Prologue
1. R. Fortey, The Earth: An Intimate History (New York: Vintage, 2005).
2. J. O. Farlow, C. V. Thompson, and D. E. Rosner, “Plates of the Dinosaur Stegosaurus: Forced Convection Heat Loss Fins?” Science 192:1123–25.
3. J. E. Lovelock, Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979).
4. M. Ruse, The Gaia Hypothesis: Science on a Pagan Planet (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013).
5. R. Dawkins, The Extended Phenotype: The Gene as the Unit of Selection (Oxford: W. H. Freeman, 1982).
6. I. Kant, Critique of the Power of Judgment, trans. and ed. P. Guyer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, [1790] 2000).
7. R. J. Richards and M. Ruse, Debating Darwin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016).
Chapter One. Athens
1. J. Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), 332; Physics 194b19.
2. M. Ruse, Darwin and Design: Does Evolution Have a Purpose? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003).
3. R. J. Hankinson, Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 5–6; T. Nagel, Mind and Cosmos: Why the Materialist Neo-Darwinian Conception of Nature Is Almost Certainly False (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 58–59.
4. The King James Bible version is used throughout the book for biblical references unless otherwise noted.
5. J. M. Cooper, ed., Plato: Complete Works (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1997), 83–84; Phaedo, 96 c-d.
6. Ibid.; Phaedo, 97 c-d.
7. Ibid.
8. D. Sedley, Creationism and Its Critics in Antiquity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), 150–53, De rerum natura, 5.837–48. Copyright © 2009, The Regents of the University of California. Further references from this source are from book 5 and appear in the main text by the line numbers.
9. Cooper, Plato, 289; Sophist, 265c.
10. Sedley, Creationism, 133–34. Copyright © 2009, The Regents of the University of California.
11. Ibid., 208.
12. Cooper, Plato, 1615; Laws, 967c.
13. Sedley, Creationism, 114. Copyright © 2009, The Regents of the University of California.
14. Cooper, Plato, 1235; Timaeus, 29a.
15. Timaeus, 29a.
16. Ibid., 30b.
17. Barnes, Complete Works of Aristotle, 688; De Anima, 432b22.
18. M. Leunissen, Explanation and Teleology in Aristotle’s Science of Nature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
19. J. G. Lennox, Aristotle’s Philosophy of Biology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
20. Barnes, Complete Works of Aristotle, 332–34; Physics, 194b16–195a3.
21. Ibid., 999; Parts of Animals, 642a32–34.
22. M. R. Johnson, Aristotle on Teleology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).
23. Barnes, Complete Works of Aristotle, 656; De Anima, 412a28.
24. Ibid., 661; ibid., 415b15–16.
25. Ibid., 1994–95; Politics, 1256b15–22.
26. Ibid., 661; De Anima, 415a25–415b1.
27. H. Bergson, L’évolution créatrice (Paris: Alcan, 1907).
28. D. H. Lawrence, Women in Love (London: Penguin, 1921 [1960]), 499–500.
29. Johnson, Aristotle on Teleology, 287.
30. Barnes, Complete Works of Aristotle, 342; Physics, 200a31–33.
31. Ibid., 340; ibid., 199a20–30.
32. Ibid.; ibid., 199a30–33.
33. Cooper, Plato, 444; Philebus, 54c.
34. Parts of Animals, 641b10–18. I use Sedley’s 2007 translation, Creationism and Its Critics in Antiquity, 194, to bring out the notion of purpose.
35. Barnes, Complete Works of Aristotle, 389; Physics, 230b12–13.
36. Ibid., 1649; Metaphysics, 1044b8–12.
37. Ibid., 476; De Caelo, 289a11–12.
38. Ibid., 1694; Metaphysics, 1072b10–11.
39. Ibid., 1695; ibid., 1072a22–26.
40. Hankinson, Cause and Explanation, 187.
41. Barnes, Complete Works of Aristotle, 1694; Metaphysics, 1072a26–28.
42. Ibid., 1698; ibid., 1074b23–27.
43. Ibid.; ibid., 1074b33–34.
44. Ibid.; ibid., 1075a10-15.
45. Barnes, Complete Works of Aristotle; Politics 1253a.
46. Ibid.; Nichomachean Ethics, 1177a11–18.
47. Ibid.; ibid., 1177a7–9.
48. Cicero, De Natura Deorum, trans. H. Rackham (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; Loeb Classical Library, 1933), 216–17.
49. Ibid., 246.
50. Cooper, Plato, 1560; Laws, 10.903C.
51. Barnes, Complete Works of Aristotle, 1802; Nicomachean Ethics, 1141a34–b1.
52. Cicero, De Natura Deorum, 158.
Chapter Two. Jerusalem
1. Augustine, Confessions, trans. H. Chadwick (Oxford: Oxford University Press, [396] 1998), 228.
2. Ibid., 225–26.
3. Ibid., 230.
4. Augustine, On the Trinity, trans. A. W. Hadden (New York: Philip Schaff, 1887), 24–25.
5. Plotinus, The Enneads, trans. S. MacKenna (Burdett, NY: Larson Publications, 1992), 3:14.
6. Ibid., 5:1, 5:7.
7. Augustine, The City of God against the Pagans, ed. and trans. R. W. Dyson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, [413–426] 1998), 394.
8. Ibid., 393.
9. M. Ruse, Atheism: What Everyone Needs to Know (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).
10. Augustine, Confessions, 127; further references to this volume in this paragraph are given by page number.
11. Augustine, City of God, 53.
12. Lucretius, Of the Nature of Things, trans. W. E. Leonard (London: Dutton, Everyman’s Library, 1950), v.
13. Augustine, City of God, 617.
14. Ibid., 1070.
15. J. M. Cooper, ed., Plato: Complete Works (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1997), 364; Parmenides 130d.
16. Augustine, Confessions, 8–9.
17. Ibid., 223.
18. Augustine, Ad Simplicianum de diversis quaestionibus, in Responses to Miscellaneous Questions, ed. B. Ramsey (Hyde Park, NY: New City Press, 2008).
