There is a wealth of scholarship in many languages regarding Spain and, from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century, its overseas ventures. The internet is also an excellent source of further information and illustrations for all of the people and places mentioned here and in the text. In what follows, we list a few general books related to each substantive chapter, plus additional works on specific topics, presented in rough chronological order. The lists are not exhaustive. Instead, they provide an introduction to the work available in English. For Chapters 3–8, we mention representative cultural figures as well, both Spaniards and others whose work had important connections to Spain. We also mention places with examples of the material and cultural developments discussed in each chapter.
Ecology is a relatively new interest for historians, although specialists in geography, archeology, and various earth sciences have long concerned themselves with aspects of that broad field. The best way to learn about the varied landscapes of Spain is to explore them in person, from the rain-drenched valleys of Galicia in the northwest to the deserts of Almería in the southeast, and from the impressive mountains of the Picos de Europa near the northern coast to the prehistoric caves at Nerja (Andalusia) near the southern coast. Entry points into the published work about the geography of Spain and its Mediterranean neighbors include the following:
The archeological site at Atapuerca in Castile-León has yielded the oldest human remains thus far discovered in Europe. The caves at Altamira near Santander (Cantabria) contain spectacular wall paintings that date from about 18,500 to 14,000 years ago. Celtic megaliths at Ulaca (Castile-León) mark a settlement dating from about the fifth to the second century BCE. Some archaeological sites are open to visitors, but many are closed to all but qualified researchers while excavations continue. The open-cast mines at Río Tinto near Huelva in Andalusia have been in operation at least since Phoenician times, though they were abandoned during the medieval period and were fully developed only after the Industrial Revolution. They continue in operation today, mostly for the extraction of iron and copper, though silver and other minerals also exist there. Often billed as the oldest mines in the world, and certainly some of the richest, the Río Tinto operations may have been the site of King Solomon's mines in the Bible. Over the millennia, the mines have contributed to economic development but they have also transformed a huge swath of southwestern Andalusia into a moonscape devoid of vegetation, where the rivers run wine-red, as the name implies. Certain areas are open to visitors.
The magnificent Iberian stone sculptures of the “Dama de Elche” and similar figures from Valencia are presumed to date from the fourth century BCE and are housed in the National Archeological Museum in Madrid. The much cruder large stone sculptures known as the “Toros de Guisando” (Bulls of Guisando) near Ávila date from about the second century BCE, and some scholars think the Romans moved them to their current site. Additional reading on Spain's prehistoric peoples includes:
Scholarly work on Roman Spain is already substantial and expands with every new archeological find. Much of the work is published in scholarly articles, which is typical of the field of archeology. A few of the published books include:
Roman civilization left traces in nearly every corner of Spain, and virtually every provincial museum includes a collection of artifacts from the period. In Castile-León, the Roman aqueduct in the city of Segovia is perhaps the best-known structure, but Roman bridges are still in use in numerous cities, towns, and villages in many parts of Spain. The city of Soria in Castile-León houses an excellent small museum with finds from the nearby archeological site of Numancia, which is also open to visitors. In Catalonia, the cities of Tarragona and Barcelona contain important Roman remains. Of particular note are the in situ ruins of Barcino in the Museum of the City of Barcelona. The best single location for Roman materials is the city of Mérida in Extremadura, which houses the National Museum of Roman Art (Museo Nacional de Arte Romano) as well as an impressive theatre and coliseum complex and other remains. In Andalusia, ruins of the Roman city of Itálica near Seville contain impressive mosaics, and the fish-processing station at Baelo Claudia near Tarifa provides an interesting window into industrial production and Mediterranean trade during the Roman period. Also instructive are the remains of Roman hydraulic gold-mining at Las Médulas near Ponferrada in Castile-León, which show the ecological consequences of that operation.
Very few scholars working on Visigothic Spain publish in English. Among the available books are the following:
As Chapter 2 indicated, the primary legacies of the Visigoths in Spain were their law codes and additions to Latin and vernacular language. Although the Visigoths founded cities in Iberia and selected Toledo as their capital, only a very few extant structures provide a visible reminder of their presence, most of them churches in Castile-León. One example is the church of San Juan near Palencia, which dates from the seventh century.
