, 135, 137, 158, 189, 192, 194, 204, 207, 215, 225, 232, 234, 237, 238, 239, 254, 255, 256, 259, 263, 271, 273, 276, 276, 286, 290–91
Armstrong given music lessons by, 2–3
on Armstrong losing the lead melody, 290–91, 364
Armstrong’s Chicago reunion with, 272, 274–75
Armstrong’s childhood adulation of, 218
Armstrong’s memorization of solo of, 227
as Armstrong’s mentor, 108, 109, 110, 115–16, 117–18, 124, 127, 129, 209, 240, 272
as Armstrong’s “Papa,” 116, 129
Armstrong’s playing compared with, 130
Armstrong’s sense of indebtedness to, 47, 129, 131, 241, 277
Armstrong’s vision of, 46–47
background of, 117, 134, 334
blues and, 61, 70, 117, 121–22, 269
Chicago band of, see Creole Jazz Band
competitions between Keppard and, 206, 261
cornet study and technique of, 104–5, 117–20, 122, 128, 191, 218
Creole musicians and, 119, 164, 182–83, 238
dark skin color of, 18, 26, 185
declining playing ability of, 130
as “dozens” competitor, 203
early career of, 118–19
Ellington and Miley impressed by, 68
four-beat rhythm and, 43
freak music and, 122, 123–24, 126, 130, 181, 245, 261, 269, 284–85
improvising ability of, 209, 210
inferiority complex of, 185, 217
Lil Hardin Armstrong hired by, 230
Morton’s taunting nickname for, 18, 178, 184
in move to Chicago, 3, 116, 219, 240
musical education of, 107
nickname of, 124, 285
in Onward Brass Band, 79, 80, 115, 119, 120, 124, 183, 224, 289
in Ory’s band, 244–45, 247
physical appearance of, 115, 117
recordings of, 246
self-description of, 26
as “speller,” 126
Storyville home of, 115
Storyville playing by, 119, 206, 257, 260, 261
syncopated riffing and, 43–44
Oliver, Stella, 3, 116, 117, 275, 335
Oliver, Victoria, 117
Olmsted, Frederick Law, 138
Olympia Orchestra, 260
101 Ranch Dance Hall, 114, 260
“one blood” theory, 169
Ong, Walter, 235
Onward Brass Band, 12, 79, 80, 85, 115, 119, 120, 124, 183, 212, 221, 224, 238, 289
opium, 201, 348
orality, oral tradition, 65, 71, 127–29, 156, 229, 235–36
Original Dixieland Jazz Band (ODJB), 124, 217, 228–29, 245–46, 247, 266
oríkì singers, 210
Orleans Eight, 213
ornamentation, 160–61
Ory, Johnny, 243
Ory, Kid, 23, 26, 40, 93, 141, 149, 155, 163, 188, 191, 215, 222, 226, 232, 234, 240, 241–47, 242, 257, 263, 265, 269, 273, 277, 282, 327
Armstrong first heard by, 333
Armstrong in band of, 3, 29, 219, 240, 247, 249
in Armstrong’s band, 276
background of, 241–43
birthplace of, 135
childhood bands of, 91
competitiveness of, 204
Creole heritage wrongly claimed for and by, 241–42
entrepreneurship of, 243–44, 245
on Funky Butt Hall, 150
music reading and, 126, 242
Oliver in band led by, 244–45, 247
on rag man’s influence on Bolden, 56–57, 270
recordings of, 246
“Ory’s Creole Trombone,” 245
ostinatos, 287
outdoor music venues, 20–23
“out of towners,” 178, 195, 259–60
Palao, Jimmy, 234, 238
Palmer, Robert, 65, 71, 235
“Panama,” 128, 230, 289
“Panama Rag,” 148, 152
parades, 1, 4, 6, 9–13, 73, 77–84, 103, 135
Armstrong in, 12–13, 18, 20, 255
elements of, 77–79
French-derived pseudomilitary trappings of, 22
last parade viewed by Armstrong, 212–13
