of a percent, i.e., about 0.035 percent.INTRODUCTION
1. Hacking 1986b.
CHAPTER 1
IS IT REAL?
1. Boor 1982.
2. American Psychiatric Association 1980, 257.
3. Horton and Miller 1972, 151. Such figures are always underestimates; more extensive literature surveys inevitably turn up more cases.
4. None: see Merskey 1992. Eighty-four: this is one count up to 1969; see Greaves 1980, 578. The 1791 case was noticed in Ellenberger 1970, 127.
5. Coons 1986.
6. Incidence rates are discussed in chapter 7. For the 5 percent figure, see Ross, Norton, and Wozney 1989. For “exponential increase” see Ross 1989, 45.
7. Brook 1992, 335. The first type of splitting involves dissociation. The second type is the splitting of objects and affects into those which are good and those which are bad, into objects of affection and objects of hostility. The third type is the splitting of the ego into an acting part and a self-observing part. Freud made comments about splitting throughout the whole of his forty-five years of writing about psychology and psychoanalysis.
8. World Health Organization 1992, 151–161. For critical comments on ICD-10, from members of the multiple movement, see the essays by F. O. Garcia, Philip Coons, David Spiegel, and W. C. Young in Dissociation 3 (1990): 204–221.
9. American Psychiatric Association 1980, 259. Kirk 1992 is a study of how DSM criteria become established, and how the manual itself achieved its present status as definitive.
10. 1987 criteria of DSM-III-R (American Psychiatric Association 1987, 272) were:
A. The existence within the person of two or more distinct personalities or personality states (each with its own relatively enduring pattern of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and self).
B. At least two of these identities or personality states recurrently take full control of the person’s behavior.
11. This summary is from Putnam 1993 but was in force for the first survey of patients with multiple personality, Putnam et al., 1986.
12. Austin 1962, 72.
13. Ross 1989, 52. “True” is not the same word as “real.” Austin held that “real” is the most general adjective of a class of which “true” was an instance. I am not sure he was right, but here it seems immaterial whether the APA or Colin Ross used the adjective “real” or the adjective “true.”
14. For one review, see Wilbur and Kluft 1989, 2197–2198. The most usually addressed question about iatrogenesis is whether multiple personality is induced by hypnosis. The skeptic has something more general in mind and may observe with some justice that the most reliable predictor of the occurrence of multiple personality is a clinician who diagnoses and treats multiples.
15. For the phrase “benign neglect,” see, for example, ibid., 2198. For the cautious approach see Chu 1991. Chu is not a skeptic; he is the director of the Dissociative Disorders unit at McLean Hospital, Belmont, Mass. He has written about how to help patients overcome their own resistance to the diagnosis of multiple personality; see Chu 1988.
16. For a proud statement of Dutch contributions, see van der Hart 1993a and 1993b. In 1984 and thereafter leading American advocates of multiple personality—Bennett Braun, Richard Kluft, Roberta Sachs—conducted workshops in Holland. For these and other events of the early days, see van der Hart and Boon 1990.
17. Frankel 1990. For the extraordinarily ambiguous relationships between hypnotism and psychiatry, especially in France, from 1785 to the present, see Chertok and Stengers 1992.
18. Braun 1993. This was the opening talk of the conference, in the first plenary session; I have quoted the first paragraph of Braun’s abstract.
19. Ross, Norton, and Wozney 1989, 416. For a balanced discussion of the idea of superordinate diagnosis in this context, see North et al. 1993.
20. Merskey 1992, 327. Merskey’s denunciation of multiple personality produced an outpouring of angry letters in subsequent issues of the journal in which he published. So did Freeland et al. 1993, an account of how Merskey and his colleagues treated four apparent cases of multiplicity.
21. One pioneering book which gives the impression that multiplicity is part of human nature is Crabtree 1985. Another work with a milder version of this idea is Beahrs 1982. For one patient who also rejects the idea that multiple personality is a disorder, see note 28, chapter 2 below. Rowan 1990 is a fascinating account of group therapies in which every member of the group creates a number of subpersonalities, expressing different aspects of character. Each individual’s subpersonalities interact with other subpersonalities that emerge in group discussion. But although these subpersonalities acquire distinct names, there is no suggestion that they were “really there” as entities all along, waiting to be revealed by therapy.
22. Coons 1984, 53.
23. Braun 1986.
24. To get a sense of evolving opinions, notice how in 1989 Colin Ross agreed to this way of speaking: “I personally use the terms alter, alter personality and personality as synonyms. I call more limited states fragments, fragment alters, or fragment personalities.” But in 1994 he opined that “although MPD patients are, by definition, diagnosed as having more than one personality, in fact they don’t.” And: “Much of the scepticism about MPD is based on the erroneous assumption that such patients have more than one personality, which is, in fact, impossible.” Ross 1989, 81; Ross 1994, ix.
25. Putnam 1989, 161.
26. Putnam 1993; cf. Putnam 1992b.
27. Spiegel 1993b.
28. Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (1865), the third to last paragraph of chapter 1.
29. Bowman and Amos 1993.
30. Spiegel 1993a.
31. Torem et al. 1993, 14. I have spelled out the abbreviation DD as Dissociative Disorders.
32. Spiegel 1993b, 15.
33. American Psychiatric Association 1994, 487. The addition of the amnesia condition C was the culmination of a decade-long debate.
34. DSM-IV, clause B, deletes the word “full” from the corresponding clause of DSM-III-R, note 10 above. An alter need no longer take full control—just control. This is because in the current phenomenology of multiple personality, an alter in control may still be forced to listen to the jabbering of another alter who is sitting just inside the left ear. The one in control is not in full control.
35. Spiegel 1993a.
CHAPTER 2
WHAT IS IT LIKE?
1. Hacking 1994.
2. For example, Ross 1989, 82–83.
3. Putnam 1993, 85.
4. Ross 1989, 83.
5. Whewell 1840, 8.1.4.
6. There are a number of different ways to understand Wittgenstein on family resemblances, and there is real reason to doubt that he would have been happy seeing his concept of family resemblance applied to dogs or multiple personality. But the phrase that he coined is so well known that it may help to fix ideas. For complete references to Wittgenstein, and detailed textual discussion, see Baker and Hacker 1980, 320–343.
7. See, for example, Rosch 1978.
8. The idea of a radial class is from Lakoff 1987, which provides a rich theory and also full references to Rosch’s pathbreaking work on prototypes. Note that “prototype” is used in a semitechnical way. It refers to the examples of members of a class, like the class of birds or multiple personalities, that are most readily produced by people comfortable with using the name of that class, “bird,” or “multiple personality.” Prototypes are not to be confused with stereotypes, which are usually derogatory pictures of the people in a given class.
9. Spitzer et al. 1989.
10. Torem 1990a. For a workshop including recordings of an anorexic patient switching, consult Torem 1992.
11. For “contracting” see Putnam 1989, 144–150.
12. Schreiber 1973.
13. Ludwig 1972. Wilbur was a coauthor of this paper. She diagnosed and treated the patient; the other authors tested him in various ways.
14. Putnam et al. 1986. The results of this survey had been in circulation since 1983.
15. The State, Columbia, S.C., 11 February 1992, 1B. Dr. Nelson gave expert testimony that he had treated Carol R. since 1988, and that he had identified twenty-one of the twenty-two personalities in Carol. He also testified in court that Carol suffered from major depression, arthritis, hypothyroidism, nymphomania, and multiple personality disorder, a list that includes a more generous ration of psychiatric illness than most experts would want, plus one disorder, nymphomania, that is not to be found in the DSM.