The Muslim invasion and the subsequent implantation of Islamic culture in Spain have attracted generations of modern scholars working in English, and that interest remains strong. Scholars who have worked on Christian or Jewish Spain in the medieval period are even more numerous. Older generations tended to specialize in one religious community or another. By contrast, many modern scholars include the full cultural diversity of medieval Spain. A sampling of the published work in English includes:
Material remains from the long medieval period are impressive and widespread. Undoubtedly the most famous Islamic remnants are the palace complex in the city of Granada, the great mosque in the city of Córdoba, and the watchtower known as La Giralda in Seville, all of them in Andalusia. In addition, there are various structures in many other parts of Spain that contain Islamic elements, whether they were built for communities of Muslims, Christians, or Jews.
The cultural fusion between Christian and Islamic architectural styles resulted in structures built by Mudéjars (Muslims living under Christian rule) and Mozarabs (Christians living under Muslim rule). The city of Toledo (Castile-La Mancha) contains fine examples of Mudéjar architectural elements and decorative motifs, as well as several large Jewish synagogues and Christian churches from the medieval period. The city of Calatayud and other towns in Zaragoza province (Aragon) contain some fine examples of Mozarab structures. Calatayud itself also has a neighborhood that was the medieval Jewish quarter, as do many other municipalities. The most famous is probably the Barrio de Santa Cruz in Seville, but many smaller towns and cities also retain remnants of Jewish quarters from the medieval period, among them Hervás in Extremadura.
Christian churches and monasteries from the medieval period, as well as secular structures, still exist throughout Spain, even though many of them have been changed considerably over the centuries. Some of the best examples of true Romanesque architecture are the numerous churches in the countryside along the pilgrimage routes toward Santiago de Compostela (Galicia).
Towns founded or expanded during the medieval period retain other visible remnants of their distant past as well. The winding streets characteristic of Islamic towns and Jewish neighborhoods were designed to provide shade in the brutal heat of summers in the south. The central plazas and more regular street patterns of Christian towns founded during the reconquest echo traditions established during the Roman period. Elements of both traditions still exist in many modern urban settings. The city of Barcelona has its famous “Gothic Quarter,” and the village of La Alberca in Salamanca province preserves much of its medieval character. Both Islamic and Christian towns were commonly surrounded by walls during the medieval period, both for defense and to control the flow of people and goods. Many modern cities retain remnants of their medieval walls, and the city of Ávila has refurbished the full circlet of walls that surrounded its medieval center.
Memories of the medieval centuries also persist in the tradition of mock battles between “Moros y Cristianos” (Moors and Christians) that recall the intermittent warfare of the reconquest. Festivals of Moors and Christians are still held in many parts of Spain and Portugal, and as far away from Iberia as Peru, Papua-New Guinea, and the Philippines. In Spain, one the most elaborate festivals takes place every April in the city of Alcoy (in Valencian, Alcoi) in Alicante province (Valencia).
Scholarship on the crucial period from the fourteenth to the late fifteenth century has produced a wide range of general and specific studies. The work available in English includes the following:
The Spanish Renaissance employed hundreds of writers, artists, and musicians. These included both Spaniards and foreigners who came to Spain for the opportunities provided by economic growth and the cultural investment in the royal court and noble households. Among the most notable figures were the composer and musician Juan del Encina (1468–1530); the sculptor Gil de Siloe (late 1440s to 1501); and the painters Pedro Berruguete (1450–1504) and Juan de Flandes (c. 1460–1519). The Prado Museum (Madrid) and the National Museum of Art of Catalonia (Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, Barcelona) have excellent holdings from the late medieval and Renaissance periods.
The late fifteenth century saw the development of the plateresque, Spain's version of Renaissance architecture. Named because its ornate decorative schemes were much like the work of silversmiths (plateros), the plateresque style featured motifs from Northern European, Islamic, and Italian Renaissance traditions and reached its height in the early sixteenth century. The cities of Salamanca, Valladolid, and Granada contain fine examples of plateresque façades, as do many other towns and cities that shared in the period's economic expansion.
Scholarly work on the three-century period covered in this chapter is vast. Two excellent starting points for the Habsburg period are J. H. Elliott, Imperial Spain (New York: St. Martin's, 1963), and John C. Lynch, Spain under the Habsburgs, 2 vols. (New York University Press, 1981 [1964]). The latter's Bourbon Spain, 1700–1808 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989) brings the story to 1808. Both authors have a distinguished list of publications on specific topics as well. For Spain's empire in the Americas, an excellent overview is Mark A. Burkholder and Lyman L. Johnson, Latin America to 1830, 6th edn. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007). The bibliography included therein provides an introduction to many other scholars of Latin America working in English. For Spain, additional authors who have published on the period in English include the following:
Many of the literary figures from Spain's “Golden Age” have works available in English: Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (1547–1616); Mateo Alemán (1547–1614?); Luis de Góngora (1561–1627); Lope Félix de Vega Carpio (1562–1635); Francisco de Quevedo (1580–1645); and Diego de Saavedra Fajardo (1584–1648), among others. During the period, theatres all over Spain, and especially in Madrid, performed plays (comedias) for a diverse audience of fans in venues called corrales de comedia, much like the theatres in Shakespeare's England. One of the best venues to see plays from this period is the restored theatre in Almagro (Castile-La Mancha). The eighteenth century arguably produced no Spanish writers equal to those of the Golden Age. However, the playwright Leandro Fernández de Moratín (1760–1828) wrote acute portraits of the pretensions of the rising Spanish middle class.
