1. Stokely Carmichael with Ekwueme Michael Thelwell, Ready for Revolution: The Life and Struggles of Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture) (New York: Scribner, 2003), 529.
2. Craig Werner, A Change Is Gonna Come: Music, Race & the Soul of America (New York: Plume, 1999), 121.
3. James Brown and Bruce Tucker, James Brown: The Godfather of Soul (New York: Macmillan, 1986), 173.
4. Nina Simone with Stephen Cleary, I Put a Spell on You: The Autobiography of Nina Simone (New York: Da Capo Press, 1991), 100.
5. Ibid., 112.
6. Mumia Abu-Jamal, We Want Freedom: A Life in the Black Panther Party (Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 2004), 176.
7. NAACP activist Benjamin Hooks recounts the story of Mahalia and Dr. King in Jules Schwerin, Got to Tell It: Mahalia Jackson, Queen of Gospel (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 169.
8. Waldo E. Martin Jr., No Coward Soldiers: Black Cultural Politics in Postwar America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 77.
9. Chanting could be heard in footage from Eyes on the Prize, directed by Louis Massiah and Terry Kay Rockefeller (PBS/Blackside, 1990), VHS.
10. Martin Luther King Jr., “I Have a Dream,” August 28, 1963.
11. Malcolm X speech in Malcolm X and George Breitman, Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements (New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1990), 9.
12. Bennett, Introduction to Tradition and Conflict: Images of a Turbulent Decade 1963–1973, curated by Dr. Mary Schmidt Campbell (New York: Studio Museum in Harlem, 1983), 9–10.
13. Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States (New York: Routledge, 1994), 99.
14. Jeffrey O. G. Ogbar, Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004).
Chapter 1: “Party Music”: The Story of the Lumpen
1. Michael Torrence, interview with author, December 12, 2008.
2. Torrence, author interview, 2008. It should be noted that the aborted student walkout occurred only weeks after Smith and Carlos’s Olympic games action. The situation was very volatile for all involved.
3. William Calhoun, interview with author, July 21, 2007.
4. Ibid.
5. Clark Bailey, interview with author, November 24, 2004.
6. Torrence, author interview, 2008.
7. Michael Torrence, interview on KPFA radio, October 16, 2006.
8. Ibid.
9. William Calhoun, interview with author, November 9, 2002.
10. William Calhoun, interview on KPFA radio, October 8, 2010.
11. Torrence, KPFA interview, 2006.
12. Calhoun, KPFA interview, 2010.
13. Bailey, author interview, 2004.
14. Calhoun, author interview, 2002.
15. Ibid.
16. Karl Marx, The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (Rockville, MD: Wildside Press, 2008), 37.
17. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 14.
18. David Hilliard, interview with author, April 27, 2004.
19. Bailey, author interview, 2004.
20. Michael Torrence, interview with author, March 12, 2012.
21. Calhoun, author interview, 2002.
22. James Mott, interview with author, July 20, 2007.
23. Torrence, KPFA interview, 2006.
24. Mack Ray Henderson, interview with the author, March 10, 2012.
25. Calhoun, KPFA interview, 2010.
26. The Lumpen, “The Lumpen Theme,” written by W. Calhoun (Calhoun Music Group/ASCAP, 1970), transcription from recording housed at Stanford University Huey P. Newton Foundation archives.
27. Mack Ray Henderson, author interview, 2012.
28. Basheer Muhammad, telephone interview with author, July 12, 2012.
29. Lenny Williams, telephone interview with author, June 18, 2011.
30. Torrence, KPFA interview, 2006.
31. Calhoun, author interview, 2002.
32. Bailey, author interview, 2004.
33. Bailey, author interview, 2004; Michael Torrence, interview on KPFA radio, February 23, 2007.
34. The Lumpen, “Free Bobby Now,” written by W. Calhoun (Calhoun Music Group/ASCAP, 1970), transcription from 45 rpm record courtesy of Walter Turner.
35. The Lumpen, “No More,” written by W. Calhoun (Calhoun Music Group/ ASCAP, 1970), transcription from 45 rpm record courtesy of Walter Turner.