16. Yank 1991.
17. Coons, Milstein, and Marley 1982. Coons 1988.
18. Putnam, Zahn, and Post 1990.
19. Bliss 1980, 1388.
20. Pitres 1891, 2: plate 1.
21. Wholey 1926; for stills, see Wholey 1933. The patient was in many ways like the recent prototype but had fewer alters. She was absolutely enamored of motion pictures and had fantasies of appearing on the silver screen. Wholey wrote up and showed the case as if it were a film, complete with a printed “Screen Presentation” including a list of dramatis personae, namely, the alters.
22. Smith 1993, 25.
23. This material is from Dissociation Notes: Newsletter of North Carolina Triangle Society for the Study of Dissociation 4, no. 3 (July 1994). Peterson’s letter is on p. 1; the life story occupies pp. 3–4.
24. Some of the philosophical country, in its psychiatric and psychoanalytic context, is elegantly and accessibly mapped in Cavell 1993, 117–120.
25. Casey with Fletcher 1991.
26. From the flyleaf of the paperback edition of The Flock (New York: Fawcett-Columbia, 1992).
27. Dailey 1894.
28. This information is taken from Ms. Davis’s intervention at the end of the taped conversation, Ross 1993.
29. Hacking 1986b, 233. At the time of this 1983 lecture I casually and wrongly referred to multiples as splits; I have corrected the wording here.
CHAPTER 3
THE MOVEMENT
1. Thigpen and Cleckley 1957.
2. Thigpen and Cleckley 1954.
3. Lancaster 1958.
4. Sizemore and Pitillo 1977.
5. Sizemore 1989.
6. Thigpen and Cleckley 1984.
7. Schreiber 1973.
8. For autobiography, see Wilbur 1991. For an interview of Wilbur with reminiscences, see Torem 1990b.
9. Wilbur 1991, 6.
10. For the number of other patients, see Schreiber 1973, 446.
11. For an account of uses of Amytal (amobarbitol) interviewing, see deVito 1993. On p. 228: “MPD patients experienced Amytal as bringing about a more profound narcosis and, hence, a stage in which alters could emerge with greater ease.” Critics say this is an all too easy way to create alters, or any set of beliefs whatsoever. They say that Amytal is not a truth drug but a suggestibility serum. Herbert Spiegel, a distinguished emeritus psychiatrist from Columbia University, treated “Sybil” briefly. Recently he has said in interviews for television and Esquire that her alters are artifactual. Fifth Estate 1993, Taylor 1994.
12. According to Kluft 1993c. For the number of formal therapy sessions, see Schreiber 1973, 15.
13. Ellenberger 1970.
14. The man and his work have been affectionately described in Micale, ed. 1993. See especially the biographical and analytic introduction, 3–86.
15. Janet was initially receptive to Freud and Breuer’s 1893 use of trauma, memory, and the subconscious. Even then he was careful to say he got there first: “We are glad to find that several authors, particularly Breuer and Freud, have recently verified our interpretation, already somewhat old, of subconscious fixed ideas in cases of hysteria.” Janet 1893–1894, 2:290 (here and hereafter, translations are mine unless otherwise noted). He became increasingly disaffected; see Janet 1919, 2: chapter 3. What made the situation worse for Janet, French patriot and patrician, was being overwhelmed by a movement that was both Germanic and Jewish.
16. James 1890, chapter 10. Prince 1890.
17. He has stated that his own early enthusiastic reporting of success may have seriously misled other therapists and produced overly sanguine expectations of easy cures. Kluft 1993c.
18. Kluft 1993b, 88. I added the word “who” to make sense of the sentence as printed.
19. Ellenberger 1970, 129–131.
20. See my discussion in chapter 10, pp. 156–157 below.
21. Greaves 1980.
22. Fourteen cases are described or mentioned by name in Allison with Schwartz 1980. Another case is described in Allison 1974b. The total of thirty-six cases comes from Allison 1978b, 12.
23. Allison 1978a, 4. Personal letter, Allison, 21 November 1994.
24. Allison with Schwartz 1980. For a more recent sense of his enthusiasms, see his fruitless “search for multiples in Moscow,” Allison 1991.
25. Allison 1974a.
26. Kluft 1993c, referring to Allison 1974b.
27. For example, “Psychotherapy of Multiple Personality,” presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, Atlanta, May 1978.
28. Allison circulated his notes as “Diagnosis and Treatment of Multiple Personality” (Santa Cruz, 1977) and “Psychotherapy of Multiple Personality” (Broderick, 1977).
29. Allison with Schwartz 1980, 131–132.
30. Ibid., 161.
31. Allison 1978b, 12.
32. Putnam 1989, 202. For a literature survey of the ISH, see Comstock 1991.
33. Quoted in Putnam 1989, 203, from a paper “Treatment Philosophies in the Management of Multiple Personality,” presented at the same session of the American Psychiatric Association as Allison’s paper cited in note 27 above, Atlanta, May 1978.
34. Hawksworth and Schwartz 1977.
35. “Is Treatment of Inmates with MPD Possible in Prison?”: printouts of debate between Ty Culiner (affirmative) and Ralph Allison (negative), 1994 ISSMP&D Fourth Annual Spring Conference, Vancouver, Canada, 6 May 1994.
36. Keyes 1981.
37. Essays by the expert witnesses are Allison 1984; Orne, Dingfes, and Orne, 1984; and Watkins 1984. For a bitterly ironic account of the trial by an opponent of multiple personality, see Aldridge-Morris 1989. Martin Orne, who argued for the prosecution, has become something of a bête noire in the multiple movement. He seems to have convinced the jury that the dissociative phenomena were a mix of acting and hypnotism. Orne is best known to the general reader as the psychiatrist of poet Anne Sexton. He kept, and allowed the publication of, some of the tapes of her therapy: Middlebrook 1991; see xiii–xviii for Orne’s foreword. For the opinion of the multiple movement about this professional practice, see Faust 1991. On Sexton as multiple, mistreated by Orne, see Ross 1994, 194–215.
38. Azam 1878, 196. I have translated aliénistes by “psychiatrists.”
39. Brouardel, Motet, and Garnier 1893. These three authors were the prosecution witnesses, respectively dean of the Paris Faculty of Medicine, doctor-in-chief of the House of Correctional Education, and doctor-in-chief of the psychiatric infirmary adjacent to the main Paris prefecture of police. They were opposed to the team of Charcot, Ballet, and Mesnet. There was a particularly vivid diagnostic confrontation between Paul Brouardel and a fourth defense witness, Auguste Voisin, a colleague of Charcot’s. The loss of face by Voisin in the trial, and the corresponding challenge to his diagnoses, was worse than that experienced by any of the expert witnesses in the Hillside Strangler trial, but only in degree. The terminology of the debates is unfamiliar, being conducted in terms of somnambulism and latent epilepsy, but the terrain is very similar to that of the Hillside Strangler case.
40. See, for example, Ondrovik and Hamilton 1990, Perr 1991, Slovenko 1993, Steinberg, Bancroft, and Buchanan 1993, Saks 1994a and 1994b..
