The following instructions issued by Raffles to Farquhar on 16 January 1819 underline the priority he gave to Singapore in his plans:98
Letter 5
Raffles to Farquhar
16 January 1819
To Major Farquhar
&ca. &ca. &ca.
Sir,
Having communicated to you the general instructions, under which I am appointed to act as Agent to the Governor General, with the states of Rhio, Lingin and Johor, and placed you in possession of the views under which I consider our Interests to be placed in that quarter, I proceed to give you the following detailed Instructions for your guidance, in the Mission to which you have been deputed by me. –
2. The Dutch having preoccupied the Port of Rhio, it would be inconsistent with my Instructions, to attempt any negociation for the Establishment of a British post at that place; but as they do not appear to have formed any establishment either at Lingin or Johor, and as a previous authority was granted to us, to survey and examine the Carimon Islands, with the view to the formation of a Settlement there; an opening may be still left, for the attainment of the main object in view, without Collision with the Dutch authorities. –
3. From every information I have received, and the result of some investigation, it would appear that Johor, or rather the Island of Sincapore, is in every respect well adapted for a British Port, such as we require. [T]he Harbour is capacious and easily defensible, and a station on Sincapore or on one of the Islands in its vicinity, would possess greater advantages than even could have been contemplated at Rhio. –
4. Should therefore the Dutch not have formed any establishment there, it is desirable that no time should be lost in selecting a proper spot for our Establishment; and in fixing our Post either at Johor itself or on the Island of Sincapore. The latter seems to offer most advantages, as it may command the Harbour and be found more salubrious than Johor, where the banks of the River are understood to be low and swampy. This however is a point that can only be determined on the spot, & after personal examination.
5. With a view to the attainment of this object, you will immediately embark on the Brig, Ganges, which has been engaged for your accommodation, and proceed to the Straits of Sincapore, communicating by the readiest means you have in your power with Captain Ross of the Discovery, who has been requested to await the arrival of a vessel off the N.E. end of the little Carimon, in order to submit his survey of those Islands.
6. Whatever may be the advantages of those Islands, and however advisable it may be to hoist the British flag & take possession of them, as soon as we have a just title to do so; it is not contemplated in the first instance to form a settlement there; at any rate not until further instructions can be transmitted to you, founded on information not yet received.
7. As the Honble Company’s surveying Vessel Nearchus is proceeding down the Straits, in order to effect the [survey?] of the Straits of Sunda, Captn. Maxfield has been directed to keep company with you, & to place himself under your orders, in order that you may avail yourself of his professional judgement at Sincapore.
8. Having ascertained the capabilities of Sincapore & its vicinity, & the result being satisfactory; you will make such arrangements for securing to us the eventual Command of that important Station, as circumstances, and a deliberate consideration of the high & important interest involved, may dictate, proceeding yourself to Rhio, for the purpose of ascertaining the precise nature of the engagements which may have been entered into between the Dutch & the Chief native authority there. –
9. In the event of your obtaining an interview with the Chief of Rhio, you are authorized to state to him that the Treaty concluded by you on the part of the British Government, had met the approbation of the highest authority in India; and that in pursuance thereof, arrangements were in progress for strengthening & maintaining the good understanding thereby established: that on the arrival of the Governor General’s Agent at Penang a Report was received, that His Highness had in the interim, entered into certain engagements with the Dutch, & had admitted a Dutch force into the vicinity of his Capital; that under these circumstances, His Lordship’s Agent in order to avoid collision with the Dutch, with whom the English Nation are on terms of the strictest amity & friendship, has declined to proceed [to] Rhio, & that the object of your visit, is therefore to ascertain what these Engagements are; and in how far they may be considered to affect the relations existing between the British Government & His Highness, under the existing Treaty.
10. Should His Highness consider himself at liberty to respect the Treaty with the British Govt. & to admit a British Resident; you will represent to him, that it is not consistent with the views of the British Govt. to establish such a Resident at Rhio, lest by such an arrangement dispute & collision might arise with the Dutch who were previously established there, but that you are authorized to establish a British Post at any other place in its vicinity, which may be convenient for the protection of our Trade & in which the Dutch may not have previously formed any establishment; and if His Highness should consider himself vested with sufficient power for the purpose, it will be desirable to obtain from him his written permission for us to settle at Sincapore, the Carimons, or any other spot [which] may be selected. –
11. You will clearly understand yourself, and cause it to be equally understood by His Highness, that the object of the British Govt. in fixing on such a Station, is not the acquirement of Territory or Revenue. The simple permission for the Residence of an Agent or Representative of the British Government, with a suitable force is all that is required.