19. Augustine, The Augustine Catechism: The Enchiridion on Faith, Hope and Charity, trans. B. Harbert (Hyde Park, NY: New City Press, 1999), 96.
20. Augustine, Expositions of the Psalms, trans. M. Boulding (Hyde Park, NY: New City Press, 2000), 1, 364–65.
21. Augustine, On Free Choice of the Will (De Libero Arbitrio), trans. M. Pontifex (Westminster: Newman Press, 1955), 3.4.11.
22. Augustine, The City of God, 510–11.
23. Ibid., 16.
24. Ibid., 544–45.
25. M. Ruse, “The Shame of Calvin College,” Brainstorm: Chronicle of Higher Education, 2011, http://www.chronicle.com/blogs/brainstorm/the-shame-of-calvin-college/37484.
26. D. C. Lindberg, The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
27. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, vol. 11, Man (1a. 75–83) (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1970), 2.
28. Augustine, The City of God, 413–26, 452.
29. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, vol. 1 (London: Burns, Oates and Washbourne, 1952), 2, 3.
30. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, vol. 11, Man (1a. 75–83), 2, 3.
31. Ibid.
32. O. Pedersen, Early Physics and Astronomy: A Historical Introduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 210.
Chapter Three. Machines
1. A. R. Hall, The Scientific Revolution, 1500–1800: The Formation of the Modern Scientific Attitude (London: Longman, Green, 1954), xvi–xvii.
2. M. Ruse, Science and Spirituality: Making Room for Faith in the Age of Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
3. R. Boyle, A Free Enquiry into the Vulgarly Received Notion of Nature, ed. E. B. Davis and M. Hunter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 12–13.
4. R. Descartes, “Meditations,” in Philosophical Essays (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, [1642] 1964), 111.
5. T. W. Africa, “Copernicus’ Relation to Aristarchus and Pythagoras,” Isis 52 (1961): 408, quoting De Revolutionibus 1.10.
6. E. A. Burtt, The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1932), 48, quoting an early fragment.
7. J. Kepler, Harmonices Mundi (1619), in Kepler, The Harmony of the World, trans. E. J. Aiton, A. M. Duncan, and J. V. Field (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1977), 358–59.
8. Ibid., 363–64.
9. Galileo, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, trans. S. Drake (New York: Random House, [1632] 2001), 11–12.
10. M. Ruse, Darwin and Design: Does Evolution Have a Purpose? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003).
11. John Keble, “Who Runs May Read,” in The Christian Year, published 1827.
12. H. More, The Immortality of the Soul (Dordrecht: Nijhoff, [1659] 1987), lxxxi.
13. A. R. Hall, Henry More: Magic, Religion and Experiment (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990).
14. Kepler, in a 1605 letter to Herwart von Hohenburg, cited in G. Holton, Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 72.
15. E. J. Dijksterhuis, The Mechanization of the World Picture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961), 491.
16. R. Boyle, “A Disquisition about the Final Causes of Natural Things,” in The Works of Robert Boyle, ed. T. Birch (Hildesheim: Georg Olms, [1688] 1966), 5:397–98.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid., 5:424.
19. Ibid., 5:428.
20. D. Hume, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, ed. M. Bell (London: Penguin, [1779] 1990), 77.
21. Ibid., 108–9.
22. Ibid., 109.
23. Ibid., 130.
24. P. Lipton, Inference to the Best Explanation (London: Routledge, 1991).
25. W. Paley, Natural Theology (Collected Works: Volume 4) (London: Rivington, [1802] 1819), 1.
26. Ibid., 13–14.
27. Cecil Frances Alexander, third stanza from “All Things Bright and Beautiful,” in Hymns for Little Children, 1848.
28. D. Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, ed. D. F. Norton and M. J. Norton (Oxford: Oxford University Press, [1739–40] 2000), 302.
29. I. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, trans. and ed. P. Guyer and A. W. Wood (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press [1781/1787] 1998), 117.
30. I. Kant, Religion within the Bounds of Mere Reason, ed. A. Wood and G. di Giovanni (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, [1793] 1998), 36.
31. B. Spinoza, “Ethics,” in The Collected Writings of Spinoza, trans. E. Curley (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, [1677] 1985).
32. I. Kant, Critique of the Power of Judgment, ed. P. Guyer, trans. E. Matthews (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, [1790] 2000), 246.
33. Ibid., 247–48; boldface in original.
34. Ibid., 246.
35. G.W.F. Hegel, Logic, trans. W. Wallace (Pacifica, CA: Marxist’s Internet Archive, [1830] 2008), 442.
36. Kant, Critique of the Power of Judgment, 247.
37. Ibid., 271.
38. M. R. Johnson, Aristotle on Teleology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 188.
Chapter Four. Evolution
1. M. Ruse, Monad to Man: The Concept of Progress in Evolutionary Biology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996).
2. J. B. Bury, The Idea of Progress: An Inquiry into Its Origin and Growth (London: Macmillan, [1920] 1924), 5.
3. I. Kant, Critique of the Power of Judgment, trans. and ed. P. Guyer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, [1790] 2000), 302–3.
4. M. Ruse, The Evolution-Creation Struggle (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005).
5. W. Godwin, An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, [1793] 2013), book 1, chapter 5.
6. Ibid., book 2, chapter 4.
7. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, book 1, chapter 2, “Of the Principle which gives occasion to the Division of Labour” (1776).
8. D. Diderot, Diderot: Interpreter of Nature (New York: International, 1943), 152.
9. G. M. Kirk, J. E. Raven, and M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 303.
10. P. J. Bowler, Evolution: The History of an Idea (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984).
11. Kant, Critique of the Power of Judgment (1790), 288.
12. D. Cuvier, Le règne animal distribué d’aprés son organisation, pour servir de base à l’histoire naturelle des animaux et d’introduction à l’anatomie compare (Paris, 1817), 1, 3–4.