41. Lindau 1893. For discussion of the play by leading psychiatrists of the day, see Moll 1893 and Löwenfeld 1893.
42. TV Guide, 23 April 1994, 34.
43. For full milking of current multiple lore in the thriller department, try A Great Deliverance (George 1988). Runaway Gillian, whose Bible-toting father has been gruesomely decapitated, was a promiscuous tart for the village youths, but the sweetest and most innocent living thing for women and children. Her sister, who has a gross eating disorder, and who was the second to be molested by dad, did him in in order to protect a child who would soon come under his sway. We have to wade on for 298 pages before the psychiatrist reveals that Gillian dissociated; “taking it to its furthest extreme, it becomes multiple personalities.”
44. Time, 25 October 1982, 70. The consultant expert on multiple personality was Nathan Rothstein of the William B. Hall Psychiatric Institute in Columbia, S.C. Neither he nor his present colleague Larry Nelson—cf. chapter 2, note 15—is a movement activist. When interviewed about Eric, Rothstein said that multiple personality is rare—he had seen five cases only and did not expect to see many more. Yes, he thought youthful trauma could be connected to the disorder, but it was connected to many other disturbances too. The State, Columbia, S.C., 7 November 1982, F1.
45. The psychologist in Daytona Beach who obtained consent was Malcolm Graham. The State, Columbia, S.C., 4 October 1982, 3A. Consent is obviously a real problem. See Greenberg and Attiah 1993 for current wisdom.
46. Greaves 1992, 369. Throughout this chapter I have been deliberately commenting on the movement’s self-image. From other perspectives other events might seem more important. For example, Margherita Bowers, writing in 1971, in a standard journal, set out many of the principles of subsequent multiple diagnosis and therapy. Her work has played no significant role in movement literature: Bowers et al. 1971; cf. Bowers and Brecher 1955. Confer 1983 was never taken up, although it has all the intellectual ingredients of an early textbook on multiplicity. From the point of view of psychiatrists not in the movement, Hilgard 1977 seems like the most important work reviving the concept of dissociation—see, for example, Frankel 1994. Movement writers do cite Hilgard, one of the great students of experimental hypnosis, but it is not clear that his work much influenced them. The canonization of certain works, and the exclusion of others, provides an important illustration for the social history of knowledge and power.
47. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, Psychiatric Annals, Psychiatric Clinics of North America, and International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis.
48. Greaves 1987. He was apologizing for the fact that he could not answer all his telephone calls.
49. Kluft literally owns the journal, and Rush-Presbyterian-St. Luke’s in a sense owned the annual ISSMP&D conference, according to Ross 1993.
50. Putnam 1993, 84.
CHAPTER 4
CHILD ABUSE
1. Herman 1992, 9.
2. Ariès 1962.
3. Wong 1993.
4. There is a vast literature on child abuse, to which I have contributed Hacking 1991b and 1992. Since both these essays include a great deal of documentation, I shall be sparing of notes here. I emphasize how child abuse has been molded into different shapes at different times. But perhaps it has simply been suppressed by interested parties. For this argument and references, see Olafson, Corwin, and Summitt 1993.
5. Briquet 1859.
6. Kempe et al. 1962, 23.
7. Braun 1993.
8. Belsky 1993, 415.
9. Kempe et al. 1962, 21.
10. Helfer 1968, 25.
11. Sgroi 1975.
12. Herman and Hirschman 1977 emphasized that the phenomenon had been well known for decades, even in detailed statistics, but had passed without comment. For full discussion, see Herman 1981.
13. In published work (assume a lag of several years between the topic’s initial currency and its publication) this extension of the concept starts about 1977, a watershed year for consciousness-raising about child abuse, comparable to 1962. See Browning and Boatman 1977, Forward and Buck 1978.
14. Wilbur 1984.
15. Kinsey 1953, 121. Landis 1956 obtained a 30 percent prevalence rate for males and 35 percent for females.
16. Finkelhor 1979 and 1984.
17. Browne and Finkelhor 1986, 76.
18. Kendall-Tackett, Williams, and Finkelhor 1993, 164, 175, 165. The authors conjectured that there may also be more evidence of post-traumatic stress disorder, but since that disorder was being formulated at the time of the studies it was not well incorporated into most research designs.
19. Malinosky-Rummell and Hansen 1993, 75.
20. Nelson 1984.
21. Belsky 1993, 424.
22. M. Beard, Times Literary Supplement 14–20 (September 1990): 968.
23. Greenland 1988.
24. New York Times, 28 June 1990, A13.
25. Romans et al. 1993.
26. O’Neill 1992, 121.
27. Pickering 1986.
28. Latour and Woolgar 1979.
29. Gelles 1975.
CHAPTER 5
GENDER
1. Goff and Simms 1993 analyze 52 cases reported in the English language, 1800–1965, and obtain 44 percent males, compared to 24 percent of 54 recent cases.
2. Bliss 1980 has a series of 14 patients, all of whom were women. Bliss 1984 has 32 patients, 20 of whom were female. Seven of the 8 patients of Stern 1984 were women. Horevitz and Braun 1984 have 33 patients, 24 of whom were women. Kluft 1984 has another 33, 25 of whom were women. We should not conclude that a quarter of diagnosed patients were men, because there was a conscious desire to include men in some of these series. Most individual reports are of females, and the prototype of multiple personality is female.
3. Putnam et al. 1986.
4. Ross, Norton, and Wozney 1989.
5. Wilbur 1985.
6. Allison with Schwartz 1980, in “Discovering the Male Multiple Personality,” chapter 7.
7. Ross 1989, 97. The claim that men and women do not differ in dissociative experiences is based on measurement by the Dissociative Experiences Scale discussed in chapter 7 below.
8. In a short series of adolescents, 7 out of 11 were male (Dell and Eisenhower 1990). In a series of child multiples, 4 out of 6 were boys (Tyson 1992).
9. Brodie 1992.
10. Loewenstein 1990.
11. This is certainly true of great fiction. After each wave of multiples, the balance is to some extent corrected by soppy novels with female heroines. Thus in addition to Jekyll and Hyde, Ellenberger (1970, 165–168) summarizes eight stories published after the French wave of doubling. There were four doubled men and four doubled women. In our day we have, for example, Stowe 1991 and Clarke 1992, with female or child multiples.
12. Hoffmann knew G. H. von Schubert, whose lectures had ample accounts of doubling, as in Schubert 1814, especially 108–111. On Hoffman and Schubert, see Herdman 1990, 3. On the doubling relations between Hogg, author of The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner, and Dr. Robert McNish, author of The Philosophy of Sleep, see Miller 1987, 9. Robert Louis Stevenson corresponded with Pierre Janet while writing Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Dostoyevsky’s Mr. Golyadkin of The Double seems to suffer from what was once diagnosed as autoscopy, seeing oneself from behind or at a distance. That was thought to be a condition of epilepsy, which afflicted Dostoyevsky. Autoscopy would now count as depersonalization disorder, which is still listed among the dissociative disorders in DSM-IV.
13. Kleist 1988, 265. The translator has brilliantly adapted the lines of scene 24: “Küsse, Bisse / Das reimt sich, und wer recht von Herzen liebt, / Kann schon das eine für das andre greifen.” Kleist attended Schubert’s lectures in Dresden; see Tymms 1949, 16. In a famous letter to his half sister he said that the play contained all the filth and brightness of his soul, but some have wondered whether when he wrote Schmutz (filth), he meant to write Schmerz (pain). There is no doubt that with the exception of Stevenson’s rather trivial Jekyll and Hyde, most of the great doubling stories were about the pain of the author—and about his feeling of filth.