12. The sanction of the Sultan of Lingen to this or any other arrangement that may be made, is an object to be attended to; as that state has always maintained its independence, & no Dutch factory appears ever to have been established there. Negotiation with this Chief, should the Dutch not have formed any Establishment there, appears advisable under any circumstances, and as we have reason to believe, there is every disposition in our favour, it will be of importance to establish a small Post there, in order to support any immediate arrangements that may be made at Sincapore, or such as may eventually be decided upon regarding the Carimons.
13. In order that you may not experience delay in carrying into effect such arrangements as may be found practicable under existing circumstances a Detachment of the strength mentioned in the margin [100 Sepoys 20 Golundaz 10 Tent & Mag: Lascars 1 Drum & fife], in addition to the party of European Artillery in the Nearchus, has been ordered on board the Mercury; & I have placed at your disposal, two public officers of distinguished merit and experience, Lieutt. [Francis] Crossley99 who held the most confidential situations under the British Resident at the Moluccas for seven years, and Mr. [Samuel] Garling the Resident of Croee [Krui] on the West Coast of Sumatra.100 I have the greatest confidence in Lieutt. Crossley’s discernment & judgement, & I am desirous that you should have the aid of his advice in all points of moment. –
14. Having thus pointed out the course which in the present state of my information it appears to me advisable you should pursue, I must next direct your attention to the importance of ascertaining, with the utmost exactness practicable, the real political state of the ancient empire of Johore: in how far it has been dismembered & in what degree its ancient capital may be considered under the immediate authority of its local Chief. It is understood, that the l[e]gitimate Chief resides in the Straits, without exercising any authority, & that he would willingly aid our views. – This is a point which may be of considerable importance in the event of the Chief of Rhio or Lingin not considering themselves authorized to grant the title we require; or of the Dutch having attempted to assume a Political influence over the whole of the Islands. –
15. In the event of your succeeding in the object of your mission you will remain in command of the Post under the appointment of the Supreme Government; and Lieutt. Crossley will return to me with the Report of your proceedings[;] provisionally & until I may be able personally to visit the spot, you are authorized to engage whatever Establishment European or Native may be required and I place the most confident reliance on your rendering the proposed Post tenable, with the least delay practicable. –
16. As soon as the service of the Nearchus can be disposed with, she is to proceed on the Survey ordered by the Supreme Government; but if you find [it] necessary, pending a reference to me, you are authorized to detain her. The Brig Ganges may also remain with you but the Mercury should be returned to Prince of Wales’ Island, the moment her services can be dispensed with.
I have &ca.
(signed) T. Stamford Raffles,
Agent to Govr. Genl.
Prince of Wales Island
16th. January 1819.
Farquhar sailed from Pinang on 18 January in the 130-ton brig Ganges, nominally owned and commanded by his son-in-law, Francis James Bernard,101 together with HCS Nearchus (W. Maxfield) carrying Lieutenant Henry Ralfe102 and a party of 30 European artillerymen. Accompanying them was the hired ship Mercury (J.R. Beaumont) conveying the main company of Sepoys, the remainder being carried in the Ganges.
Raffles stayed behind at Pinang and, in accordance with his instructions, prepared to proceed directly to Aceh on a joint mission with Captain John Monckton Coombs to resolve a dynastic dispute in the sultanate and improve relations between Aceh and the government of Prince of Wales Island.103
However, as soon as Farquhar’s ships had sailed, Bannerman requested Raffles to delay the Aceh mission until a reference on the subject was made to the Supreme Government in Bengal. This, according to Raffles’s secretary, Dr. William Jack, was designed to keep Raffles idle, and was considered “a master stroke of policy” by Bannerman,104 but the moment Raffles received the letter, on the evening of 18 January, he resolved to follow Farquhar’s ships, which were anchored outside the harbour waiting for the tide. He accordingly ordered the ship Indiana (James Pearl) and the schooner Enterprize (Richard Harris) to prepare to sail before daybreak, and then wrote to Bannerman stating that, in accordance with his wishes, he would delay his mission to Aceh but in the meantime he would proceed on his other mission to the Eastward:105
Fig. 20
The Indiana, on which Raffles sailed from Pinang for Singapore, January 1819.