major festival days for, 77
opportunities for unrestricted movement given by, 13, 18–19, 21
racial symbolism in, 80–84, 81, 82
street conditions for, 9
Willie Armstrong as grand marshal in, 20–21
see also funerals with music; grand marshals; second lining
Paris Conservatoire, 25
Parker, Charlie “Yardbird,” 69, 71, 230
Pasquall, Jerome Don, 254
“passing,” 173, 175–76, 187
patronage, 103, 106, 136, 333
Patton, Charley, 59
Payton, Charley, 190, 346
“peck” (alto) horn, 12, 94, 101–2
Pelican Dance Hall, 225, 241, 277
Pentecostal Church, 324
percussion, 101, 120, 142, 268, 362
Perez, Manuel, 79, 80, 85, 114, 119, 120, 121, 155, 180, 183, 224, 225, 230, 234, 238, 255, 260, 263, 273, 290, 335, 344, 350
band led by, see Onward Brass Band
as music teacher, 124–25
nonmusical work of, 174
second lining as viewed by, 23, 188
“perfect death,” 84
Perkins, Dave, 117, 124
Petit, Buddy, 204, 220–21, 225, 230, 266–68, 267, 269, 273, 275, 289, 290, 295–96, 361, 363
Phillip, Billy, 260
phonograph companies, 163
phonographs, 246, 298
“physics,” 74–75
pianists, 66
blues and, 72, 73, 158
harmony and, 295
homosexuality and, 201, 348
in honky tonks, 112
in Ragtime, 144–45
in Storyville brothels, 72, 201, 256, 257
women, 260
piano rolls, 143, 162
Picou, Alphonse, 29, 174, 175, 190, 192, 230, 255, 257, 265, 273, 345
“pigmentocracy,” 179, 184
pimping, 76, 92, 111, 180, 259
by Armstrong, 199, 219, 239
by Bolden and his contemporaries, 149–50
clothing styles and, 200
by Morton, 201
as musicians’ sideline, 199
social status and, 200
see also prostitutes; prostitution; Storyville
Pimp’s Ball, 200
Piron, Armand, 157, 174, 179, 228–29, 234, 344, 353
pitch, inflections of, 62–65, 67, 69, 191
Pittsburgh Coal Company, 225
plaçage, 170, 174
Place Congo (Congo Square), 4, 22, 139–40, 154, 202, 223, 225, 338
plantation immigrants, 28, 83, 270
aid societies and, 211
as Baptists, 35, 37
birthplaces of, 134–35
Creole animosity toward, 25, 177, 178
first wave of, 189
number of, 4, 135–36, 186
ragtime style of, 133–34, 136–37, 303
singing style of, 62–63
urban identity sought by, 292
see also freedmen
plantations, 35, 106, 135, 141, 293, 333
African-American culture formed on, 4, 43
dance contests held on, 142
form and effects of capitalism on, 51
largest, 137
movement of slaves between, 17–18
ragtime and, 156–57, 162
string bands and, 151
see also slavery; slaves
Plato, 235
pleasure clubs, 211
Plessy, Homer, 171
Plessy v. Ferguson, 3–4, 171
Poe, Edgar Allan, 146
polyrhythms, 62, 120–21, 146–48
Ponce, Henry, 110–12, 114
Pontchartrain, Lake, 11, 97, 153, 268
music and dance at, 103, 136, 221, 222–23, 233, 238
popular songs, 73, 260
“Potato Head Blues,” 241, 277
“potato horn,” 112
poverty, 76
preachers, 34–35, 117
descriptions of, 35, 43
in funerals, 214
Jesus seen through, 46–47
lay, 36, 38
trained, 38
wayward women and, 34
Presbyterians, 38
“Pretty Baby,” 230
Prevost (Privo), Louis, 232
primitivism, 5
“professors,” 137
prostitutes, 80, 90, 249
Armstrong’s youthful friendships with, 61, 76, 114, 115, 199
as “first class Octoroons,” 170, 179