Representative artists associated with Spain from the early sixteenth through the eighteenth century include some of the most famous painters in all of European history: Alejo Fernández (1475–1545); Titian (Tiziano Vecelli, c. 1485–1576); Sofonisba Anguissola (1532–1625); El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos, 1541–1614); Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640); Anton van Dyck (1599–1641); Juan Bautista Maíno (c. 1578–1649); Diego Velázquez (1599–1660); Francisco de Zurbarán (1598–1664); Bartolomé Esteban Murillo (1617–82); Claudio Coello (1642–93); and Francisco Goya (1746–1828). Their works appear in major museums all over the world, but the Prado Museum in Madrid is the best venue to view most of them in one location.
The political and economic connections between Spain and Northern Europe meant that the work of artists such as Hieronymous Bosch (c. 1450–1516) and various members of the Breughel painting dynasty became popular among royal and noble collectors in Spain. Their works are also well represented at the Prado Museum. Notable composers and musicians from the three centuries include Juan del Encina (1468–1530); Diego Pisador (1509–57); Luis Milán (c. 1500–1561); Antonio de Cabezón (1510–66); Gaspar Sanz (1640–1710); and Domenico Scarlatti (1685–1757).
Buildings, bridges, monuments, and urban quarters from the Habsburg period still exist all over Spain. The cities of Salamanca, Valladolid, Madrid, Seville, and Valencia are particularly rich in representative churches, monasteries, and other buildings from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The elaborate plateresque decorations of the early sixteenth century gave way to more austere styles during the late sixteenth century; the best-known example is the royal palace of El Escorial near Madrid. The seventeenth century saw a return to elaborate stonework and surface decoration in the Spanish Baroque style, which can be seen in urban centers throughout Spain. Churches and other structures built or remodeled in the seventeenth century, such as the cathedral in Santiago de Compostela, provide examples of the Spanish Baroque and its more flamboyant successor, known as Churrigueresco (after the Churriguero family of architects). The major cities of Latin America also have a stunning array of Spanish Baroque buildings, with decoration by highly skilled local artisans.
For the eighteenth century, the royal palaces in Madrid, La Granja, Riofrío, and Aranjuez exemplify the French and Italianate styles favored by the Spanish Bourbons. The church of the Salesas Reales in Madrid is a fine example of eighteenth-century religious architecture in Spain.
The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries have attracted a wide variety of scholars in various fields. Richard Herr's An Historical Essay on Modern Spain (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974 [1964]) gives an excellent overview of nineteenth-century politics, although it was first published nearly half a century ago. John D. Bergamini's The Spanish Bourbons: The History of a Tenacious Dynasty (New York: Putnam, 1974), also a classic, focuses on the personal histories and foibles of the royal family. The essay collection Spanish History since 1808, edited by José Álvarez Junco and Adrian Shubert (London: Arnold; New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), contains essays by more than two dozen current historians working on modern Spain. Additional books in English include:
For Spanish literary production during the nineteenth century, writers available in English include Gustavo Adolfo Béquer (1836–70); Benito Pérez Galdós (1843–1920); and Leopoldo Alas (a.k.a. “Clarín,” 1852–1901). Many Spanish writers were involved in exploring the distinctive character of Spain as well as its regional identities and languages, an approach characteristic of European Romanticism. For example, Rosalía de Castro (1837–85) wrote often in Gallego, and Joaquim Rubió y Ors (1818–99) was a guiding force in the Catalan Renaissance (Renaixença). Unfortunately, few of the works written in languages other than Castilian Spanish are available in English. Writers representing the conflictive period from the end of the nineteenth century to about 1930 include Vicente Blasco Ibáñez (1867–1928); Miguel de Unamuno (1864–1936); Ramón María del Valle-Inclán (1866–1936); and Pío Baroja (1872–1956).