36. Billy Jennings, telephone interview with author, March 11, 2013.
37. Calhoun, author interview, 2002.
38. Emory Douglas, interview with author, March 18, 2004. Most later Lumpen performances were advertised in the Black Panther paper. Many were full-page advertisements with artwork, animation, and photos designed by Emory Douglas. Douglas designed the majority of the Lumpen layouts. The Lumpen members said they did not meet the Grateful Dead, as the Lumpen performed early in the day-long event, while the Dead played later.
39. David Levinson, interview with author, December 14, 2004.
40. Mott, author interview, 2007.
41. Ibid.
42. Calhoun, author interview, 2007.
43. Levinson, author interview, 2004.
44. Bailey, author interview, 2004.
45. Ibid.
46. Fredrika Newton, in an impromptu telephone conversation with author, 2006. The Lumpen members confirmed the names of Newton’s associates.
47. Torrence, author interview, 2012.
48. The Black Panther Party Central Committee was modeled on the organizational modes of democratic centralism developed by Mao and Lenin, and it organized and allocated the resources for all Party activities.
49. Douglas, author interview, 2004.
50. Torrence, KPFA interview, 2006.
51. Calhoun, author interview, 2002.
52. Vivid descriptions of the cases surrounding the Panther internal conflicts and disintegration can be found in Curtis J. Austin, Up Against the Wall: Violence in the Making and Unmaking of the Black Panther Party (Fayetteville, AK: University of Arkansas Press, 2006) and Peniel E. Joseph: Waiting ‘Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York: Henry Holt, 2007).
53. Calhoun, author interview, 2007.
54. From previously listed interviews with all the Lumpen members.
55. Bailey, author interview, 2004.
Chapter 2: “Power to the People”: Bay Area Culture and the Rise of the Party
1. The Lumpen, “Power to the People,” written by W. Calhoun, 1970, transcription from recording housed at Stanford University Huey P. Newton Foundation archives. Published by Calhoun Music Group / ASCAP. A live rendition of Sly and the Family Stone’s “Dance to the Music” can be heard on The Woodstock Experience Epic/Legacy CD 748241 (2009).
2. Joel Selvin, “The Top 100 Bay Area Bands 1–50,” San Francisco Chronicle, December 19, 1999.
3. Frederick “Freddie Stone” Stewart recounted details of the family’s quick exodus out of Texas during an on-air interview on KPFA radio, March 15, 2002.
4. Coming Back For More, directed by Willem Alkema (Netherlands: Dwarsproducties, 2008) film.
5. Greil Marcus, Mystery Train: Images of America in Rock and Roll Music (New York: Dutton, 1990), 91. Also Rickey Vincent, Funk: The Music, the People and the Rhythm of The One (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996).
6. Savio had spent the previous summer in Mississippi as a part of the dramatic voter registration efforts of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee’s “Freedom Summer.” Savio survived threats from the Ku Klux Klan in Mississippi and returned to Berkeley fearless in his moral commitment to human rights. See Robert Cohen, Freedom’s Orator: Mario Savio and the Radical Legacy of the 1960s (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).
7. Vincent, Funk, 56–7.
8. Torri Minton, “Race Through Time,” San Francisco Chronicle, September 20, 1998.
9. Important studies of black activism in the Bay Area before the Black Panther Party include Robert O. Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), and Hugh Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1994). A chronology of the desegregation of the armed forces can be found at the Harry S. Truman Library and Museum website, www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/desegregation/large/index.php?action=chronology.
10. Self, American Babylon, 223.
11. Interviews with multiple local musicians and historian Lee Hildebrand.
12. Warren Hinckle, “Metropoly: The Story of Oakland, California,” Ramparts magazine, February 1966, 25.
13. Bobby Seale, Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton (New York: Vintage, 1973), 8.
14. Ibid., 12.
15. Ibid., 3.
16. David Hilliard, Keith Zimmerman, and Kent Zimmerman, Huey: Spirit of the Panther (New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 2006), 23.
17. Bobby Seale’s role in the founding of the Party is discussed in detail in Seale, Seize the Time.
18. Huey P Newton, Revolutionary Suicide (New York: Ballantine Books, 1973), 17–18.
19. Newton, Revolutionary Suicide, 19.
20. Hilliard, Zimmerman, and Zimmerman, Huey, 7.
21. Hilliard, Zimmerman, and Zimmerman, Huey; Roger Guenveur Smith discusses Newton’s alternatives to dancing in his performance of Newton in A Huey P. Newton Story (directed by Spike Lee, 2001).