Oil painting, reproduced by permission of Antiques of the Orient, Singapore.
Letter 6
Raffles to Bannerman
18 January 1819
To
The Honble Col. Bannerman
&c &c &c
Honble Sir,
I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your Letter of this date addressed to Captain Coombs and myself, earnestly entreating we will stay our proceedings and suspend the prosecution of our Mission to Acheen until a reply is received to important references made by you to the Governor General.
Having consulted with Captn Coombs, and taken into consideration the intelligence communicated in the concluding paragraph of your Letter from which it may be reasonably concluded that there is no immediate danger to be apprehended from the further interference of the Dutch at Acheen, it appears to me that, in deference to the high authority and earnestness of the Entreaty, I shall be justified in meeting your wishes, the more particularly as my Services in the mean time can be advantageously employed in advancing the ulterior object of my Mission –
With a view to this latter object it is my intention to embark tomorrow on the Indiana in the expectation of overtaking Major Farquhar and making such arrangements with that officer, as may facilitate our intercourse under the change of circumstances which has taken place. In according myself of the opportunity thus afforded, I shall be enabled to ensure a more immediate and active superintendence over the objects of his Mission while I may confidentially calculate on returning to this Port in time to proceed to Acheen after affording the delay which you so urgently require –
As the Water & provisions which may have been sent onboard the Indiana will not receive any injury by remaining onboard a short time, I have not thought it necessary to desire them to be relanded, but I request that orders may be issued to put a stop to any further shipment on that Vessel.
Considering the delay which has already taken place since my arrival, I do not feel myself authorized any longer to detain the Surveying Vessel the Minto for the Mission to Acheen under the present uncertainty as to the period of its departure, and it is therefore my intention that she should follow the Nearchus without delay –
I have the honor to be &c –
(signed) T S Raffles
P. W. Island
18 Jany 1819
A true Copy
T S Raffles
The Indiana with Raffles on board dropped anchor off Karimun Besar on the evening of 27 January, a day after the arrival of Farquhar’s ships and the survey vessels, Discovery and Investigator. The 27th of January had been spent in exploring the 20 kilometre-long island, the northern hilly side by a party including Farquhar and Captain Ross, and the southern side by Captain Crawford, Captain Maxfield and Lieutenant Ralfe. Crawford recorded in his Diary that everyone returned disgusted, having found the island “a perfect jungle, and not calculated for a settlement”, but Farquhar “expressed himself delighted with this place and said that an excellent town possessing every mercantile convenience might be built, and he declared he would prefer it to any other spot”.106
During a discussion after Raffles’s arrival, Ross “pointed out on a chart a spot he considered more eligible in point of harbour, cleared of jungle, and advantageous for trade to the N.E. of St. John’s Island”, which he had observed on his earlier passage to China. According to Crawford, it was then agreed to examine the place, and the ships sailed for Singapore on the following morning.107 Farquhar later claimed that it was as a result of a suggestion made by him during the voyage that it was decided to proceed to Singapore,108 but the claim finds no support in the contemporary records, which clearly show that he wanted a British settlement on the Karimun Islands. Moreover, Ross’s suggestion to examine Singapore was made long after Raffles had expressed his own opinion on the suitability of the island in his correspondence with the Supreme Government in Bengal.