In painting, Francisco Goya continued to work well into the nineteenth century, and his powerful and disturbing later paintings are well represented in the Prado Museum in Madrid. No Spanish artists in the generations that followed Goya came near his stature, although they kept up with artistic trends elsewhere in Europe and documented the political turmoil and social changes of their times. In Barcelona, the National Museum of Art of Catalonia has a sizeable section devoted to the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, as does the Prado. In the early twentieth century, Joaquín Sorolla (1863–1923) painted a series of regional scenes for the Hispanic Society in New York that captures the timelessness of Spanish rural life. Sorolla's house–museum in Madrid provides a glimpse of comfortable upper-middle-class family life in the capital, and the Lázaro-Galdiano Museum displays the wealth and artistic tastes of Sorolla's contemporary, the writer, financier, and art collector José Lázaro-Galdiano (1862–1947).
In music, Fernando Sor (1778–1839), Pablo Sarasate (1844–1908), Isaac Albéñiz (1860–1909), and Enrique Granados (1867–1916) helped to define a distinctive Spanish idiom within the framework of European Romanticism. The period also saw the peak production and popularity of the zarzuela genre, Spain's national musical theatre. Part opera, part musical comedy, and of varying lengths and themes, the zarzuela dates from the late seventeenth century, but it was largely eclipsed by French and Italianate forms under the early Bourbons. The great revival began in the mid nineteenth century and lasted well into the twentieth, with dozens of prominent composers and librettists from all over Spain, and thousands of examples of their works are still extant. Although little known outside Spain and Latin America, zarzuelas continue to be performed to enthusiastic audiences, and their plots provide an excellent entry point into the popular culture of Spain. The Zarzuela Theatre in Madrid, one of the best places to see performances, has a regular annual season.
The period from the Second Republic to the end of the Franco dictatorship is difficult to separate from the transition to democracy after Franco's death, although we have done so in this book for the sake of clarity. For political events, there is a certain justification for the separation. Historical scholarship concerned with the civil war and the Franco period includes the following:
Historical scholarship that deals mostly with the period from the transition to democracy into the present includes:
Cultural trends are best understood by considering the twentieth century as a whole. Many important cultural figures in modern Spain were born fairly early in the twentieth century, lived through the civil war, and worked into the new millennium, grappling with the enormous changes in Spanish society during their lifetimes. Other important figures, born during the Franco dictatorship, nonetheless began their professional lives in the shadow of the civil war. To understand the evolution of their work, it is necessary to consider the whole period covered by Chapters 7 and 8.
In literature, Spaniards produced work in the twentieth century that continues to enjoy critical acclaim and a wide readership. Federico García Lorca (1899–1936), active in the cultural life of the Second Republic, was arrested by the nationalists and killed at the start of the civil war, yet he remains one of the iconic figures in twentieth-century Spanish literature. Other writers went into exile during the civil war or chose to live largely outside Spain while Franco held power: Juan Ramón Jiménez (1881–1958); Ramón Sender (1902–82); Jorge Guillen (1893–1984); Juan Goytisolo (1931–). Others decided to live and work in Spain for most of their careers for a variety of reasons, regardless of their relationship with the Franco regime. Writers whose works are available in English include: José Ortega y Gasset (1883–1955); Gonzalo Torrente Ballester (1910–99); Carmen Martín Gaite (1925–2000); Camilo José Cela (1916–2002); Ana María Matute (1926–); and Vicente Aleixandre (1898–1984), among others.
Painters and other artists also had to choose where and how to pursue their careers during the civil war and its aftermath; their politics, like their artistic styles, covered a broad spectrum. For example, the Basque Ignacio Zuloaga (1870–1945), best known for his portraits and genre scenes from the worlds of bullfighting, flamenco dancing, and other romanticized aspects of Spanish life, was also known for his support of the nationalists during the civil war. In part for that reason, he was out of favor in the international art community during the Franco regime, though many museums in Europe and elsewhere display his work. There are also small museums associated with Zuloaga in Zumaya in the Basque country and in Pedraza near Segovia (Castile-León).
Pablo Picasso (1881–1973), whom many call the greatest Spanish artist since Goya, produced brilliant works in a variety of mediums and styles, though he is probably best known for his Cubist works. Born in Málaga and trained in a variety of venues, he lived in France for most of his adult life, yet he was already comfortable in an international environment long before the civil war. Although a longtime member of the Communist Party, he did not demonstrate a particular commitment to that cause. Museums devoted to his work exist in France (Antibes and Paris), Germany (Berlin and Münster), and Spain (Barcelona and Málaga), and many other important museums hold examples of his work.