22. Newton, Revolutionary Suicide, 92–93; also see The Records of the San Francisco Sexual Freedom League (London: Olympia Press, 1971).
23. Discussion of the Diggers and their relationship to the Black Panthers can be found in Peter Coyote, Sleeping Where I Fall: A Chronicle (Washington DC: Counterpoint, 1998). Further information from Dennis McNally, interview with author, January 21, 2008; McNally is the author of A Long Strange Trip: The Inside Story of the Grateful Dead (New York: Broadway Books, 2002).
24. Scot Brown, Fighting for US: Maulana Karenga, the US Organization, and Black Cultural Nationalism (New York: New York University Press, 2003), 28–29.
25. Newton, Revolutionary Suicide, 71.
26. Seale, Seize the Time, 66–7.
27. Newton, Revolutionary Suicide, 120.
28. Elbert “Big Man” Howard, Panther on the Prowl (Baltimore, MD: BCP Digital Printing, 2002), 30.
29. Hilliard, Zimmerman, and Zimmerman, Huey, 58.
30. Seale, Seize the Time, 162.
31. “Gunmen Invade West Coast Capitol,” Chicago Tribune, May 3, 1967; “Armed Negroes Enter California Assembly in Gun Bill Protest,” New York Times, May 3, 1967; “Armed Gang Invades State Capitol,” Guardian (London), May 3, 1967.
32. Amiri Baraka, The Autobiography of LeRoi Jones (New York: Lawrence Hill Books, 1997), 353.
33. James Mott, interview with author, July 20, 2007.
34. William Calhoun, interview with author, November 9, 2002.
35. Ibid.
36. William Calhoun, interview with author, July 21, 2007.
37. Clark Bailey, interview with author, November 24, 2004.
38. Ibid.
39. Ibid.
40. Michael Torrence, interview with author at KPFA studios, February 23, 2007.
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid.
43. Mott, author interview, 2007.
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid.
46. Ibid.
47. Ibid.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid.
50. Bailey, author interview, 2004.
51. Minor Williams, interview with author, October 23, 2008.
52. Despite repeated queries, the Lumpen leaders had difficulty recalling the specific names of band members.
53. David Levinson, interview with author, December 14, 2004.
54. Curtis J. Austin, Up Against the Wall: Violence in the Making and Unmaking of the Black Panther Party (Fayetteville, AK: University of Arkansas Press, 2006), 250.
55. Ibid., 250–251.
56. Kenneth Rexroth, “The Second Post-War, the Second Interbellum, the Permanent War Generation” in The Alternative Society: Essays from the Other World (Herder & Herder, 1970), available as “The Making of the Counterculture” at www.bopsecrets.org/rexroth/essays/counterculture.htm.
57. Sly Stone interviewed in Coming Back for More, directed by Willem Alkema (Netherlands: Dwarsproducties, 2008) film.
Chapter 3: “The Lumpen Theme”: James Brown, the Rhythm Revolution, and Black Power
1. The Lumpen, “The Lumpen Theme,” written by W. Calhoun, 1970, transcription from recording housed at Stanford University’s Huey P. Newton Foundation archives, published by Calhoun Music Group / ASCAP.
2. William Calhoun, interview with author, July 21, 2007.
3. Michael Torrence, interview with author, March 12, 2012.
4. Larry Neal, “Black Art and Black Liberation,” The Black Revolution: An Ebony Special Issue (Chicago: Johnson Publishing Company, 1970), 42.
5. Joe Tex attempted a competition for “Soul Brother Number One” that some might have taken seriously as a publicity stunt, but not as a legitimate claim.
6. Leroi Jones, Black Music (New York: William Morrow, 1970), 186.
7. Ben Sidran, Black Talk (New York: Da Capo, 1983), 147.
8. Mark Deming, “Review: James Brown Live at the Apollo,” allmusic.com, accessed 2006.
9. Mott , interview with author, July 20, 2007.
10. James Brown, I Feel Good: A Memoir of a Life of Soul (London: New American Library, 2005), 80.
11. James Brown, interview with author, August 1993; also see Rickey Vincent, Funk: The Music, the People and the Rhythm of The One (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996), 60.