number of, 200
prostitution, 3, 112, 180
in Liberty and Perdido neighborhood, 1, 33–34, 74, 99
see also pimping; Storyville
Protestants, 213, 215, 222
Pythian Temple Roof Garden, 263
“quails,” 112, 334
quartet singing, 92–94, 331
“queer minor catch,” 59
quills, 134, 334, 337
race riots, 14–15, 168
Charles riot, 14, 15, 15, 19, 33, 154, 168, 184, 321
racial determinism, 303
racial slurs, 81
Raeburn, Bruce Boyd, 326
“ragging” the tune, 145, 157, 159–62, 219, 236, 278, 279, 288, 303
rags-bottles-and-bones men, 2, 20, 58, 70, 191, 221, 305
blues and, 57, 62, 72, 73, 327
Bolden’s musical borrowings from, 229, 270
instruments played by, see Kress horn; tinhorns
see also Larenzo
Ragtime (musical genre), 134, 236
description of, 145, 159
harmony and, 295
old-time slave music and, 145
as piano-derived style, 144–45
popularity of, 143–44, 148, 162–63
“Red Back Book” collection of, 155–56, 237, 244, 260, 262, 295
two-beat rhythm used in, 285
use of term, 155–57
ragtime (musical practice), 29, 68, 89, 194, 299
Bechet’s description of, 291
Bolden and, 140–41, 148, 155, 156, 163
description of, 156
expansion of taste for, 195, 238, 347
improvisation and, 161–62
jazz as later name for, 105, 133, 156
Louis Tio’s reaction to, 175, 181
New Orleans version of, 133, 140–48, 163
plantation immigrants and, 133–34, 136–37, 303
plantation music and, 156–57, 162
use of term, 156–58, 161, 341–42
Rainey, Gertrude “Ma,” 61
Rampart Street, 80, 91, 261
“ratty” dancing, 140–48
“ratty” people, 5, 28, 29, 66, 137, 148–49, 154, 182, 304
Reconstruction, 18, 36, 134, 171–72, 177, 215
“Red Back Book” (Standard High Class Rags), 155–56, 237, 244, 260, 262, 295
reification, 51
Reisenweber’s restaurant, 245
religion, religious culture, 36–42
African, 4, 36, 41, 138, 142
as cultural blend, 139
politics and, 48–49
transcendence of personal rivalry in, 207
see also churches; preachers
“Religious Dancing of Blacks, Termed Shouting,” 22
religious tracts, 37
Remee, Keebo, 232
Rena, Henry “Kid,” 101, 257, 264, 265, 267, 268, 273, 275–76, 348
René, Joe, 187
Rex procession, 80, 81, 82
rhythm:
altered for waltzes, 141
in Armstrong’s playing, 40, 43, 101, 147
and behind-the-beat phrasing, 68, 69, 70, 127–28
binary patterns of, 145–46
in blues, 68, 69, 70
collective improvisation and, 286–87
fixed and variable patterns of, 285–87
four-beat, 43, 191, 227, 245, 285–86
harmonic, 287, 301
Latin dance rhythms, 187
in “mansion of the muses,” 8
notating of, 127
polyrhythms, 62, 120–21, 146–48
in Sanctified Church music, 38–40
syncopated riffing and, 43–44
two-beat, 43, 191, 285–86
in West African drum ensembles, 145
rhythm section, 286
Rice’s Cafe, 114, 260
Ridgley, William “Bebé,” 28, 103, 208, 231, 237, 238–39, 267
riffing, syncopated, 43–44
ring shouts, 4, 21, 37, 38, 51, 53, 134, 138, 181, 188, 209, 282
riverboats:
Armstrong’s band work on, 3, 29, 65, 127, 169, 219, 248, 249–55, 252, 263, 296, 354
Armstrong’s musical knowledge acquired on, 250, 254–55
segregation on, 251
as singles scene, 253–54
Robertson, Walter Blue, 9
Robichaux, John, 27, 156, 188, 242