13. Kant, in Critique of the Power of Judgment (1790), 287.
14. Diderot, Diderot, 48.
15. E. Darwin, The Temple of Nature (London: J. Johnson, 1803), 1, 11, 295–314.
16. E. Darwin, Zoonomia; or, The Laws of Organic Life, 3rd ed. (London: J. Johnson, [1794–96] 1801), 2:247–48.
17. R. Chambers, Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (London: J. Churchill, 1844), 400–402.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid.
20. M. Ruse, Monad to Man, 1996.
21. R. W. Burkhardt, The Spirit of System: Lamarck and Evolutionary Biology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977).
22. W. Whewell, The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences (London: Parker, 1840).
23. Kant, Critique of the Power of Judgment (1790), 245.
24. R. Owen, On the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton (London: Voorst, 1848).
25. Ibid.
26. C. C. Gillespie, Genesis and Geology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1950).
27. W. Whewell, Astronomy and General Physics (Bridgewater Treatise, 3) (London: William Pickering, 1833).
28. W. Whewell, Of the Plurality of Worlds (London: Parker, 1853), 221. This later work took up the plurality problem explicitly and at length. It is from this work, or rather my facsimile edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), that the quotations are taken. The work was published anonymously because by this time Whewell was Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, and open controversy would be considered unseemly. Everyone knew the identity of the author.
29. Ibid., 222
30. Ibid., 226.
31. M. Ruse, “Kant and Evolution,” in Theories of Generation, ed. J. Smith, 402–15 (Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press, 2006).
32. Kant, Critique of the Power of Judgment (1790), 288.
33. P. H. Barrett et al., Charles Darwin’s Notebooks, 1836–1844 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987), 174.
34. W. Whewell, The History of the Inductive Sciences (London: Parker, 1837), 3, 588.
Chapter Five. Charles Darwin
1. J. Browne, Charles Darwin: Voyaging, Volume 1 of a Biography (New York: Knopf, 1995), and Charles Darwin: The Power of Place, Volume 2 of a Biography (New York: Knopf, 2002).
2. R. J. Richards and M. Ruse, Debating Darwin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016).
3. M. Ruse, Darwinism as Religion: What Literature Tells Us about Evolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017).
4. M. Ruse, “Darwin’s Debt to Philosophy: An Examination of the Influence of the Philosophical Ideas of John F. W. Herschel and William Whewell on the Development of Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 6 (1975): 159–81.
5. T. R. Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population (New York: Macmillan, [1798] 1966).
6. C. Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (London: John Murray, 1859), 63–64.
7. T. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).
8. C. Darwin, On the Origin of Species, 80–81.
9. W. Whewell, The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences (London: Parker, 1840).
10. M. Ruse, “Sexual Selection: Why Does It Play Such a Large Role in the Descent of Man?,” in Current Perspectives on Sexual Selection: What’s Left after Darwin?, ed. T. Hoquet (New York: Springer, 2015), 3–17.
11. C. Darwin, The Autobiography of Charles Darwin, 1809–1882, ed. Nora Barlow (London: Collins, 1958).
12. W. Henry, The Elements of Experimental Chemistry, 8th ed. (London: Baldwin, Cradock and Joy, 1818), xix.
13. Ibid., iii.
14. W. Kirby and W. Spence, An Introduction to Entomology: or, Elements of the Natural History of Insects (London: Longman, Hurst, Reece, Orme, and Brown, 1815–28).
15. Ibid., xvi.
16. Cuvier, Le règne animal distribué d’après son organisation pour servir de base a l’histoire naturelle des animaux (1817), 1, 6.
17. Darwin, On the Origin of Species (1859), 469.
18. Darwin, Origin of Species, 3rd ed. (1861), 163.
19. A. Desmond, Huxley: From Devil’s Disciple to Evolution’s High Priest (New York: Basic Books, 1997).
20. Darwin, On the Origin of Species (1859), 206.
21. R. Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker (New York: Norton, 1986). Alvin Plantinga, in his Warrant and Proper Function, notes correctly that Kant offered a heuristic solution without explaining why it works. Plantinga argues that this shows we cannot have a natural explanation of organic purpose or function, a conclusion he is able to achieve only by ignoring entirely the Darwinian solution, almost too typical a gambit by analytic philosophers to be worthy of remark.
22. R. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976), 21.
23. C. Darwin and A. R. Wallace, Evolution by Natural Selection, foreword by Gavin de Beer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958), 45–46.
24. Darwin, On the Origin of Species (1859), 488.
25. C. Darwin, The Correspondence of Charles Darwin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985–), 8, 224; May 22, 1860.
26. A. Gotthelf, “Darwin on Aristotle,” Journal of the History of Biology 32:3–30.
27. Darwin, Origin of Species, 3rd ed. (1861), 85.
28. C. Darwin, On the Various Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids Are Fertilized by Insects, and On the Good Effects of Intercrossing (London: John Murray, 1862).
29. Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker, 6.
30. Darwin, On the Origin of Species (1859), 490.
31. P. H. Barrett et al., Charles Darwin’s Notebooks, 1836–1844 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987), Notebook E, 95–96.
32. Darwin, Origin of Species, 3rd ed. (1861), 133.
33. Ibid., 134.
Chapter Six. Darwinism
1. C. Naden, Poetical Works of Constance Naden (Kernville, CA: High Sierra Books, 1999), 207–8; written around 1885.
2. M. Ruse, Monad to Man: The Concept of Progress in Evolutionary Biology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996).
3. W. B. Provine, The Origins of Theoretical Population Genetics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971).
4. P. R. Grant, Ecology and Evolution of Darwin’s Finches (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986); P. R. Grant and R. B. Grant, How and Why Species Multiply: The Radiation of Darwin’s Finches (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007).
5. J. A. Hopson, “The Evolution of Cranial Display Structures in Hadrosaurian Dinosaurs,” Paleobiology 1 (1975): 21–43; D. B. Weishampel, “Acoustic Analyses of Potential Vocalization in Lambeosaurine Dinosaurs (Reptilia: Ornithischia),” Paleobiology 7 (1981): 252–61.