12. William “Bootsy” Collins, in “James Brown—Say It Proud,” CNN: Special Investigations Unit, aired May 5, 2007, transcript available from http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0711/22/siu.02.html.
13. James Brown and Bruce Tucker, James Brown: The Godfather of Soul (New York: Macmillan, 1986), 158.
14. Brown, I Feel Good, 81.
15. Brown and Warden, see RJ Smith, The One: The Life and Music of James Brown (New York: Gotham Books, 2012), 179–80; “didn’t like singing and dancing” was from my mother, Toni Vincent, a former AAA member.
16. James Brown, “It’s a Man’s Man’s Man’s World,” written by James Brown and Betty Newsome, Star Time, 4CD Polydor 849108 (1991).
17. Brown and Tucker, James Brown, 169.
18. Ibid., 181.
19. Ibid., 181–2.
20. Ibid, 187.
21. Alfred “Pee Wee” Ellis, interview with the author, November 15, 2010.
22. The Hank Ballard quote about “machine-gun-toting Black Panthers” can be found in the Cliff White 1987 jacket notes to James Brown: CD of JB II Polydor 831–700-2; Brown discusses openly his relationship with black power radicals in both of his memoirs.
23. Fred Wesley, Hit Me, Fred: Recollections of a Sideman (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 107.
24. Mack Ray Henderson, interview with author, March 10, 2012.
25. Al Sharpton in “James Brown—Say It Proud,” CNN.
26. James Brown, “Say It Loud—I’m Black and I’m Proud,” written by James Brown and Alfred James Ellis, Star Time, 4CD Polydor 849108 (1991).”
27. Al Sharpton, “The Godfather and Dr. King,” Rolling Stone, January 25, 2007, 48.
28. Linda Harrison, “On Cultural Nationalism,” in Philip Foner, ed. The Black Panthers Speak (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 1995), 151.
29. Brown and Tucker, James Brown, 200.
30. Abiodun Oyewole, The Last Poets, Made in Amerikkka, directed by Claude Santiago (La Huit, 2009).
31. Purdim, ibid.
32. Thomas Barry, “The Importance of Being Mr. James Brown,” LOOK magazine, February 2, 1969, 62.
33. “James Brown—Say It Proud,” CNN.
34. Larry Neal, “The Social Background of the Black Arts Movement,” The Black Scholar, 18, no. 1 (1987): 19.
35. Brown, I Feel Good, 187–89.
36. Brown discusses his IRS harassment in both of his memoirs. An October 25,1975, Jet magazine article explicitly named James Brown as one of the victims of illegal government persecution; info on the Special Services Committee found in Time magazine article “Keeping a Little List at the IRS,” Time, August 13, 1973, available at www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,907662,00.html?iid=chix-sphere.
37. Vivien Goldman, “Dread, Beat and Blood,” Observer Music Monthly, July 16, 2006, www.guardian.co.uk/music/2006/jul/16/urban.worldmusic.
38. Aston Barrett, Marley, directed by Kevin McDonald (Magnolia Pictures, 2012).
39. Timothy White, Catch a Fire: The Life of Bob Marley (New York: Henry Holt, 1983), 20.
40. Leroy Jodie Pierson and Roger Steffens, 1997 jacket notes to Black Progress: The Formative Years, Vol. 2, JAD-CD-1003.
41. Ibid.
42. Gary Stewart, Breakout: Profiles in African Rhythm (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 118.
43. Michael Veal, Fela: the Life and Times of an African Musical Icon (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000), 69.
44. Sandra Isadore interviewed in Jay Babcock, “Fela: King of the Invisible Art,” in Da Capo Best Music Writing 2000: The Year’s Finest Writing on Rock, Pop, Jazz, Country, and More, Peter Guralnick, ed. (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2000), 19.
45. Jay Babcock, “Bootsy Collins on Fela Kuti,” Arthur magazine, November 7, 1999, www.arthurmag.com/2009/11/02/bootsy-collins.
46. “James Brown—Say It Proud,” CNN.