14. Berman 1974. Kenny 1986 urges a similar thesis for nineteenth-century American doubles.
15. Olsen, Loewenstein, and Hornstein 1992.
16. Rush 1980.
17. Rivera 1988.
18. Rivera 1991.
19. MacKinnon 1987.
20. Leys 1992, 168 and 204. Rose 1986.
21. Dewar 1823.
22. For example, a young married woman who falls in love with her physician-hypnotist and has a child by him. This tale is dramatically told by Bellanger 1854. Parts are summarized in Gilles de la Tourette 1889, 262–268.
23. Rosenzweig 1987.
24. An alter in Dewey 1907 was lesbian. Male personality fragments appear in the first woman multiple to be portrayed in a movie, Wholey 1926 and 1933. The list of sixty-seven cases called multiple personality in a survey of Taylor and Martin 1944 includes some that are not a close fit with present-day DSM criteria, but it is striking that in those days of relative silence about homosexuality, there are nine instances of gender ambivalence involving either a homosexual alter or a male alter for a female host.
25. Schreiber 1973, 214.
26. Bliss 1980.
27. For a young woman with a ninety-year-old male alter, see Atwood 1978. Why stop at people? How about stereotypical animals for alters? I’m not making this up; see Hendrikson, McCarty, and Goodwin 1990 for birds, dogs, cats, and the panther. The childhood scenes described in this article are repulsive, but if one stands back for a moment, one notices the remarkable ease with which the authors’ analysis can fit all too many slices of life, both vile and mundane. The animal alters may be traced to “(1) being forced to act or live like an animal, (2) witnessing animal mutilation, (3) being forced to engage in or witness bestiality, or (4) experiencing traumatic loss of or killing of an animal. Clinical clues to the animal alter phenomenon that emerge during therapy are (1) over identification with an animal, (2) hearing animal calls, (3) excessive fears of animals, (4) excessive involvement with a pet, and (5) cruelty to animals” (p. 218).
28. Rivera 1987.
29. Rivera and Olson 1994.
30. Ross 1989, 68.
31. Lessing 1986, 34.
32. Ibid., 146.
33. Ibid., 148.
CHAPTER 6
CAUSE
1. Greaves’s “paraphrase” of a talk by Richard Loewenstein, “Dissociative Spectrum and Phenomenology of MPD,” Paper presented at the First Eastern Conference on Multiple Personality and Dissociation, Alexandria, Virginia, 24 June 1989. Greaves 1993, 371.
2. For a classic modern statement of this old idea, see Davidson 1967. For a classic modern challenge to this doctrine, see Anscombe 1981.
3. Wilbur and Kluft 1989, 2198.
4. Greaves 1993, 375. Spiegel 1993a.
5. Wilbur 1986, 136.
6. Marmer 1980, 455.
7. There can be no such thing as the unequivocal psychoanalytic understanding of trauma and multiple personality, especially since Freud so wanted to distance himself from the phenomenon of multiplicity. For a perspective from the early days of the multiple movement, see Berman 1981. For a recent one, see the special issue of Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic (1993).
8. Saltman and Solomon 1982.
9. Coons 1984, 53. Cf. Coons 1980.
10. Kluft, ed. 1985.
11. Putnam 1989, 45. Quotations that follow are from pp. 45–54.
12. Van der Kolk and Greenberg 1987, 67.
13. See Hacking 1991c.
14. See, e.g., Cartwright 1983.
15. Putnam refers to Wolff 1987. He argues the comparison between infants and multiples in Putnam 1988.
16. American Heritage Dictionary, 3d ed. (1992). Donovan and McIntyre 1990 paraphrase and quote a good deal of Putnam’s discussion on their pp. 55–70. Although they use Putnam’s “normative,” they relapse into “normal” with a section titled “Normal and Pathological Dissociation” (p. 58), which speaks of Putnam’s first normal substrate—Putnam had written “normative substrate” (e.g., Putnam 1989, 51).
17. Donovan and McIntyre 1990. The longest exact quotation, on p. 57, of thirteen lines from Putnam’s (1989) p. 51, has no qualifiers, although Putnam’s next sentence begins “One can postulate that….”
18. Kluft 1984.
19. Peterson 1990. Reagor, Kaasten, and Morelli 1992. Tyson 1992.
20. I am grateful to Dr. Lauren D. LaPorta for correcting the account given in the first printing of this book, and regret having been inaccurate in my previous mention of her work.
21. In a letter dated 9 September 1994, Denis Donovan has kindly granted me permission to print this paraphrase of his own précis of a confidential summary of the case.
CHAPTER 7
MEASURE
1. Putnam 1989, 9.
2. Ibid., 10, my italics.
3. Frankel 1990.
4. Bernstein and Putnam 1986, 728.
5. Ross 1994, x–xi.
6. The most recent edition of Tests in Print (Mitchell 1983) listed 2,672 English-language psychological tests that are published on their own for testing purposes. The most recent edition of the Mental Measurements Handbook (Krane and Connoly 1992) reviews 477 tests. The forthcoming 12th edition will review the DES for the first time. For a recent review by psychologists not directly involved with multiple personality, see North et al. 1993.
7. Binet 1889 and 1892. For a selection of his papers prepared for an American editor, see his 1890.
8. Jardine 1988 and 1992. Jardine uses the idea of calibration more generally, for the way in which a new theory may substitute for an old one. We cannot simply have scientific revolution in the manner of Thomas Kuhn; an old theory, as Kuhn always insisted, must agree with many of the phenomena covered by a predecessor theory. A successful new theory is calibrated to an old one.
9. Carlson and Putnam 1993 explain their use of “construct validity” very clearly. They say it “refers to an instrument’s ability to measure a construct, in this case dissociation.” They continue, “The most obvious evidence of the construct validity of the DES is the fact that those who are expected to score high on the test do score high, and those who are expected to score low do score low.” They also distinguish “convergent validity and discriminant validity.” “To establish convergent validity, one shows that the new instrument correlates well with other measures of the same construct.” “Discriminant validity is established by showing that scores on the new instrument do not correlate highly with variables thought to be unrelated to the construct of interest.” In short: their research on the DES has to do with comparing scores on the DES against other judgments or measures of dissociation, and with making sure that irrelevant factors are not producing the scores.
10. Thus women scored better than men. This showed that the tests were defective. Questions on which women did better than men were deleted, while questions on which men did better than women were added (Terman and Merritt 1937, 22f., 34). More recently we have become familiar with debates about the culture and class discrimination built into the far more diverse body of tests now available.
11. Newer self-report questionnaires include QED, the Questionnaire of Experiences of Dissociation (Riley 1988), and DIS-Q, the Dissociative Questionnaire (Vanderlinden et al. 1991).
12. Putnam 1993, 84.
13. Braun, Coons, Loewenstein, Putnam, Ross, and Torem.
14. Carlson and Putnam 1993.
15. For each of the twenty-eight experiences we are asked to “circle a number to show what percentage of the time this happens to you.” What percentage of what time? The first question is about the experience of suddenly realizing, on a trip, that you cannot recall part of the trip. What percentage of the time does that happen to you? Literally, the percentage of the time when I have the experience of “suddenly realizing” (anything) is minute. At most twenty seconds of my day are dedicated to sudden realizations. Sensible people charitably take the question to mean, during what proportion of the trips you take do you suddenly realize you cannot recall part of the trip? Each question has to be made sense of it its own way.