6. D. B. Weishampel, “Dinosaurian Cacophony,” BioScience 47, no. 3 (1997): 150–58.
7. M. Ruse, Darwinism Defended: A Guide to the Evolution Controversies (Reading, MA: Benjamin/Cummings, 1982).
8. T. Dobzhansky, F. J. Ayala, G. L. Stebbins, and J. W. Valentine, Evolution (San Francisco: Freeman, 1977).
9. R. C. Lewontin, The Genetic Basis of Evolutionary Change (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974).
10. S. J. Gould, Ontogeny and Phylogeny (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1977) and The Structure of Evolutionary Theory (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002).
11. S. J. Gould and R. C. Lewontin, “The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm: A Critique of the Adaptationist Programme,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 205 (1979): 581–98.
12. Ibid., 582.
13. J. M. Smith, “Did Darwin Get It Right?,” London Review of Books 3, no. 11 (1981): 10–11.
14. S. Wright, “Evolution in Mendelian Populations,” Genetics 16 (1931): 97–159 and “The Roles of Mutation, Inbreeding, Crossbreeding and Selection in Evolution,” Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of Genetics 1 (1932): 356–66.
15. J. A. Coyne, N. H. Barton, and M. Turelli, “Perspective: A Critique of Sewall Wright’s Shifting Balance Theory of Evolution,” Evolution 51, no. 3 (1997): 643–71.
16. Smith, “Did Darwin Get It Right?,” 10–11.
17. M. Ruse, Darwin and Design: Does Evolution Have a Purpose? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003).
18. C. Allen, M. Bekoff, and G. Lauder, Nature’s Purposes, Analyses of Function and Design in Biology (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998).
19. L. Wright, “Functions,” Philosophical Review 82, no. 2 (April 1973): 139–68.
20. R. Cummins, “Functional Analysis,” Journal of Philosophy 72, no. 20 (Nov. 20, 1975): 741–65.
21. M. Ruse, The Philosophy of Biology (London: Hutchinson, 1973).
22. M. Mossio, C. Saborido, A. Moreno, “An Organizational Account of Biological Functions,” British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 60, no. 4 (2009): 813–41.
23. M. Bedau, “Where’s the Good in Teleology?,” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 52 (1992): 781n1.
24. F. Ayala, “Teleological Explanations in Evolutionary Biology,” Philosophy of Science 37 (1970): 1–15.
25. E. Nagel, The Structure of Science: Problems in the Logic of Scientific Explanation (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1961).
26. S. J. Gould, “On Replacing the Idea of Progress with an Operational Notion of Directionality,” in Evolutionary Progress, ed. M. H. Nitecki (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 319.
27. S. J. Gould, Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989), 318.
28. E. O. Wilson, The Diversity of Life (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 187.
29. E. O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975).
30. G. C. Williams, Adaptation and Natural Selection (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1966).
31. R. Dawkins, “Progress,” in Keywords in Evolutionary Biology, ed. E. F. Keller and E. Lloyd (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 265–66.
32. M. Ruse, The Philosophy of Biology.
33. C. Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (London: John Murray, 1859), 345.
34. Jack Sepkoski, interview with the author, January 1989.
35. Keith Stewart Thomson, “The Pattern of Diversification among Fishes,” in Patterns of Evolution as Illustrated by the Fossil Record, edited by A. Hallam (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1977), 5:547–62.
36. J. A. Doyle, “Patterns of Evolution in Early Angiosperms,” in Patterns of Evolution as Illustrated by the Fossil Record, ed. A. Hallam (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1977), 5:531.
37. J. S. Huxley, The Individual in the Animal Kingdom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1912), 115–16; all subsequent quotes in this paragraph are from these page numbers in this source.
38. R. Dawkins and J. R. Krebs, “Arms Races Between and Within Species,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B 205:508.
39. H. Jerison, Evolution of the Brain and Intelligence (New York: Academic Press, 1973).
40. R. Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker (New York: Norton, 1986), 189.
41. Conference talk, Melbu, Norway, 1989; printed in Ruse, Monad to Man, 469.
42. Ibid.
43. Ruse, Monad to Man, 486.
44. S. J. Gould, The Flamingo’s Smile: Reflections in Natural History (New York: Norton, 1985), 412.
45. Ibid.
46. S. Conway Morris, Life’s Solution: Inevitable Humans in a Lonely Universe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
47. Ibid., 196.
48. J. S. Huxley, Evolution: The Modern Synthesis (London: Allen and Unwin, 1942).
49. J.B.S. Haldane, Possible Worlds and Other Essays (London: Chatto and Windus, 1927), 286.
Chapter Seven. Plato Redivivus
1. W. Whewell, The History of the Inductive Sciences (London: Parker, 1837); A. A. Sedgwick, “Address to the Geological Society,” Proceedings of the Geological Society of London 1 (1831): 281–316.
2. E. Lurie, Louis Agassiz: A Life in Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960).
3. A. Gray, review of The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, American Journal of Arts and Sciences, in Darwiniana (New York: Appleton, [1860] 1876), 7.
4. C. Darwin, The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication (London: Murray, 1868), 2, 432.
5. A. R. Wallace, “The Limits of Natural Selection as Applied to Man,” in Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection (London: Macmillan, [1865] 1870), 359–60.
6. Augustine, The City of God against the Pagans, ed. and trans. R. W. Dyson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, [413–426] 1998), 512.
7. M. Noll, America’s God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
8. R. L. Numbers, The Creationists: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006).
9. J. C. Whitcomb and H. M. Morris, The Genesis Flood: The Biblical Record and Its Scientific Implications (Philadelphia: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 1961).
10. H. M. Morris, “Design Is Not Enough,” Back to Genesis 127 (1999): a–c.
11. M. Ruse, But Is It Science? The Philosophical Question in the Creation/Evolution Controversy (Buffalo, NY: Prometheus, 1988).