47. Veal, Fela, 247.
48. John Miller Chernoff, African Rhythm and African Sensibility (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 73–74.
49. Davey D, Interview with DJ Kool Here, 1989 New Music Seminar. Davey D’s Hip Hop Corner, www.daveyd.com/interdirect.html.
50. Smith, The One, 224–225; also see “Retailing: Soul Stamps,” Time, Friday, July 11, 1969.
51. David Hilliard, interview with the author, 2004.
52. Sharpton in “James Brown—Say It Proud,” CNN.
Chapter 4: “People Get Ready”: Civil Rights, Soul Music, and Black Identity
1. William Calhoun, interview with author, July 21, 2007.
2. The Lumpen, “People Get Ready,” written by W. Calhoun, 1970, transcription from recording housed at Stanford University’s Huey P. Newton Foundation archives. Published by Calhoun Music Group / ASCAP.
3. William Calhoun, interview with author, November 9, 2002.
4. Craig Werner, Higher Ground: Stevie Wonder, Aretha Franklin, Curtis May field, and the Rise and Fall of American Soul (New York: Crown, 2004), 125.
5. Curtis Mayfield, “People Get Ready,” in People Get Ready: The Curtis Mayfield Story, 3CD Rhino/WEA 72262 (1996).
6. The best treatments of Jimi Hendrix and his relationship to soul music are Crosstown Traffic: Jimi Hendrix and the Post-War Rock ‘n’ Roll Revolution by Charles Shaar Murray (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991), and David Henderson, ‘Scuse Me While I Kiss the Sky: The Life and Times of Jimi Hendrix (New York: Bantam Books, 1981).
7. Michael Haralambos, Soul Music: The Birth of a Sound in Black America (New York: Da Capo Press, 1974), 138–9.
8. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MN: Harvard University Press, 1981), 63–64; also see www.bernicejohnsonreagon.com/freedomsingers.shtml.
9. Waldo E. Martin Jr., No Coward Soldiers: Black Cultural Politics in Postwar America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 47–48.
10. Mavis Staples, liner notes to We’ll Never Turn Back, Anti, 2007.
11. Curtis Mayfield, “We’re a Winner,” in People Get Ready: The Curtis Mayfield Story; Craig Werner, Higher Ground; Mayfield refers to the attempted silencing of “We’re a Winner” in a dialogue during a performance of the song on his 1970 Curtis Live album.
12. Marshall Thompson, interview with author, February 25, 2012.
13. Sun Ra’s relationship with Bobby Seale and the Black Panther Party is discussed in John Szwed, Space Is the Place: The Lives and Times of Sun Ra (New York: Da Capo Press, 1997); Recently recovered tapes of Sun Ra at UC-Berkeley are available on Transparency Records.
14. Documentation of the Chicago Black Arts movement can be found in James Edward Smethurst, The Black Arts Movement: Literary Nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005); For a narrative of Chicago black power cultural activity, see Chaka Khan with Tonya Bolden, Chaka! Through the Fire (Emmaus, PA: Rodale, 2003), 40.
15. A discussion of black club owners in Chicago can be found in Ted Vincent, Keep Cool: The Black Activists That Built the Jazz Age. (London: Pluto Press, 1995).
16. Werner, Higher Ground, 124.
17. Clayton Riley, “Assault on the Panthers,” Liberator (January 1970): 7.
18. Khan, Chaka!, 44.
19. Ibid, 45.
20. Ibid, 45–6.
21. Natalie Cole, Love Brought Me Back: A Journey of Loss and Gain (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010), 75.
22. LeRoi Jones, Blues People: Negro Music in White America (New York: Morrow, 1963), 218–9.
23. Ibid., 8; Askia Muhammad Touré (as Roland Snellings), “Keep on Pushing (Rhythm & Blues as a Weapon),” Liberator 5 (October 1965): 6–8.
24. Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary (New York: Ballantine, 1992), 63–64.
25. Scott Saul, Freedom Is, Freedom Ain’t: Jazz and the Making of the Sixties (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), 248, 260.
26. Kalamu Ya Salaam, The Magic of JuJu: An Appreciation of the Black Arts Movement (Unpublished manuscript of second edition, provided by author, 2007), 9.