Salvador Dalí (1904–89), known for surrealism in both his life and his art, allied with fashionable leftist political movements at the start of his career but later turned conservative, much to the outrage of his fellow surrealists. After spending the civil war years abroad, he returned to his native Catalonia in 1942, where he spent the rest of his life, comfortable with the Franco regime and therefore at odds with most of the international art community. Many important museums hold examples of his work, as do the Dalí Theatre-Museum that he built in Figueras (Catalonia) and the Dalí Museum in St. Petersburg, Florida. Another prominent Catalan artist, Joan Miró (1893–1983), also spent most of his working life in Catalonia, but he kept his distance from the Franco regime. Influenced by the major artistic movements of the early twentieth century, he found his major inspiration in Catalan themes and primitive art. Many major museums hold examples of his work in various mediums, as does the Joan Miró Foundation in Barcelona.
Among composers, Joaquín Rodrigo (1901–99) is probably the most important Spanish figure from the generations after Granados and Albéñiz. His work, like theirs, forms part of the standard repertoire of musicians throughout the Western world, evoking the musical idiom of Spain and its quintessential instrument, the guitar. Spanish guitarists such as Andrés Segovia (1893–1987) established Rodrigo's music in the classical repertoire, and international guitarists continue that tradition. Other Spanish musicians of international acclaim in the twentieth century include Pablo Casals (cellist and conductor 1876–1973); Alicia de Larrocha (pianist, 1923–2009); Alfredo Kraus (tenor, 1927–99); Monserrat Caballé (soprano, 1933–); Rafael Frühbeck de Burgos (conductor, 1933–); Teresa Berganza (mezzo-soprano, 1935–); Plácido Domingo (tenor and conductor, 1941–); and José Carreras (tenor, 1946–). Their performances are readily available on recordings.
Spaniards such as Luis Buñuel (1900–83) helped to pioneer the new artistic medium of film, although many, including Buñuel, chose to live outside Spain during the Franco period. Those who made their careers in Spain, such as Carlos Saura (1932–) and Pilar Miró (1940–97), had to deal with the difficult and often capricious censorship system, though films remained a popular form of entertainment. In the New Spain, film directors such as Fernando Colomo (1946–) and Pedro Almodóvar (1949–) reflect the openness of cinema and society, and the latter in particular has a devoted international following in the English-speaking world.
Some of the most lasting examples of Spain's cultural production in the twentieth century are the buildings and monuments from previous centuries restored for modern uses. Government-owned hotels known as “Paradores” (lit., stopping places), a venture begun in 1928, are often situated in castles, monasteries, hostels, palaces, and other historic structures. Many privately owned hotels and hotel chains have also refurbished historic structures for modern use, benefiting from the boom in tourism. The net result is a stunning network of lodging places throughout Spain that preserve examples of architecture over the millennia. Similarly, historic structures in many cities and towns have been restored and remodeled as museums, concert venues, and commercial establishments, with support from the government and teams of well-trained experts in architectural restoration. In Madrid, the National Library and Atocha railway station provide examples of intelligent restoration efforts. The remodeling of the venerable Prado Museum complex includes a brilliant set of additions by Rafael Moneo (1937–), visually connected to the nearby Jeronymite church that dates from the Habsburg period.
Several other modern Spanish architects have achieved international prominence, in addition to designing stunning structures in Spain. Among them are Antoni Gaudí (1852–1926), creator of the still unfinished basilica of the Sagrada Família in Barcelona as well as other iconic structures; Josep Lluís Sert (1902–83), a pioneer in modern urban design; Ricardo Bofill (1939–); and Santiago Calatrava (1951–), known for bridges that redefine the form, and for the City of Arts and Sciences complex in his native Valencia. The 1992 Olympics in Barcelona, and the World Exposition in Seville that same year, provided numerous opportunities for Spanish architects and city planners to display their visions for the new Spain. In Barcelona, the historic but neglected waterfront district was rebuilt to house Olympic athletes and transformed into an attractive promenade for city residents. In Seville, the Guadalquivir River, which had been diverted from its course for flood control, was restored to its original channel and spanned by a collection of new bridges, among them the breathtaking Alamillo bridge by Calatrava. Towns and cities throughout Spain also embarked on ambitious plans to restore buildings and reroute traffic patterns to preserve historic structures and enhance the urban core for pedestrians. As a result, the venerable Spanish custom of the evening stroll, or paseo, has gained added appeal.
At the same time that the New Spain settles comfortably into modernity, centuries-old art forms such as the bullfight and flamenco music and dance are enjoying a popular renaissance and experimenting with new forms. The fabric of Spanish life thus continues to be a seamless texture of old and new.