16. Gilbertson et al. 1992.
17. Kluft 1993a, 1.
18. Carlson et al. 1993, 1035. The authors note that symptom learning is discussed in Putnam 1989 and Kluft 1991.
19. My own second-year undergraduate class most recently given the questionnaire on the first day of class is drawn about fifty-fifty from arts and sciences. Their average score was 17, with no significant differences between humanists and scientists.
20. Let N (≤100) be the highest dissociative score observed on any tested individual, and M (≥0) be the lowest. Then the no-gap hypothesis states that for any discriminable segment of scores between M and N, there are individuals whose scores fall in that segment. A discriminable segment is one that is meaningfully distinguished by the test, and that might be set in a test protocol at, say, 4 percent. Obviously on a test with twenty-eight questions scored in ten-percentiles, any two nonidentical scores must differ by of a percent, i.e., about 0.035 percent.
21. One needs to add that there is no discriminable threshold M such that the lowest scorers score either 0 or M, with none in between.
22. Frankel 1990, 827.
23. Actually Ross, Joshi, and Currie 1991, in a sample of 1,055 Canadians, found that almost 7 percent answered 0 to all twenty-eight questions. I do not interpret this to mean that 7 percent of my fellow citizens never daydream, get caught up in movies, or ignore pain (etc.), but that we are a cagey lot and, as has been determined on a larger scale by repeated constitutional referenda, many of us will say no to anything (thank goodness).
24. These commonplace notions of smoothness are naturally defined in terms of monotone increase, monotone decrease, and at most a single inflection point.
25. Bernstein and Putnam 1986, 728.
26. “Clearly this distribution is not normal, and statistical analysis of the data should be handled in a nonparametric fashion.” Ibid., 732. There are two distinct technical issues, normality and the use of parametric tests. I say nothing of the latter and so omit this clause from the text. In their subsequent paper Carlson and Putnam (1993) allow use of parametric statistics for groups of more than thirty subjects. But they also may think that scores are normally distributed after all.
27. It makes no real-world sense. To use R. A. Fisher’s parlance, one could consider the statistical distribution of scores in the hypothetical infinite population constituted by 5.3 percent normals, 6.2 percent schizophrenics, 9.1 percent agoraphobics (etc.)—the proportions chosen by Bernstein and Putnam for their study—but this population does not model anything in the real world whatsoever.
28. Ross, Joshi, and Currie 1990.
29. Ross, Heber, and Anderson 1990.
30. Ellason, Ross, and Fuchs 1992.
31. Steinberg 1985, 1993.
32. Draijer and Boon, 1993.
33. Carlson and Putnam 1993, 20, referring to a presentation at the eighth annual (1991) meeting of the ISSMP&D. They mention a “confirmatory study” presented at the same meeting by Schwartz and Frischolz.
34. Ross, Joshi, and Currie 1991.
35. Ray et al. 1992.
36. It also demands attention to technical detail. If scores on the DES really are skewed, then traditional factor analysis is problematic anyway.
37. Frankel 1990, 827.
38. Undergraduates furnish the fodder for a great many psychology tests. Bernstein and Putnam refer to their eighteen- to twenty-two-year-old “college students” as “adolescents.” Compare the study of “college students” by Ross, Ryan, and colleagues: 385 were selected by a process stated to be random. The mean age of these randomly selected “college students” was twenty-seven (Ross, Ryan et al. 1992). On the basis of this sample Ross infers that 5 percent of all college students are pathologically dissociative (Ross 1989, 90–91, referring also to Ryan 1988), but in the 1992 paper suggests a higher incidence rate.
39. Ross 1990, 449. Fernando 1990, 150; I have slightly rearranged the grammar of Dr. Fernando’s sentence.
40. See, for example, Chu 1988.
41. Chu 1991.
42. Diana L. Dill has published jointly with Chu; see, for example, Chu and Dill 1990.
43. Fogelin and Sinnot-Armstrong 1991, 123–126. “Self-sealing arguments,” the authors write, “are hard to deal with, for people who use them will often shift their ground.”
44. Root-Bernstein 1990.
45. The classic paper is Kahneman and Tversky 1973.
46. Carlson and Putnam cite figures from advocates of multiple personality ranging from 2.4 percent to 11.3 percent of psychiatric inpatient samples: Bliss and Jeppsen 1985; Graves 1989; Ross 1991; Ross et al. 1991.
CHAPTER 8
TRUTH IN MEMORY
1. Mulhern 1995.
2. Ganaway 1989, 211.
3. Van Benschoten 1990, 24.
4. Kluft 1989, 192.
5. Fine 1991.
6. Ganaway 1989, 207.
7. Notice in FMS Foundation Newsletter, 1 April 1992.
8. Ganaway 1993.
9. Bryant, Kessler, and Shirar 1992, 245.
10. Spencer 1989.
11. The book is Stratford 1988, reissued 1991; the exposé is Passantino, Passantino, and Trott 1990.
12. Fraser 1990, 60.
13. Young et al. 1991.
14. The challenge was Mulhern 1991b; the response was Young 1991.
15. Putnam 1993, 85. Cf. Putnam 1991.
16. Goodwin 1994 suggests that this is an important reason for the name change, but more seems to be at stake.
17. Abuse within a Malevolent Context: Identifying and Intervening in Severe Intra-Familial Abuse, sponsored by the Justice Institute of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., 23 September 1994.
18. Lockwood 1993.
19. Ibid., final print section of book (n.p.), containing a synopsis of prosecutions 1984–1992, prepared by Cavalcade Productions of Ukiah, Calif. Cavalcade, nestled in gorgeous California ranch land, makes instructional films about abuse.
20. The Independent (London), 3 June 1994. Emeritus professor of sociology Jean La Fontaine chaired the committee.
21. I think it possible that there have been and will be ongoing satanic rituals by organized sects in which children are viciously abused. I know that in my hometown, which has an undeserved reputation for being the most decent, safe, urbane, and dull large city in North America, goats are sacrificed to Satan on the roofs of warehouses only a few streets from my home. I fear that once any idea, no matter how depraved, is in general circulation, then someone will act it out. Even if a decade ago no goat-sacrificing satanists tortured children, my lack of faith in human nature leads me to think it possible that some do so now. When vile stories are rampant, minds that are sufficiently confused, angry, and cruel will try to turn fiction into fact. It is possible that some local secret society, with loose relationships to other groups in other places, has gone completely off the deep end. Perhaps somebody, somewhere, has used an adolescent to breed a baby for human sacrifice. I sadly do not think it is impossible for such things to happen—or even terribly unlikely. Hence in my view a person could in principle have rather accurate memories of such events.
22. Goodwin 1989.
23. Mulhern 1995 and 1991b.
24. P. Kael, 5001 Nights at the Movies (New York: Holt, 1991), 462.
25. Condon 1959. The card was the queen of diamonds.
26. I have here had to abandon my resolve to use only matters of public record. The following account is based on a report by an observer other than me but is consistent with observations that I have made.
27. For one of the first printed discussions of this, see Smith 1992 and the reply, Ganaway 1992.
28. The Toronto Star, 16, 18, and 19 May 1992.
29. Ibid., 28 May 1992.
30. Fraser 1987. Fraser had three personalities.
31. Krüll 1986.
32. She also attacked “syndrome” when she took on the foundation in a middlebrow monthly. Saturday Night 109 (March 1994): 18–21, 56–59.