12. P. E. Johnson, Darwin on Trial (Washington, DC: Regnery Gateway, 1991).
13. M. Behe, Darwin’s Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution (New York: Free Press, 1996), 70.
14. K. Miller, Finding Darwin’s God (New York: Harper and Row, 1999).
15. F. Jacob, “Evolution and Tinkering,” Science 196 (1977): 1161–66.
16. R. F. Doolittle, “A Delicate Balance,” Boston Review 22, no. 1 (1997): 28–29.
17. John Paul II, “The Pope’s Message on Evolution,” Quarterly Review of Biology 72 (1997): 377–83.
18. R. J. Russell, Cosmology: From Alpha to Omega: The Creative Mutual Interaction of Theology and Science (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2008).
19. E. Sober, “Evolutionary Theory, Causal Completeness, and Theism: The Case of ‘Guided’ Mutations,” in Evolutionary Biology: Conceptual, Ethical, and Religious Issues, ed. R. P. Thompson and D. M. Walsh (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 31–44.
20. M. Ruse, The Gaia Hypothesis: Science on a Pagan Planet (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013).
21. F. Doolittle, “Is Nature Really Motherly?,” CoEvolution 29 (1981): 58–62.
22. J. D. Barrow and F. J. Tipler, The Anthropic Cosmological Principle (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986).
23. Ibid., 16.
24. Ibid., 22.
25. Steven Weinberg, “A Designer Universe?,” New York Review of Books, October 21, 1999, 47.
26. V. J. Stenger, The Fallacy of Fine-Tuning: Why the Universe Is Not Designed for Us (Buffalo, NY: Prometheus, 2011), 70
27. B. C. Jantzen, An Introduction to Design Arguments (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014).
28. G.W.F. Hegel, Logic, trans. W. Wallace (Pacifica, CA: Marxist’s Internet Archive, [1830] 2008), 444.
29. S. Kierkegaard, Fear and Trembling, ed. and trans. A. Hannay (London: Penguin, [1843] 1985).
30. K. Barth, The Epistle to the Romans (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933), 134.
Chapter Eight. Aristotle Redivivus
1. Galileo, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, trans. S. Drake (New York: Random House, [1632] 2001); selections from the Third Day, 153–62, 165–67.
2. A. M. Smith, “Descartes’s Theory of Light and Refraction: A Discourse on Method,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (1987) 77:16–17; this is from the “Treatise on Light.”
3. Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis, “Accord between Different Laws of Nature that Seemed Incompatible,” paper submitted to the Paris Academy, 1744.
4. I. Kant, Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science, trans. M. Friedman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, [1786] 2004), 30.
5. B. Spinoza, “Ethics,” in The Collected Writings of Spinoza, trans. E. Curley (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, [1677] 1985).
6. R. J. Richards, The Romantic Conception of Life: Science and Philosophy in the Age of Goethe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).
7. F.W.J. Schelling, Ideas for a Philosophy of Nature as Introduction to the Study of This Science, 1797, 2nd ed., trans. E. E. Harris and P. Heath (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, [1803] 1988), 54.
8. Ibid., 35.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid., 42.
12. D. W. Thompson, On Growth and Form, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1948); the first edition was published in 1917.
13. S. J. Gould, “D’Arcy Thompson and the Science of Form,” New Literary History 2 (1971): 229–58.
14. Thompson, On Growth and Form, 10.
15. Ibid., 395.
16. Ibid., 395–96.
17. Ibid., 966.
18. Ibid.
19. S. A. Kauffman, At Home in the Universe: The Search for the Laws of Self-Organization and Complexity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
20. A. Gray, Structural Botany, 6th ed. (London: Macmillan, 1881).
21. B. Goodwin, How the Leopard Changed Its Spots, 2nd ed. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), 127.
22. D. King, “An Interview with Professor Brian Goodwin,” GenEthics News 11 (1996): 6–8; quotes in the remainder of this paragraph are to this interview.
23. J.-B. Lamarck, Philosophie zoologique (Paris: Dentu, 1809).
24. M. Ruse, The Darwinian Revolution: Science Red in Tooth and Claw (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979).
25. G.W.F. Hegel, Philosophy of Nature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, [1817] 1970), 20.
26. H. Spencer, Autobiography (London: Williams and Norgate, 1904).
27. H. Spencer, “Progress: Its Law and Cause,” Westminster Review 67 (1857): 2–3.
28. H. Spencer, First Principles (London: Williams and Norgate, 1862).
29. H. Spencer, “The Social Organism,” Westminster Review (1860).
30. H. Spencer, The Data of Ethics (London: Williams and Norgate, 1879), 21.
31. Ibid.
32. H. Driesch, The Science and the Philosophy of the Organism (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1908).
33. H. Bergson, Creative Evolution (New York: Holt, 1911), 43.
34. Ibid., 182.
35. Ibid., 185.
36. D. H. Lawrence, Women in Love (London: Penguin, [1921] 1960), 538.
37. J. S. Huxley, Evolution: The Modern Synthesis (London: Allen and Unwin, 1942).
38. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, Le phénomène humain (Paris: Editions de Seuil, 1959).
39. P. B. Medawar, “Review of The Phenomenon of Man,” Mind 70 (1961): 99–100.
40. S. J. Gould, “The Piltdown Conspiracy,” Natural History 89 (August 1980): 8–28.
41. A. N. Whitehead and B. Russell, Principia Mathematica, 3 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910–13).
42. A. N. Whitehead, Science and the Modern World (New York: Free Press, [1925] 1967), 107.
43. S. Alexander, Space, Time and Deity (The Gifford Lectures at Glasgow, 1916–1918) (London: Macmillan, 1920).
44. Whitehead, Science and the Modern World, 94.
45. Ibid., 84.
46. P. Rogers, Song of the World Becoming: New and Collected Poems, 1981–2001 (Minneapolis: Milkweed, 2001).
47. A. N. Whitehead, Adventures of Ideas (New York: Macmillan, 1933), 166.
48. A. N. Whitehead, Process and Reality: An Essay in Cosmology (New York: Free Press, [1929] 1978), 47, 343, 344.
49. M. Dibben, “Exploring the Processual Nature of Trust and Cooperation in Organisations: A Whiteheadian Analysis,” Philosophy of Management 4 (2004): 25–39.