Armstrong and Ory with, 23, 188, 195, 282
band led by, 23, 150, 152–53, 155, 174, 179, 195, 344
Bolden’s competitions with, 152–53, 155
Robinson, Jim, 134
Roosevelt, Teddy, 144, 145
“Roses of Picardy,” 179
“routine” musicians, 28, 29, 154, 220–24, 232–38, 305
Royal Gardens, 124, 285
Russell, Bill, 328
Russell, Luis, 262
“Russian Lullaby,” 324
Rutgers University, Institute of Jazz Studies at, 322
Sacred Heart of Jesus Church, 31
Sacred Heart of Mary’s Hall, 149
Saint Augustine’s Church, 179
St. Cyr, Johnny, 46, 100, 141, 153, 184, 191, 198, 229, 234, 251, 252, 252, 253, 276, 279, 349
Saint Domingue, 139, 140
St. Katherine’s Hall, 245
St. Louis, Mo., 3, 72, 123, 144–45, 162, 237, 251, 254
“St. Louis Blues,” 230, 270
St. Paul, 251, 253
Saints, 47, 304–5
definition of term, 31
see also Sanctified Church
St. Simon’s Island, Ga., 37
Sanctified Church, 8, 29, 47, 106, 187, 188
Albert’s conversion to, 37–38
Armstrong’s childhood exposure to, 2, 37, 38, 40, 41
blues compared with, 63
cultural accommodation and political resistance and, 46–54
dancing in, 21, 142
domestic work by female members of, 35
improvisation and, 209
musical legacy of, 53, 304
music in, 38–42, 39, 159
percentage of women in, 326
roots of jazz in, 42–46
“Saints” as term for members of, 31
singing in, 2, 31, 37–38, 94, 113, 209
social ranking of, 38, 40
splintering of, from Baptist Church, 38, 50, 217
use of term, 324
Santiago, Willie, 262
Santiago (street musician), 55, 73
Satchmo (Armstrong), 56, 322
Sayles, Emmanuel, 244
scat singing, 44, 94–95, 227, 232
Schiller Café, 228
Scior, Charles, 12
Scott, Bud, 43, 150–51
Scott, James, 237
second lining, 21, 181
by Armstrong, 17, 79–80, 86, 88, 115–16, 239
Creoles and, 17, 23, 187, 188, 282
definition and description of, 17, 79–80
in funerals with music, 84, 86–87, 87
violence and, 9, 17, 22
segregation, 3–4
on riverboats, 251
on trolley cars, 16, 21, 177, 182
see also Jim Crow
Segretta, Joe, 110, 239
Senegal, 62
Senegambians, 50–51
serenade bands, 91, 221
Seventh Ward, 19, 164, 165, 189, 192, 195
sharecropping, 106, 135, 136
sheet music, 145, 159, 230, 298
Shiloh Baptist Church, 37
Shines, Johnny, 123
Sidney, 251
sight-singing, 67
Silver Leaf Band, 193, 226
Simeon, Omer, 296
Sims, Joe, 95
singing:
by Armstrong’s childhood quartet, 91–93, 95, 109, 110, 112, 113, 157
in Baptist churches, 36–37, 94
blues, 62–64, 72
continuum of speech and, 63–65
intonation in, 94
as “novelty” for Armstrong, 109
oríkì, 210
quartet, 92–94, 331
in Sanctified Church, 2, 31, 37–42, 113, 209
scat, 44, 94–95, 227, 232
solfège, 67, 125, 127, 174, 175, 181–82, 193
by women berry sellers, 57, 347
as women’s role, 198
in work songs, 59
see also scat singing
Singleton, Zutty, 80, 85, 135, 191
“Sing On,” 119
skin color prejudice, 5, 25–27, 178–79, 182–85, 257, 359
slang, 203
slavery, 13, 49, 53, 278, 284
illegal continuation of, 138
see also plantations
slaves:
Armstrong’s maternal grandparents as, 35
commonalities sought by, 4, 41, 280
cultural development of, 21
dancing by, 89
freedom of movement of, 17–18