27. Robin Gregory’s Afro caused an enormous controversy, discussed in Kathleen Odell Korgen, From Black to Biracial: Transforming Racial Identity Among Americans (New York: Praeger, 1999), 21.
28. Assata Shakur, Assata: An Autobiography (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 2001), 183–84.
29. Ibid., 185.
30. Babatunde Olatunji with Robert Atkinson, To the Beat of My Drum: An Autobiography (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2005), 155.
31. Ibid., 157.
32. Miriam Makeba with James Hall, Makeba: My Story (New York: New American Library, 1987), 90.
33. Aretha Franklin and David Ritz, Aretha: From These Roots (New York: Villard Books, 1999), 109.
34. Ibid., 112.
35. Nina Simone with Stephen Cleary, I Put a Spell on You: The Autobiography of Nina Simone (New York: Da Capo Press 1991), 87.
36. Ibid., 88.
37. Mark Bego, Aretha Franklin: The Queen of Soul (New York: Da Capo Press, 2001), 145.
38. “Aretha Says She’ll Go Angela’s Bond If Permitted,” Jet, December 3, 1970.
39. Michael Torrence, interview with the author, March 12, 2012.
40. William Barlow, Voice Over: The Making of Black Radio (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), 210.
41. Magnificent Montague with Bob Baker, Burn, Baby! BURN! The Autobiography of Magnificent Montague (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003),134–5.
42. Barlow, Voice Over, 224.
43. Brian Ward, Radio and the Struggle for Civil Rights in the South (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004), 344.
Chapter 5: “For Freedom”: Cultural Nationalism and the Black Panther Party
1. The Temptations, “It’s Summer,” My Girl: The Very Best of the Temptations, CD Motown 017298 (2002).
2. The Lumpen, “For Freedom,” written by W. Calhoun, 1970, transcription from recording housed at Stanford University Huey P. Newton Foundation archives. Published by Calhoun Music Group / ASCAP.
3. William Calhoun, interview with author, July 21, 2007.
4. Ben Edmonds, What’s Going On: Marvin Gaye and the Last Days of the Motown Sound. (Edinburgh: Mojo Books, 2001), 212.
5. Martha and the Vandellas, “Dancing in the Street,” Motown Classics Gold CD 312002, 2005; Suzanne E. Smith discusses the depth of symbolism of the song in Dancing in the Street: Motown and the Cultural Politics of Detroit (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999).
6. Smith, Dancing in the Street, 186.
7. Barrett Strong in the documentary series Soul Deep: The Story of Black Popular Music (BBC, 2005).
8. Insightful commentary on Detroit’s public image can be found in Smith, Dancing in the Street, and Heather Ann Thompson, Whose Detroit? Politics, Labor and Race in a Modern American City (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001).
9. Dan Georgakas and Marvin Surkin, Detroit: I Do Mind Dying: A Study in Urban Revolution (Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 1998).
10. Smith, Dancing in the Street, 221; Also see Georgakas and Surkin, Detroit.
11. Smith, Dancing in the Street, 222.
12. See Smith, Dancing in the Street, Georgakas and Surkin, Detroit; Also, James Forman discusses his unsuccessful national union organizing strategies in The Making of Black Revolutionaries (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997).
13. Smith, Dancing in the Street, 223; Georgakas and Surkin, Detroit.
14. Martha Reeves, quoted in Nelson George, Where Did Our Love Go? The Rise and Fall of the Motown Sound (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985), 183.
15. Otis Williams, Temptations (New York: Cooper Square Press, 2002), 136–7.
16. A lengthy Eddie Kendricks biography can be found on his website: www.ejk-online.com/ejkbio4.html. Also see Mark Ribowsky, Ain’t Too Proud to Beg: The Troubled Lives and Enduring Soul of the Temptations (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2012), 266.
17. James A. Geschwender, “The League of Revolutionary Black Workers,” Journal of Ethnic Studies 2, no. 3 (Fall 1974): 9.
18. A. Muhammad Ahmad, “The League of Revolutionary Black Workers: A Historical Study,” found at www.geocities.com/capitolhill/lobby/2379/lrbw.htm.
19. Huey’s vision of a city takeover was elaborated on by Elaine Brown in A Taste of Power: A Black Woman’s Story (New York: Anchor Books, 1993), 375.