The ships made Singapore around 4 o’clock in the afternoon of the same day. A few followers of the hereditary Temenggong of Johor, Abdul Rahman, immediately went on board the Indiana and were asked by Raffles if there was any Dutch settlement at Singapore or at Johor, or if any attempt had been made by the Dutch to establish themselves locally. According to an eyewitness account recorded many years later, and hitherto accepted as a correct version of events, Raffles and Farquhar did not land at Singapore until the morning of 29 January,109 when they proceeded to the Temenggong’s house, which stood back from the other hundred or so smaller huts on the northern bank of the Singapore River. However, Raffles makes clear in his own account that he and Farquhar went ashore and had discussions with the Temenggong on the evening of the day of their arrival on 28 January, and this fact is confirmed by another contemporary eyewitness account which states that they landed under a salute from the guns of the Indiana and the Discovery.110
During these discussions with the Temenggong, Raffles attempted to ascertain details of the political situation of the Johor empire, and after a further meeting on the following day, apparently on board the Indiana, a preliminary Agreement was concluded with the Temenggong on 30 January, which provided for the establishment of a British trading factory at Singapore, “or other place in the Government of Singapore-Johore”.111
Farquhar was immediately despatched to Pulau Penyengat on the Ganges, accompanied by the Nearchus, Enterprize, and an honorary detail of European troops, for the purpose of “conciliating the friendship of the Rajah Mooda” and obtaining his agreement to the formation of a British establishment “in the Johore Dominions”.112
On 29 and 30 January, the European artillerymen with their field pieces and the Bengal Sepoys were landed from the ships and began erecting their tents. A short time afterwards, more than 100 Chinese inhabitants and a number of Malays volunteered as labourers to cut down the grass and clear the jungle.113
While awaiting Farquhar’s return, Raffles re-boarded the Indiana and sailed eastwards along the island in an unsuccessful attempt to reach Johor Lama, and the Straits separating Singapore from the Johor mainland, to investigate whether or not a small post should be established at either of these places; but he had to abandon the attempt as the passage proved too difficult and the Malays expressed a general aversion to locating a post at the old capital of Johor Lama from which they had been expelled by the Portuguese in 1587.114
Raffles wrote to Marsden on 31 January:
Here I am at Singapore, true to my word, and in the enjoyment of all the pleasure which a footing on such classic ground must inspire. The lines of the old city, and of its defences, are still to be traced, and within its ramparts the British Union waves unmolested … Most certainly the Dutch never had a factory in the island of Singapore; and it does not appear to me that their recent arrangements with a subordinate authority at Rhio can or ought to interfere with our permanent establishment here.115
Farquhar returned to Singapore from Riau on the evening of 3 February and informed Raffles of the unwillingness of Raja Jaafar to break his treaty obligations with the Dutch or give any formal document permitting the formation of the proposed British settlement; but as he had given permission to the British to survey the Karimun Islands for the purpose of forming a settlement prior to his signing the treaty with the Dutch, he considered himself bound in the matter and “could not now object to our using our own discretion in occupying those Islands, or such other Port in the Straits as we might deem best adapted for the protection and convenience of our Trade”.116
Fig. 21
William Marsden (1754–1836), the orientalist and collector.
Etching after a painting by Thomas Phillips, 1815.
Meanwhile, on 1 February the claimant to the Johor sultanate, Tengku Hussain Muhammad, also known as Tengku Long, the eldest son of the late Sultan Mahmud Shah, had arrived at Singapore, having been summoned by two anak raja from Pulau Penyengat. During a formal visit on the following day, he confirmed the particulars regarding Johor given to Raffles by Temenggong Abdul Rahman, and expressed “his entire acquiescence & approbation” of the preliminary Agreement concluded with the Temmengong for the establishment of a British trading factory on the island.
Raffles now realised that by recognising the legitimacy of Hussain’s position as Sultan of Johor, he held the key to securing the British position at Singapore and he accordingly concluded a formal Treaty of Friendship and Alliance with him and Temenggong Abdul Rahman on the afternoon of 6 February. The terms of the Treaty were read out in English by Raffles’s acting-Secretary, Lieutenant Francis Crossley, and in Malay by Farquhar’s scribe, Enche’ Yahya, in front of some 30 European “gentlemen” and troops drawn up in line. After the three copies of the Treaty were signed, the British flag was hoisted and salutes fired by the British field pieces and the battery of guns belonging to Temenggong Abdul Rahman, as well as by the ships off shore. The Treaty confirmed the earlier Agreement with the Temenggong permitting the establishment of a trading factory or factories at Singapore by the East India Company and provided for the annual payments to the Sultan and Temenggong of $5,000 and $3,000, with the stipulation that the port of Singapore was to be subject to the regulation of the British authorities, who would have responsibility for the collection of all port dues, except for half the duties collected on Asian vessels, to which the Temenggong was entitled.117