33. FMS Foundation Newsletter 3, no. 1 (1994): 1.
34. P. Freyd 1991 and 1992.
35. J. F. Freyd 1993.
36. The quotation and all facts asserted in this paragraph are given by the New York Times, 8 April 1994, A1 and B16. There are endless cases and countercases in process.
37. According to Taylor 1994, Herbert Spiegel said that Sybil asked him if she was obliged to talk like alter Helen; Dr. Wilbur would want her to. Spiegel said no, and there was no further discussion of multiples. He described a row with Schreiber, the author of Sybil, when he refused the diagnosis of multiplicity. He did think Sybil had a dissociative disorder.
38. Fifth Estate 1993. Ross’s book was not published for another three years: Colin J. Ross, Satanic Ritual Abuse (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996). On the same television show that we see a chapter from Ross’s book, Spiegel is filmed saying almost exactly what he said to Taylor for the Esquire article, except that the alter he mentions is named Flora and not Helen. We also see an old clip of Spiegel hypnotizing an NBC correspondent; Spiegel showed this to Taylor as well.
39. Ofshe and Watters 1994.
40. Loftus and Ketcham 1994.
41. Van der Kolk 1993.
42. Comaroff 1994.
43. Crime and Punishment, part 6, chapter 5.
44. Tymms 1949, 99.
CHAPTER 9
SCHIZOPHRENIA
1. Bleuler 1924, 137–138.
2. Breuer and Freud, in Freud, S.E. 2:15f., 31–34, 37f., 42–47, 238.
3. Rosenbaum 1980.
4. Putnam 1989, 33.
5. Greaves 1993, 359.
6. Ellenberger 1970, 287.
7. Bleuler 1908.
8. Bleuler 1950 (1911), 8.
9. Ibid., 298–299.
10. Greaves 1993, 360.
11. M. Prince 1905, B.C.A. 1908.
12. For an informal account of Bonaparte, which uses the adjective “redoubtable” more than once, see Appignanesi and Forrester 1992, 329–351.
13. Even before the turn of the century there was talk of so-called multiplicity, or rather dédoublement—for example, Laupts 1898. The diagnosis is pretty much at the end of the road even by the time of Arsimoles 1906.
14. Micale 1993, 525f.
15. Janet 1889, 1893–1894, and 1907; 1909, 256–270.
16. Janet 1919, 3:125. For another interpretation, see Hart 1996.
17. Hart 1926, 247. For a revised version of this article, see Hart 1939, vi: “It is hoped that the addition [of a chapter titled “The Conception of Dissociation”] will serve to amplify and make more intelligible the point of view that [I have adopted], particularly with regard to the respective contributions of Janet and Freud.”
18. Jones 1955, 3:69.
19. Goettman, Greaves, and Coons 1991.
20. Absolute counts of numbers of articles per year in the Index Medicus can be misleading because the total number of published articles is increasing year by year. Using rounded numbers, in 1903 there were 100 articles on hysteria, and 140 in 1908. Then there was a steady drop to 20 in 1917, followed by a brief jump to more than 50 in 1920, and then steady decline. Articles on neurasthenia have the same pattern, with slightly smaller numbers, but no bounce up after the war. The bounce was caused by studies of shell shock that were still regarded as cases of hysteria. The only way in which Rosenbaum’s counts for multiple personality do not shadow counts for hysterical articles is that hysteria was way down in 1917, and multiple personality had not yet started to plummet.
21. M. Prince 1920.
22. Hacking 1988.
23. Myers 1903.
24. W. F. Prince 1915–1916. Add in 216 pages on Doris’s mother, W. F. Prince 1923, and you have some story.
25. Braude 1991.
26. Irwin 1992 and 1994.
27. Ross 1989, 181.
28. Adams 1989, 138.
29. Putnam 1989, 15. There is also a discussion of Breuer and Freud on 16–17.
30. Putnam 1992a presents Anna O. as a multiple. Like so many others of Freud’s cases, Anna O. has been amply rediagnosed; I know of more than thirty distinct diagnoses that have been advanced over the years.
31. Rank 1971.
33. Schreiber 1973, 117.
34. Laing 1959.
35. Zubin et al. 1983.
36. Lay opinion seems to divide; some of us think the drugs are miracles, and others of us think they are mind-control with gross side effects and irreversible brain destruction. Hence a few balancing remarks are in order. Some patients experience overactivity (extrapyrimidal symptoms): muscular rigidity, tremors, rolling eyes, salivation and drooling, jerky movements, blurred vision, and a shuffling gait. Others experience underactivity (tardive diskeniesia). Between 5 and 20 percent of schizophrenics do not respond to the antipsychotic drugs at present prescribed, and another 5 to 20 percent have side effects that overwhelm any improvement in symptoms. The most recent drug, clozapine, after some lethal misdosage, is now available again in the United States and helps some of the patients who cannot be treated with other psychotropic medicine. For one survey, see Safferman et al. 1991.
37. Andreasson and Carpenter 1993.
38. Crose 1985.
39. This was implicit in R. D. Laing and the antipsychiatry movement; for a book-length exposition, see Boyle 1990.
40. Schneider 1959 (which includes a translation of Schneider’s 1939 paper).
41. Kluft 1987.
42. Ross, Norton, and Wozney 1989.
43. Ross 1994, xii.
44. John P. Wilson, quoted on p. 2 of the eight-page brochure of the conference, presented by Kairos Ventures Ltd. and organized by Anne Speckland and Denis M. Donovan.
CHAPTER 10
BEFORE MEMORY
1. Völgyesi 1956; Völgyesi published in German in 1938. In Germany and Russia (where Völgyesi studied), a “praying mantis” is “one who prays to God.”
2. Spiegel 1993a.
3. Darnton 1968.
4. Braid 1843.
5. Lambek 1981.
6. Douglas 1992.
7. Bourreau 1991 and 1993.
8. Hacking 1991a. My survey is incomplete but indicates the lay of the land.
9. Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonée (Neufchatel: Faucher, 1765; facsimile reproduction by Readex Microprints), 15:340.
10. Azam 1876c, 268.
11. Gauld 1992a.
12. Crabtree 1993.
13. Mitchill 1817; from the issue of February 1816.
14. Breuer and Freud (1893), in Freud, S.E. 2:12 (emphasis in original), where despite identical spelling French is intended, not English.
15. Carlson 1981 and 1974. Kenny 1986.
16. Gauld 1992b.
17. Ward 1849, 457.
18. Wilson 1842–1843.
19. H. Mayo 1837, 195. Not in previous editions. Herbert Mayo has somehow escaped the notice of the modern multiple movement; his classic case is not cited in Goettman, Greaves, and Coons 1991. It was often referenced during the nineteenth century; “Dr. Mayo’s case” refers to Herbert, and not to Thomas Mayo (1845) whose case has been picked up in the recent multiple literature as a case of “adolescent” multiplicity; cf. Bowman 1990.
20. Carlson et al. 1981, 669.
21. J. C. Browne 1862–1863. Globus is the sensation of a lump in the throat, then commonly taken to be a symptom of hysteria.
22. These concerns were fired by Alan Ladbroke Wigan 1844, esp. 371–378. The classic studies of the dual brain are Harrington 1985 and 1987.