20. Robert Allen, Black Awakening in Capitalist America (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1990), 89.
21. Amiri Baraka, Raise, Race, Rays, Raze: Essays Since 1965 (New York: Random House, 1971), 43.
22. Ron Karenga, The Quotable Karenga (Los Angeles: US Organization, 1967), 9.
23. Ibid., 7, 8.
24. Ibid., 20.
25. The popularity of US is documented in Scot Brown, Fighting for US: Maulana Karenga, the US Organization, and Black Cultural Nationalism (New York: New York University Press, 2003).
26. Archie Ivy, interview by the author, April 11, 2011.
27. James Mtume, “Tripping with Black Music,” Cricket (1969), 1.
28. Ivy, author interview, 2011.
29. Amiri Baraka, “Emory Douglas: A ‘Good Brother,’ a ‘Bad’ Artist,” in Black Panther: The Revolutionary Art of Emory Douglas, ed. Sam Durant (New York: Rizzoli, 2006), 171.
30. Amiri Baraka, The Autobiography of LeRoi Jones (New York: Lawrence Hill Books, 1997), 358. Baraka’s life path, as explained in his autobiography, is an essential viewpoint for understanding the convergence of Black Nationalist consciousness with political activism.
31. Discussion of Baraka’s forays into Newark politics can be found in Baraka, Autobiography, and Komozi Woodard, A Nation Within a Nation: Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) & Black Power Politics (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999).
32. Brown, Fighting for US, 120–1.
33. Huey Newton, “Huey Newton Talks to the Movement About the Black Panther Party, Cultural Nationalism, SNCC, Liberals and White Revolutionaries,” in Philip Foner, The Black Panthers Speak (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 1995), 50.
34. Brown, Fighting for US, 67.
35. Baraka, Raise, Race, Rays, Raze, 130.
36. Seale, Sieze the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton (New York: Vintage, 1973), 238.
37. Michael Torrence, interview with author, March 12, 2012.
38. Emory Douglas, interview with author, March 18, 2004.
39. Emory Douglas, “The Lumpen: Music as a Tool for Liberation,” in Black Panther, November 7, 1970.
40. Brian Ward, Just My Soul Responding: Rhythm and Blues, Black Consciousness and Race Relations (Berkeley: University of California Press, Berkeley, 1998), 414.
41. Ibid.
42. Toni Vincent, interview with author, April 13, 2003.
43. A thoughtful discussion of the issue is in Bahati Kuumba, Gender and Social Movements (Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press, 2001).
44. Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee Position Paper, “Women in the Movement,” November 1964, found at www.wfu.edu/~zulick/341/snccwomen.html.
45. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 191–211.
46. Ruth Rosen, The World Split Open: How the Modern Women’s Movement Changed America (New York: Viking Press, 2000), 108–110; also see the Digital History website, www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=381.
47. E. U. Essien-Udom, Black Nationalism: A Search for Identity in America (New York: Dell, 1964), 99.
48. Brown, Fighting for US, 56.
49. Amiri Baraka, Autobiography, 386–7.
50. Comrade Sister: Voices of Women in the Black Panther Party, unreleased documentary by Phyllis Jackson, 1995.
51. Jeffrey O. G. Ogbar, Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), 105.
52. Ibid., 104.
53. Mzuri Pambeli, “The Black Panther Party … from a Sister’s Point of View: An Interview of Dr. Phyllis Jackson,” Positive Action (March-April 2007): 8.
54. V. I. Lenin, “Soviet Power and the Status of Women,” November 6, 1919, found at www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1919/nov/06.htm; also see V. I. Lenin, Collected Works, 4th english edition, volume 30 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1965), 120–23.
55. Frances M. Beal, “Black Women’s Manifesto; Double Jeopardy: To Be Black and Female” (New York: Third World Women’s Alliance, 1969), also found at www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/45a/196.html.
56. Angela Davis, Angela Davis: An Autobiography (New York: International Publishers, 1988), 162.
57. Angela Y. Davis, “Afro Images: Politics, Fashion and Nostalgia,” in Soul: Black Power, Politics and Pleasure, ed. Monique Guillory and Richard C. Green (New York: New York University Press, 1998).