50. W. B. Provine, Sewall Wright and Evolutionary Biology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); M. Ruse, Monad to Man: The Concept of Progress in Evolutionary Biology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996).
51. S. Wright, “Evolution in Mendelian Populations,” Genetics 16 (1931): 155; S. Wright, Evolution, Selected Papers, ed. W. B. Provine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986).
52. J. S. Huxley, The Individual in the Animal Kingdom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1912), 116.
53. Wright, “Evolution in Mendelian Populations,” 111.
54. M. Ruse, The Gaia Hypothesis: Science on a Pagan Planet (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013).
55. S. J. Gould, Full House: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin (New York: Paragon, 1996).
56. D. McShea and R. Brandon, Biology’s First Law: The Tendency for Diversity and Complexity to Increase in Evolutionary Systems (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010).
57. Ibid., 4.
58. Ibid., 124.
59. Ibid.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid., 134.
62. Aristotle, The History of Animals, trans. D. W. Thompson, in The Complete Works of Aristotle, ed. J. Barnes (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), 774–993.
63. R. Wright, “Evolution and Higher Purpose,” meaningoflife.tv, 2016, http://meaningoflife.tv/articles/wright-evolution-purpose.
64. J. E. Lovelock, Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979).
1. M. Ruse, The Philosophy of Human Evolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).
2. C. Darwin, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (London: John Murray, 1871), 1, 10.
3. P. Shipman, The Man Who Found the Missing Link: Eugene Dubois and His Lifelong Quest to Prove Darwin Right (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002).
4. D. Falk, The Fossil Chronicles: How Two Controversial Discoveries Changed Our View of Human Evolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012).
5. D. Johanson and M. Edey, Lucy: The Beginnings of Humankind (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981).
6. M. Morwood and P. Van Oosterzee. A New Human: The Startling Discovery and Strange Story of the “Hobbits” of Flores, Indonesia (London: Collins, 2007).
7. M. Kimura, The Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
8. M. Krings et al., “Neanderthal DNA Sequences and the Origin of Modern Humans,” Cell 90 (1997): 19–30; J. P. Noonan et al., “Sequencing and Analysis of Neanderthal Genomic DNA,” Science 314 (2012): 1113–18.
9. G. C. Conroy and H. Pontzer, Reconstructing Human Origins: A Modern Synthesis, 3rd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 2012).
10. T. D. White et al., “Ardipithecus ramidus and the Paleobiology of Early Hominids,” Science 326, 5949 (2009): 75–86.
11. D. Falk, Braindance: New Discoveries about Human Origins and Brain Evolution (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2004).
12. C. Stringer, “Modern Human Origins: Progress and Prospects,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London (B) 357 (2002): 563–79; and “Human Evolution: Out of Ethiopia,” Nature 423 (2003): 692–95.
13. R. W. El-Sabaawi et al., “Assessing the Effects of Guppy Life History Evolution on Nutrient Recycling: From Experiments to the Field,” Freshwater Biology 60 (2015): 590–601.
14. D. N. Reznick, The “Origin” Then and Now: An Interpretive Guide to the “Origin of Species” (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009).
15. D. N. Reznick, “Guppies and the Empirical Study of Adaptation,” in In Light of Evolution: Essays from the Laboratory and Field, ed. J. B. Losos (Greenwood Village, CO: Roberts, 2011), 205–32.
16. S. J. Gould, Ontogeny and Phylogeny (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1977), 504.
17. S. J. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (New York: Norton, 1981).
18. V. Reynolds and R. Tanner, The Biology of Religion (London: Longman, 1983).
19. J. A. Coyne, Why Evolution is True (New York: Viking, 2009).
20. M. Dixon and G. Radick, Darwin in Ilkley (Stroud, Gloucestershire: History Press, 2009).
Chapter Ten. Mind
1. M. Ruse, Philosophy after Darwin (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009).
2. W. James, “Great Men, Great Thoughts, and the Environment,” Atlantic Monthly 46, 276 (1880): 441–59.
3. S. Cunningham, Philosophy and the Darwinian Legacy (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1996).
4. H. Sidgwick, “The Theory of Evolution in Its Application to Practice,” Mind 1 (1876): 52–67.
5. G. E. Moore, Principia Ethica (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 34.
6. B. Russell, Power: A New Social Analysis (London: Allen and Unwin, 1938).
7. B. Russell, Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in Philosophy (Chicago: Open Court, 1914), 15.
8. R. Rhees, ed., Ludwig Wittgenstein: Personal Recollections (Oxford: Blackwell, 1981), 174.
9. L. Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1922), 4.1122.
10. M. Ruse, Monad to Man: The Concept of Progress in Evolutionary Biology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996).
11. M. Ruse, The Evolution-Creation Struggle (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005).
12. T. Baldwin, G. E. Moore (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1990), 50.
13. B. Russell, My Philosophical Development (London: Allen and Unwin, 1959), 155.
14. W.V.O. Quine, Ontological Relativity and Other Essays (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969); John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971).
15. J. Fodor and M. Piattelli-Palmarini, What Darwin Got Wrong (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010).
16. P. R. Grant and R. B. Grant, How and Why Species Multiply: The Radiation of Darwin’s Finches (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007); J. A. Coyne and H. A. Orr, Speciation (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer, 2004); D. Reznick, “Guppies and the Empirical Study of Adaptation,” in In Light of Evolution: Essays from the Laboratory and Field, ed. J. B. Losos (Greenwood Village, CO: Roberts, 2011); D. Johanson and M. Edey, Lucy: The Beginnings of Humankind (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981).
17. S. B. Carroll, Endless Forms Most Beautiful: The New Science of Evo Devo (New York: Norton, 2005); quote is from Fodor and Piattelli-Palmarini, What Darwin Got Wrong, 32.