from Haiti, 139, 140
literacy forbidden to, 235
at Place Congo, 4, 22, 139–40, 154, 223, 338
prohibition on African drumming by, 122
Ragtime music descended from music of, 145
tribal origins of, 4
work songs and, 59
Slippers (honky tonk manager), 167
Sloan, Henry, 59
“slow drag,” 63, 151, 155
Smith, Bessie, 158, 270, 284
Smith, Clarence, 258
Smith, Jabbo, 207, 272
Smith, Joe, 270
Smith, Mamie, 275
Smooth, Isaac, 114
“Snag It,” 270–71
Snowball (slave), 105–6
“society” jobs, 243
solfège, 67, 125, 127, 174, 175, 181–82, 193
“songsters,” 281
Souchon, Edmond, 27, 77, 105–6, 115, 118, 119, 135, 232, 295, 344
“soul,” 71
Sousa, John Philip, 144, 145
South America, 122, 147
South Carolina, 22
Spanish flu epidemic, 239, 240
Spanish Fort, 223
“spelling,” 126, 234
spirituals, 156
Stark, John, 144, 157, 237, 297
Staulz, Lorenzo, 149, 203, 247, 265
Stearns, Charles, 22
Steele, Porter, 229
Stompdown Creole, 183
Storyville, 11, 75, 99, 115, 170, 195, 224, 245, 255–63, 345
Armstrong as coal delivery boy in, 114–15, 225
Armstrong’s childhood arrest in, 2, 96, 98
Armstrong’s childhood vocal quartet in, 91–92
Armstrong’s playing in, 261–63
closing of, 239, 240, 256, 261
Creoles in, 257, 260, 262
early jazz role of, 256
Keppard as first brass player in, 119, 179, 206, 257, 359
music scene in, 256–63
in 1940s New Orleans jazz revival, 256
Oliver’s home in, 115
Oliver’s playing in, 119, 206, 257, 260, 261
pianists in, 72, 201, 256, 257
skin color hierarchy in, 257
“Storyville—Where the Blues Were Born” (Armstrong), 256
Streckfus, Johnny, 250, 251, 357
Streckfus brothers, 250, 253, 254
street cries, 59
Street Cries of an Old Southern City (Leiding), 59
street musicians, 55–56
string bands, 151, 160, 234, 293
Summers, Eddie, 120
Sundays, 222–23
Sunnyland Slim, 59
Superior Orchestra, 260
Supreme Court, U.S., 3–4, 171
“Sweetie Dear,” 230
Sweet Spirits of Nitre, 75
swing, 23, 188, 238, 255
swing era, 43, 67, 134, 285
Swiss Kriss, 75
syncopation, 43–44, 286, 288
“Take Your Feet off Katie’s Head,” 228, 229–30, 353
talking drum, 122
Tammany Social Aid and Pleasure Club, 212
Tansure’s melody, 42, 45
tap dancing, 231
Tatum, Art, 301
Taylor, Robert “Dudlow,” 293
tempos, 141, 151, 244, 275
Tennessee, 134
Tennessee Coal Company, 225
Terry, Sonny, 59
Thibodeaux massacre, 134
Third Ward, 80, 97, 98, 105, 165
“This is My Nigger,” 167, 280
Thompson, Robert Farris, 50, 142
timbre, 62, 106, 122, 132, 145, 266
see also tone
time, cyclical, 138
tinhorns, 57, 101, 106, 293
Armstrong’s playing of, 225
played by rags-bottles-and-bones men, 20, 55, 57, 63, 70, 73, 191, 327, 328
Tio, Lorenzo, 27, 175, 190
Tio, Lorenzo, Jr., 124, 174, 175, 194, 262, 265, 273
Tio, Louis, 175, 181, 194, 195, 282, 344–45
Tio, Marcos, 174
Tio, Thomas, 174–75
Tio family, 174–75, 190, 192
Todd, Camilla, 260
tonal languages, 64–65
tone:
Armstrong’s lessons in, 104–5, 157
in Armstrong’s playing, 104–5, 106, 333
Creole standards of, 29, 106, 126
see also timbre
Tracey, William, 92
Trenchard, Corporal, 15
triplets, 62
trolley cars, 16, 21, 177, 182
trombones, 120, 220, 286, 289