That Raffles believed he had secured a British settlement at the entrance to the Melaka Straits by a Treaty concluded with the independent Sultan of Johor is clear from the letters he subsequently wrote to the Governor-General and the Supreme Government in Bengal. The reasons for the Malay rulers agreeing to the Treaty were more complex, and directly connected with the dynastic disputes in the Johor sultanate as described in the nineteenth-century Malay text, Tuhfat al-Nafis.118 While undoubtedly welcoming the formal confirmation of their respective positions by the British, and especially the financial arrangements provided by the terms of the Treaty, it is clear that Sultan Hussain Muhammad and Temenggong Abdul Rahman did not regard their new positions as being in any way independent or challenging to the unity or structure of the sultanate of Johor. They were quick to affirm this in carefully worded letters addressed to the Yamtuan Muda Raja Jaafar in Riau and Sultan Abdul Rahman in the Lingga Archipelago in which they denied prior knowledge of the arrival of the British at Singapore or of their ability “to prevent their landing” on the island. Significantly, Sultan Hussain is designated in the correspondence as “Yang di-Pertuan Singapura”.119
Following the conclusion of the Treaty, Raffles appointed Farquhar as Resident and Commandant of Singapore with instructions prohibiting him from interfering in the affairs of the Malay states under Dutch control but encouraging him to maintain the freedom of the independent states. He was also instructed to provide watering facilities for ships, erect defences, including a small fort or commodious block-house on the Hill capable of mounting eight or ten twelve-pounders, and barracks for the accommodation of 30 European artillerymen, as well as storehouses for ordnance and military equipment.120
On the following day, 7 February, Raffles sailed from Singapore for Pinang on board the Indiana. During his passage along the Straits, he addressed a private letter to Lieutenant-Colonel James Young, Secretary to the Military Board in Bengal, with whom he had struck up a friendship when he was in Calcutta in the previous year based partly on their mutual hatred of the Dutch. He had already written to him on 12 January 1819 from Pinang complaining about the “determined obstruction” by the Prince of Wales Island government to his mission,121 and now, after repeating this complaint, he gave Young one of the earliest accounts of the founding of Singapore:122
Letter 7
Raffles to Young
12 February 1819
Straits of Malacca
12th February 1819
My dear Sir,
I have the pleasure to inform you that notwithstanding the obstacles thrown in my way and the uncheering prospect at one period afforded – I have been abundantly successful in the accomplishment of the main object of my Mission – a British Station has been established in a position commanding every possible advantage that could be required and the object has been obtained without collision or interference with the Dutch Authorities –
After detaining me at Pinang for upwards of 20 days and insisting upon my going to Acheen in the first instance, I no sooner reported my intention of proceeding there the next day, than Colonel Bannerman pounced upon me with a Letter requiring me to stay proceedings until answers were received from Bengal protesting against my employment at Acheen at all – Much as I regretted this useless detention & the unhandsome manner in which I was requested, I was glad of the opportunity to go in person to the Eastward – and I accordingly embarked without a moments delay – and the result is what I now report to you – This letter is written at sea on my return to Pinang –
The place in which I have fixed our Establishment is Singapour the ancient Capital of the Malay Kings and the Rival of the great State of Menangkabau in Sumatra – Here I found an Authority competent to treat, a Harbour in many respects superior to Rhio, and every facility for the protection of shipping &c – a more admirable situation for our purposes under every point of view in which it can be considered cannot well be conceived – The Harbour has been regularly surveyed and our Fortifications are already commenced, and in the course of two or three years it may be expected to become one of the principal Ports of Trade to the Eastward – Cast your eye on the Map where you see the Straits of Sincapore marked – our Station is four miles to the S. of St. Johns and altho the Map from being altogether erroneous in detail will give you some idea of the Harbour, the position of the place will at once shew how well it is calculated for commanding the Straits of Malacca on one side and the whole European & Native Trade of China[,] Cambodia[,] Siam &c. on the other.
If you can get a sight of my Despatch or of the Plan forwarded with it you will be able to form a correct judgment of the footing on which we stand –
The Dutch will no doubt view our Establishment with jealousy & as they are not very scrupulous, they will I doubt not make some violent Representations against me – but we have justice and equity on our side and have in fact treated them with ten times more respect & delicacy than they demand[.]
I hope I may warmly urge your support and patronage of our infant Establishment – My determination is to keep it a free Port – there are no duties and every thing shall be done to invite and encourage the resort of the Merchants & Capital – Do all you can at Head Quarters to uphold what has been done & to prevent undue impressions – & Believe me
Always sincerely yrs
T S Raffles
Colonel Young