18. Fodor and Piattelli-Palmarini, What Darwin Got Wrong, 166. At least these authors are convinced of the truth of evolution, which is more than one can say of Alvin Plantinga. See his “Where Faith and Reason Clash: Evolution and the Bible,” Christian Scholars Review, 21 (1991), 8–32.
19. R. Hursthouse, On Virtue Ethics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
20. T. Nagel, Mind and Cosmos: Why the Materialist Neo-Darwinian Conception of Nature Is Almost Certainly False (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 5.
21. Ibid., 6.
22. Ibid., 66.
23. T. H. Huxley, “On the Hypothesis that Animals Are Automata, and Its History,” Fortnightly Review 16 (1874): 555–80.
24. W. James, The Principles of Psychology (New York: Henry Holt, 1880), 1, 138.
25. S. Pinker, How the Mind Works (New York: Norton, 1997).
26. D. Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (Oxford: Oxford University Press, [1748] 2007), 76.
27. Ibid.
28. S. Mithen, The Prehistory of the Mind (London: Thames and Hudson, 1996).
29. N. Chomsky, Syntactic Structures (The Hague: Mouton, 1957).
30. S. Pinker, The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language (New York: William Morrow, 1994).
31. C. Holden, “The Origin of Speech,” Science 303 (2004): 1316–19.
32. P. Lieberman, The Biology and Evolution of Language (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984).
33. B. Arensburg et al., “A Middle Paleolithic Human Hyoid Bone,” Nature 338 (1989): 758–60.
34. J. Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), 335; Physics 196b22–23.
35. T. Nagel, Mortal Questions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 146.
36. T. Nagel, Mind and Cosmos, 45.
37. Ibid., 4–5.
38. Ibid., 7.
39. Ibid., 91.
40. Ibid., 120.
41. J. L. Bada and A. Lazcana, “The Origin of Life,” in Evolution: The First Four Billion Years, ed. M. Ruse and J. Travis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 49–79.
42. D. J. Chalmers, The Conscious Mind (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
43. J. Kim, Supervenience and Mind: Selected Philosophical Essays (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 167.
44. G. Strawson et al., Consciousness and Its Place in Nature: Does Physicalism Entail Panpsychism? (Exeter: Imprint Academic, 2006).
45. M. Pollan, “The Intelligent Plant: Scientists Debate a New Way of Understanding Flora,” New Yorker (December 2013): 92–105.
46. D. Skrbina, Panpsychism in the West (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005), 146.
47. E. Haeckel, “Our Monism: The Principles of a Consistent, Unitary World-View,” Monist 2 (1892): 486.
48. W. Seager, Theories of Consciousness: An Introduction and Assessment, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2016), 297.
49. M. Lockwood, Mind, Brain and the Quantum: The Compound “I” (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989); H. Atmanspacher, “Quantum Approaches to Consciousness,” 2015, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-consciousness/#4.1.
50. Pinker, How the Mind Works.
51. Nagel, Mortal Questions.
52. Nagel, Mind and Cosmos, 14.
53. W. K. Clifford, “Body and Mind” (from Fortnightly Review). In Lectures and Essays of the Late William Kingdom Clifford, ed. L. Stephen and F. Pollock (London: Macmillan, [1874] 1901), 2:38–39.
54. T. H. Huxley, Lessons in Elementary Physiology (London: Macmillan, 1866), 210.
55. R. Wright, “Evolution and Higher Purpose,” meaningoflife.tv, 2016, http://meaningoflife.tv/articles/wright-evolution-purpose.
56. S. Vogel, Life’s Devices: The Physical World of Animals and Plants (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1988).
57. R. Stout, Action (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 2005).
58. J. M. Cooper, ed., Plato: Complete Works (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1997), 85, 98e–99a.
59. R. Otto, The Idea of the Holy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1923).
60. P. J. Nahin, An Imaginary Tale: The Story of √–1 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998).
61. A. I. Melden, Free Action (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1961).
62. G.E.M. Anscombe, Intention (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 9.
63. Ibid.
64. D. Davidson, “Actions, Reasons and Causes,” Journal of Philosophy 60 (1963): 3–4.
65. W. Dray, Laws and Explanation in History (Oxford: Clarendon, 1957).
66. I. Kershaw, Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis (New York: Norton, 2000).
67. Davidson, “Actions, Reasons and Causes,” 685.
68. Anscombe, Intention, 5.
69. Barnes, The Complete Works of Aristotle; Nicomachean Ethics, 1139a 32–33.
70. I. Kant, Critique of the Power of Judgment, trans. and ed. P. Guyer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, [1790] 2000), 247.
71. M. Ruse, The Philosophy of Biology (London: Hutchinson, 1973).
72. E. Nagel, The Structure of Science: Problems in the Logic of Scientific Explanation (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1961).
73. D. Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.
74. D. C. Dennett, Elbow Room: The Varieties of Free Will Worth Wanting (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).
75. P. H. Barrett, P. J. Gautrey, S. Herbert, D. Kohn, and S. Smith, eds., Charles Darwin’s Notebooks, 1836–1844 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987), Notebook M, 27.
76. Ibid.
Chapter Eleven. Religion
1. My copyeditor, Cathy Slovensky, encouraged me to qualify my definition of Christianity, as throughout I focus exclusively on Western forms of Christianity, and, more specifically, on Augustinian Western forms of Christianity. She has a good point, although, I would reply, not a definitive one. The story I am telling is very much one of Western culture—a culture where science has been all-important—and in this context it is Western religion that is equally all-important. But I am sensitive to the challenge, and you will see that at the end of chapter 12, I show the relevance for me of Quakerism, the non-Augustinian version of Christianity in which I was raised.
2. P. Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); M. Ruse, Atheism: What Everyone Needs to Know (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).
3. Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, 63.