True, 256
tubas, 191
Tulane University, 11, 57, 232
“Turkey in the Straw,” 156–57, 159
Turner, Henry, 14
Turtles Club, 211
Tuxedo Brass Band, 8, 24, 28–29, 103, 174, 212, 268
Armstrong as member of, 255
Armstrong as substitute player in, 12–13, 18, 20, 27, 28, 29
Tuxedo Dance Band, 28
Tuxedo Dance Hall, 114, 178, 195, 225, 259
Twelfth Ward, 185
two-beat rhythm, 43, 191, 285–86
two-steps, 142, 143
uptown, 17, 24, 53, 137, 323
as “American section,” 24–25, 170
dance styles in, 141–42
map of, 33
musicians from, see black/uptown musicians
number of dance halls in, 136
plantation immigrants’ relocation to, 135
popularity of blues in, 113–14
Valentine, “Kid” Thomas, 135, 156, 157
Variety, 210
vaudeville, 92, 231, 349
Victrolas, 246
vigilante terrorism, 3, 8, 50, 103, 134, 135, 165, 283
violins, 120, 234, 237, 238, 247, 262, 288, 354, 363
voodoo, 138, 139, 147
voting rights, 35, 173, 197
Wade, Clerk, 200
“Waffle Man” (street musician), 55, 326
Walker, Catherine, 31
Walters, Albert, 267, 296
waltzes, 141, 142, 150
Warmoth, Henry Clay, 103
Warner, Willie, 151
Waters, Ethel, 250
Waters, Muddy, 62, 65, 69
“Weary Blues,” 351
“Weatherbird,” 254
“We Can Very Well Do Without Him,” 214
Weekly Louisianian, 174
Wells, Dickey, 127
West Africa, 41, 50, 122, 301
circle-dance in, 21
drum ensembles of, 62, 145–46, 287
music in, 62, 64–65, 210, 285
“West End Blues,” 223
“What Did I Do to Be so Black and Blue,” 277–78
“When the Saints Come Marching In,” 42, 84, 102
“When You Leave Me Alone to Pine,” 231
White, Lulu, 256–57
“white,” as social category, 165
white bands, 223, 245–46, 251
“white face,” 231
white people:
and African-American musical vernacular, 166, 169
Armstrong’s early contact with, 166–69
Armstrong’s later audience as, 58, 169
as patrons of black music, 103, 106, 136, 333
playing at private parties of, 261
in Storyville, 257, 258–59
Wiggs, Johnny, 57, 72, 130, 190, 227, 235, 244, 245, 246, 296
Wilber, Bob, 51
Williams, “Black” Benny, 17, 18, 25, 26, 79–80, 92, 199, 202, 213, 226–27, 265, 268
Williams, Clarence, 228–29, 231, 233, 353
Williams, Cootie, 336, 360
Williams, Fess, 209
Williams Research Center, 237
Wiltz, Victoire, 174
“Wind and Grind,” 228
wind instruments, 346
in New Orleans blues, 63–64, 72–73
outdoors suitability of, 73
ragtime and, 162–63
see also brass bands; specific instruments
Wingfield, Roland, 86
women, 80, 170, 198
Armstrong raised by, 52
in Baptist and Sanctified Churches, 326
as domestic workers, 35, 180
funerals with music denied to, 214–15
hat bow murder by, 340
music in seduction of, 63, 150, 199, 347
oríkì singers, 210
as pianists, 260
singing and berry-selling by, 57, 347
see also prostitutes; prostitution
Woodland Plantation, 135
Work, John, 60
work-or-fight laws, 240
work songs, 59–60, 62, 158, 278, 293
Wynn, Wilhelmina Bart, 261
Yoruba people, 210
Young, Lester, 68–69, 301
Zardis, Chester, 332
Zeno, Henry, 213
“Zulu,” as racial slur, 81
Zulu Aid and Pleasure Club, 81, 211, 338
Zulu ensembles and Kings, 80–81, 82, 83, 154, 268, 350–51
Zulus, in Dime Museum, 123