23. It is to be remembered that on average nineteenth-century children were older at the onset of puberty than children are today. Thus a famous Scottish case of 1822 concerns a woman of sixteen, who became well only after her first period. Dewar 1823.
24. I quote this plea at length in chapter 16, p. 221–222 below.
25. Bertrand 1827, 317–319.
26. Despine 1838 (issued October 1839). This has less polish and less public-relations savvy than the piece usually cited, Despine 1840. For a fairly neutral resumé, see Ellenberger 1970, 129–131.
27. Shorter 1992, 160f.
28. Fine 1988.
29. Janet 1919, 3:86.
30. Janet 1893–1894.
CHAPTER 11
DOUBLING OF THE PERSONALITY
1. Azam 1893, 37–38. Azam republished his pieces in a number of forms. Azam 1893 contains all his main contributions to psychology, lightly edited. Azam 1887 contains slightly different editings of the same or related pieces up to 1886. Azam’s son-in-law, a Latinist at the Collège de France, published an annotated bibliography of 180 items: Jullian 1903. The books and the bibliography are quite hard to lay hands on. Hence I will cite both the books and the original journal articles, many of which are easy to locate in research libraries.
2. Janet 1907, 78.
3. See bibliography entries for Azam, 1876 to 1879.
4. Babinski 1889, 12. Cf. Didi-Huberman 1982.
5. For a deeply insightful essay, which refers back to a generation of work but is also an important contribution in its own right, see Showalter 1993. For two bibliographies of historiography of hysteria, see Micale 1991 and 1992.
6. Alam and Merskey 1992, 157.
7. Taine 1870, 1:372.
8. Taine 1878, 1:156.
9. Littré 1875, 344.
10. Ribot 1988, 107.
11. Janet 1888, 542.
12. Warlomont 1875.
13. Azam 1876a, 16. Warlomont’s study was commissioned in 1874, not 1875.
14. Azam 1893, 90.
15. Egger 1887, 307.
16. And “pure metaphysics will become only a memory,” he continued. Azam 1887, 92.
17. Ibid., 143–153.
18. Janet 1876, 574. Bouchut 1877. The most interesting contribution is Dufay 1876.
19. Ladame 1888, 314.
20. Hacking forthcoming.
CHAPTER 12
THE VERY FIRST MULTIPLE PERSONALITY
1. My free translation of “des cas d’hystérie fruste.” Voisin 1886, 100. Cf. Voisin 1885.
2. Bourru’s account appears directly after Voisin 1885. Cf. Bourru and Burot 1885 and 1886b.
3. A. T. Myers 1896, “The Life-History of a Case of Double or Multiple Personality.” Myers’s more famous brother used another name for the same case. F.W.H. Myers 1896, “Multiplex Personality.”
4. Binet and Féré 1887.
5. Binet 1886. Binet was reviewing Bernheim 1886.
6. Babinski 1887. For a summary, see Babinski 1886.
7. For the road from metallotherapy to Luys, see Gauld 1992a, 332–336.
8. Ibid., 334f.
9. Bourru and Burot 1888. Crabtree 1993, 303.
10. Camuset 1881. Abstracted in Ribot 1882, 82–84.
11. Not my words but those attributed to the doctor in charge of l’asile St.-Georges; I translate habilement as “slyly.” Bourru and Burot 1888, 24.
12. Voisin 1886, 105.
13. The conquest of Indochina was technically complete by 1883, but the north was in constant rebellion. According to Bourru and Burot, Vivet joined up to fight in Tongking; Azam speaks of him as just doing his obligatory military service. Certainly in one of his states he passionately did not want to go to Tongking. Perhaps he was arrested for yet another theft of clothes and effectively impressed into the military?
14. Bourru and Burot 1886a.
15. “Le premier soin qui s’imposait était d’essayer l’action des métaux et de l’aimant.” Bourru and Burot 1888, 35.
16. Ibid., 39.
17. Gauld 1992a, 453.
18. Bourru and Burot 1888, 263.
19. Ibid., 299f.
20. Gauld 1992a, 365f. Myers 1903, 1:309.
CHAPTER 13
TRAUMA
1. Fischer-Homberg 1975, 79.
2. Micale 1990a, 389n.112.
3. Gilles Deleuze, “Zola et la fêlure”(1969), preface to Emile Zola, La Bête humaine (1889) (Paris: Gallimard, 1977), 21.
4. Fischer-Homberg 1972.
5. Schivelbush 1986, 134–149.
6. The lectures were published as Erichsen 1866.
7. Ibid., 127. He became more favorable to the comparison with hysteria in later work.
8. Reynolds 1869a, 378. Summary of the lecture’s contents and discussion.
9. Reynolds 1869b. A fuller version of the paper.
10. Trimble 1981.
11. Charcot 1886–1887, lectures 18–22 and appendix 1.
12. In this and many other explanatory details I follow Micale 1990a.
13. But they were tainted with degeneracy, itself an inherited condition. Degénerescence was an all-purpose notion one of whose primary connotations was the decline of France compared to Britain and Germany. It was connected throughout the century with low birth rates, and hence with suicide, prostitution, homosexuality, alcoholism, insanity, vagrancy, and, after 1880 and abetted by Charcot, with hysteria. See Nye 1984.
14. Charcot 1886–1887, 335ff.
15. Pitres 1891, 28. A table for age at onset, classified by sex, is given on p. 15. The original lectures were given during the summer semester of the academic year 1884–1885. Notes taken by J. Davezac were published in serial form beginning 4 April 1886, in Journal de médecine de Bordeaux.
16. J. Davezac in his review-homage to Pitres in Journal de médecine de Bordeaux 20 (1891): 443.
17. Guinon 1889. Freud, S.E. 3, see index.
18. Fischer-Homberg 1971. Cf. Micale 1990a, 391n.118.
19. Lunier 1874.
20. From a French medical thesis of 1834, cited by Schivelbush 1986, 137.
21. Lunier 1874, cases 12, 111, 288, and 300.
22. Rouillard 1885, 87.
23. Ibid., 10.
24. Review by Camuset, Annales médico-psychologiques 44 (1886): 478–490. The thèse was 252 pp. long; most thèses for the Faculty of Medicine in Paris were only a little over 100 pp. in length.
25. Azam 1881. Azam 1893, 157–197.
26. Even Charcot, who usually preferred his own neologisms, uses Azam’s terminology, 1886–1887, 442.
27. J. Janet 1888.
28. “Preliminary Communication” (1893), S.E. 2:12.
29. Crocq and de Verbizier 1989.
30. “Hysteria” (1888), S.E. 1:41–57.
31. Gelfand 1992; cf. Gelfand 1989.
32. “The Psychopathology of Everyday Life,” S.E. 6:161.
33. S.E. 1:137 (emphases in original).
34. A more cautious statement of this analogy is to be found in Carter 1980.
35. S.E. 1:139.
36. “Further Remarks on the Neuro-psychoses of Defence” (1896), S.E. 3:162–190, 163 (emphasis in original).
37. Kitcher 1992.
38. Van der Kolk and van der Hart 1989, 1537–1538.
39. Friedrich Nietzsche, Zur Genealogie der Moral (1887), pt. 3, sec. 16. I translate seelische Schmerz as “psychological pain,” and, more freely, eines sogar spindeldüren Fragezeichen as “a skinny question mark.”