4. M. Ruse, The Gaia Hypothesis: Science on a Pagan Planet (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013).
5. R. Steiner, Occult Science: An Outline (Forest Row, Sussex: Rudolf Steiner Press, [1914] 2005).
6. J. Lovelock, Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979).
7. L. Lear, Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature (New York: Henry Holt, 1997).
8. A. Razak, “Toward a Womanist Analysis of Birth,” in Reweaving the World: The Emergence of Ecofeminism, ed. I. Diamond and G. F. Orenstein (San Francisco: Sierra Club 1990), 165.
9. P. G. Allen, “The Woman I Love Is a Planet; The Planet I Love Is a Tree,” in Reweaving the World: The Emergence of Ecofeminism, ed. I. Diamond and G. F. Orenstein (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1990), 52.
10. O. Zell-Ravenheart, Green Egg Omelet: An Anthology of Art and Articles from the Legendary Pagan Journal (Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Page Books, 2009), 92.
11. Ibid., 82.
12. Ibid., 92.
13. J. Edwards, Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God and Other Puritan Sermons (New York: Dover, 2005).
14. M. Ruse, Homosexuality: A Philosophical Inquiry (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988).
15. Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, 60–61.
16. R. Carson, The Edge of the Sea (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1955), 250.
17. Ibid.
18. Razak, “Toward a Womanist Analysis of Birth,” 165.
19. Zell-Ravenheart, Green Egg Omelet, 93.
20. R. Dawkins, “Religion Is a Virus,” Mother Jones, 1997; subsequent quotes in this paragraph are from this article.
21. J. Barrett, Why Would Anyone Believe in God? (Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2004), 31.
22. A. Plantinga, “Pluralism: A Defense of Religious Exclusivism,” in The Philosophical Challenge of Religious Diversity, ed. K. Meeker and P. Quinn (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).
23. [Saint] Anselm, Anselm: Proslogium, Monologium; An Appendix on Behalf of the Fool by Gaunilon, and Cur Deus Homo, trans. S. N. Deane (Chicago: Open Court 1903), 13.
24. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, vol. 1 (London: Burns, Oates and Washbourne, 1952), 21, 3.
25. J. Polkinghorne, Belief in God in an Age of Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 106.
26. D. Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (Oxford: Oxford University Press, [1748] 2007), 78.
27. C. Darwin, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (London: John Murray, 1871), 1, 67.
28. S. Atran, In Gods We Trust: The Evolutionary Landscape of Religion (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 78.
29. Ibid.
30. E. Durkheim, Elementary Forms of Religious Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1912).
31. E. O. Wilson, On Human Nature (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 188.
32. Ibid., 178.
33. L. Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992).
34. M. Ruse, Atheism.
35. A. F. Winnington-Ingram, The Potter and the Clay (London: Wells, Gardner, and Darton, 1917), 40.
36. P. Appleman, New and Selected Poems, 1956–1996 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1996).
Chapter Twelve. The End
1. J. S. Mill, Utilitarianism (London: Parker, Son, and Bourn, 1863).
2. I. Kant, Critique of Practical Reason, trans. T. K. Abbott (London: Longmans, Green, [1788] 1898).
3. M. Ruse, Philosophy after Darwin (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009).
4. A. Balfour, The Foundations of Belief (New York: Longmans, Green, 1895), 308–9.
5. R. J. Hankinson, Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 202.
6. A. Plantinga, Warrant and Proper Function (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 219, quoting from F. Darwin, The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, including an Autobiographical Chapter (London: John Murray, 1887), 1:315–16.
7. Ibid., 223–24.
8. W.V.O. Quine, Ontological Relativity and Other Essays (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), 126.
9. H. Spencer, Social Statics; or, The Conditions Essential to Human Happiness Specified and the First of Them Developed (London: J. Chapman, 1851).
10. H. Spencer, The Data of Ethics (London: Williams and Norgate, 1879), 21.
11. M. Ruse and E. O. Wilson, “Moral Philosophy as Applied Science,” Philosophy 61 (1986): 186.
12. E. O. Wilson, Biophilia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984).
13. R. J. Richards, The Romantic Conception of Life: Science and Philosophy in the Age of Goethe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986).
14. M. Ruse, Taking Darwin Seriously: A Naturalistic Approach to Philosophy (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986).
15. M. Ruse and E. O. Wilson, “The Evolution of Morality,” New Scientist 1478 (1985): 855.
16. M. Ruse, Philosophy after Darwin; and Science and Spirituality: Making Room for Faith in the Age of Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
17. Darwin, The Descent of Man, 1, 166.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid.
20. I. Kant, Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals, trans. L. W. Beck (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, [1785] 1959), 41.
21. Darwin, The Descent of Man, 1, 73.
22. P. Singer, “Famine, Affluence and Morality,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 1 (1972): 229–43.
23. D. Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, ed. D. F. Norton and M. J. Norton (Oxford: Oxford University Press, [1739–40] 2000), 3.2.1.
24. G.W.F. Hegel, Logic, trans. W. Wallace (Pacifica, CA: Marxist’s Internet Archive, [1830] 2008), 447.
25. J. Mackie, Ethics (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977).
26. S. Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (New York: Viking, 2011).
27. J. P. Sartre, Existentialism Is a Humanism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 22.
28. Ibid., 23.
29. S. Wolf, Meaning in Life and Why It Matters (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 25.
30. Ibid., 3.
31. Sartre, Existentialism Is a Humanism, 23.
32. I. Berlin, The Hedgehog and the Fox (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1953).
33. M. Ruse, But Is It Science? The Philosophical Question in the Creation/Evolution Controversy (Buffalo, NY: Prometheus, 1988).
34. M. Ruse, Darwinism as Religion: What Literature Tells Us about Evolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017).
35. W. Seager, Theories of Consciousness: An Introduction and Assessment, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge 2016), 307.
36. B. Williams, Moral Luck (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); T. Nagel, Mortal Questions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979).
Epilogue
1. P. Appleman, “How Evolution Came to Indiana,” Darwin’s Ark (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, [1984] 2009), 65, reprinted with permission of Indiana University Press.