40. Lampl 1988.
CHAPTER 14
THE SCIENCES OF MEMORY
1. Foucault 1972, 182. There are now many ways to read Foucault. For my take on savoir and connaissance, see Hacking 1986a.
2. Ellenberger 1970, 289–291. Although his own book is subtitled The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry, he notes that the word “dynamic” was used in psychiatry “with a variety of meanings that often entailed some confusion.”
3. Dr. Delannay, as reported in Gazette des Hôpitaux, no. 81 (1879): 645.
4. The classic modern studies are Rossi 1960 and Yates 1966.
5. Carruthers 1990, 71, prefers this term to the widely used name brought into currency by Frances Yates, Ciceronian mnemonic.
6. Carruthers 1990, 260.
7. John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1693), 2.10.7.
8. Broca 1861.
9. Lichtheim 1885. My periodization of early work on localization follows Rosenfeld 1988.
10. Danziger 1991, 142.
11. Ebbinghaus 1885.
12. Murray 1983, 186.
13. It should be clear from the text that I take “firsts” as markers, not as prizewinners. For an anticipation of Ebbinghaus on the use of nonsense units (digits) and of statistics, see Stigler 1978. Ebbinghaus was not the first to use probability in psychology. That palm goes to Fechner; see Heidelberger 1993. Fechner was nonstatistical; he used the Gaussian (Normal) distribution as an a priori model for psychophysics, whereas Ebbinghaus used empirical statistics, curve fitting, and measures of dispersion.
14. Ribot 1881, 1883, and 1885.
15. Brooks 1993.
16. Roth 1991a and 1991b.
17. Danziger 1991, 24–27.
18. Sauvages 1771, 1:157.
19. Associationist psychology had been his point of departure in psychology: Ribot 1870.
20. Ribot 1881, 107.
21. Hartmann 1869. For a brief but rich account of Hartmann and his intellectual surroundings, see Ellenberger 1970, 202–210.
22. Ribot 1881, 26–27.
23. Ibid., 82, italics in original. I have left moi in various passages because I cannot uniformly translate it as “self” or “ego,” let alone “me.”
24. Ibid., 83.
25. Ribot 1885, 1.
26. Ribot 1881, 94, 95 (emphasis in original).
27. “In the case of general dissolution of the memory, loss of recollections [souvenirs] follows an invariable course: recent events, ideas in general, feelings, acts. In the best known case of partial dissolution (forgetfulness of signs [aphasia]), the loss of recollections follows an invariable course: proper names, common nouns, adjectives and verbs, interjections, gestures. In both cases … there is a regression from the complex to the simple, from the voluntary to the automatic, from the least organized to the best organized.” Ibid., 164, in the conclusion to the book, and which summarizes 90–98.
CHAPTER 15
MEMORO-POLITICS
1. Herman 1992, 9.
2. Foucault 1980, 139 (emphasis in original).
3. Comaroff 1994.
4. Functionalism is not in fashion. For criticism, see Elster 1983. For rebuttal, see Douglas 1983, chapter 3.
5. Hacking 1982.
6. For an early sketch of this idea, see Hacking 1983. The most systematic study of the relationship between the census and making up kinds of people is Desrosières 1993.
7. Plint 1851.
8. Goodstein 1988.
9. Briquet 1859.
CHAPTER 16
MIND AND BODY
1. McCrone 1994 (my emphasis).
2. Wakley 1843 (emphasis in original).
3. James 1890.
4. James 1983, 269.
5. James 1890, 384–385.
6. Ibid., 401.
7. Whitehead 1928, 141. On 147: “The point of a ‘society’, as the term is here used, is that it is self-sustaining…. To constitute a society, the class-name [the name for the entity or type] has got to apply to each member, by reason of genetic derivation from other members of the same society.”
8. Ibid., 164.
9. Ibid. (my emphasis).
10. Humphrey and Dennett 1989, 77.
11. Whitehead 1928, 164.
12. Dennett 1991, 419.
13. Ibid., 422.
14. Ibid., 420.
15. Taylor and Martin 1944, 297.
16. Hilgard 1986, 24 (and cf. 18).
17. Wittgenstein 1956, for example I-80.
18. Braude 1991, 164.
19. Dennett 1992.
20. The second and more considered of these two books is Braude 1986. I have explained why I disagree with the main theses of this book in Hacking 1993.
21. Wilkes 1988, vii (emphasis in original).
22. There are many studies to help us learn more about Miss Beauchamp. One of the most informative is Rosenzweig 1987.
23. Moore 1938.
24. Wilkes 1988, 128.
25. She has been challenged by Lizza 1993.
26. North et al. 1993 have two appendixes about this genre. Appendix A (pp. 186–229) summarizes the plots of book-length accounts and discusses the symptoms described in those plots. Appendix B (pp. 231–251) gives the results in tabular form. The majority of books are written in the “as told to” or “with” format of authorship. Books per year in the eighties: 1981—2, 1982—2, 1985—1, 1986—1, 1987—3, 1988—1, 1989—2.
27. Miller 1987, 348.
CHAPTER 17
AN INDETERMINACY IN THE PAST
1. Anscombe 1959, especially 37–44.
2. This is Donald Davidson’s trio, slightly different in formulation from Anscombe’s. Davidson tends to agree with Anscombe on the issues that matter to the present chapter, but differs from her on questions about the reasons for and causes of an action. She keeps them apart; Davidson argues that many reasons are causes. See Davidson 1980 for a sequence of essays commenced in 1963.
3. At first Davidson was of this opinion but later revised it. Thus in the first essay of Essays in Actions and Events, he thought (as he says on p. xiii of Davidson 1980), “that ‘the intention under which an event was done’ does not refer to an entity or state of any kind,” but the fifth essay “partially undermined” that theme. These matters are far too complex to discuss here. I shall write like an Anscombian hard-liner.
4. I have discussed this in the final sections, “Old Worlds” and “New Worlds,” pp. 223–230, of Hacking 1992.
5. See Reppucci and Haugaard 1989 for a discussion of prevention programs and how little we know about their efficacy.
6. Globe and Mail (Toronto), 5 July 1994, A6.
7. Joan Barfoot reviewing Caesars of the Wilderness by Peter Newman, New York Times Book Review, 20 December 1987, 9.
8. Ariès 1962.
9. DeMause 1974.
10. Donovan 1991.
11. Goddard 1926 and 1927.
12. Hacking 1991c. For the purposes of the present example, I shall treat Goddard’s reports as accurate and reasonably complete. They are not.
13. Terr 1979 and 1994.
14. Carter 1983 notes that Freud can hardly be said to have “discovered” infant sexuality; the Viennese medical and psychological literature of his day was rife with the idea.
15. Lessing 1986, 454.
16. Rosenfeld 1988.
17. It was a case of fugue, but it was also described in the literature as double consciousness. A. Proust 1890. This story appears in “Le temps retrouvé”; see M. Proust 1961, 3:716. And in Raymond and Janet 1895.
18. Ryle 1949, 272–279.
19. Ibid., 279, 276.
CHAPTER 18
FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS
1. Early Freud is still the best read on screen memories. See “Screen Memories,” S.E. 3:304–322. For secondary material my first choice is Spence 1982.
2. People are so busy calling Michel Foucault postmodern that they seldom notice how old-fashioned he was. For a brief remark about Foucault’s Kantian construction of himself, see Hacking 1986c.