58. Woodard, Nation Within a Nation, 117.
59. Huey Newton in Foner, Black Panthers Speak, 52–4.
60. Marlon Brando appeared at the funeral of Lil’ Bobby Hutton in April 1968. Jane Fonda appeared at Panther fundrasiers in New York. See the film Lords of the Revolution: The Black Panthers, written by Martin Torgoff (VH1, 2009).
61. Peniel E. Joseph, Waiting ‘Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2007), 254.
62. Isaac Hayes, in the film Respect Yourself: The Stax Records Story, directed by Robert Gordon and Morgan Neville (Concord Music Group, 2007).
63. Ward, Just My Soul Responding, 217.
64. Rob Bowman, Soulsville, U.S.A.: The Story of Stax Records (New York: Shirmer Books, 1997), 231.
65. Ibid., 238.
66. Ibid, 268. Also see the film Wattstax, directed by Mel Stuart (Columbia Pictures, 1973).
67. See Woodard, A Nation Within, 192–218; Also see “Ain’t Gonna Shuffle No More” in Eyes in the Prize, directed by Sheila Curran Bernard and Samuel D. Pollard (PBS/Blackside, 1990).
Chapter 6: “Bobby Must Be Set Free”: Panther Power and Popular Culture
1. The Lumpen, “Free Bobby Now,” written by W. Calhoun, 1970, transcription from recording housed at Stanford University Huey P. Newton Foundation archives. Published by Calhoun Music Group / ASCAP.
2. Huey Newton, To Die for the People: The Writings of Huey P. Newton (New York: Writers and Readers Publishing, 1999), 139.
3. Safiya Bukhari, The War Before: The True Life Story of Becoming a Black Panther, Keeping the Faith in Prison and Fighting for Those Left Behind (New York: Feminist Press at the City University of New York, 2010), 28.
4. Nile Rogers, in Public Enemy: Reflections of the Black Panthers, directed by Jens Meurer (Real Fiction, 1999).
5. Afeni Shakur with Jasmine Guy, Evolution of a Revolutionary (New York: Atria, 2004), 61.
6. Ibid., 116.
7. Curtis J. Austin, Up Against the Wall: Violence in the Making and Unmaking of the Black Panther Party (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2006), 289.
8. Look for Me in the Whirlwind: The Collective Autobiography of the New York 21 (New York: Random House, 1971); Edward Jay Epstein, “The Black Panthers and Police: A Case of Genocide?” New Yorker, February 13, 1971; Paul Bass and Douglas W. Rae, Murder in the Model City: The Black Panthers, Yale, and the Redemption of a Killer (New York: Basic Books, 2006).
9. Donald Freed, Agony in New Haven: The Trial of Bobby Seale, Ericka Huggins, and the Black Panther Party (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1973), 18.
10. Ibid., 70.
11. Important narrative discussions of the demise of the BPP can be found in Austin, Up Against the Wall; Peniel Joseph, Waiting ‘Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York: Henry Holt, 2007); and Ollie Johnson III, “Explaining the Demise of the Black Panther Party” in The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, ed. Charles E. Jones (Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1998).
12. Hugh Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1994), 138.
13. Ibid., 138–39.
14. Reginald Major, A Panther Is a Black Cat (New York: W. Morrow, 1971), 144.
15. Bobby Seale, Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton (New York: Vintage, 1973), 133–4.
16. James Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997), 526; Pearson, Shadow of the Panther, quotes the text of Forman’s speech, but the words are slightly different, although the imagery is identical.
17. Panther chants heard on the “Power!” episode of Eyes on the Prize, directed by Louis Massiah and Terry Kay Rockefeller (PBS / Blackside, 1990) VHS.
18. David Hilliard and Lewis Cole, This Side of Glory: The Autobiography of David Hilliard and the Story of the Black Panther Party (Chicago: Lawrence Hill, 1993), 182.
19. Hilliard and Cole, This Side of Glory, provides a detailed account of the evening of April 6, 1968.
20. Major, A Panther Is a Black Cat, 115.
21. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 283.
22. Ibid., 300.
23. Ward Churchill, “To Discredit and Destroy” in Liberation, Imagination and the Black Panther Party ed. Kathleen Cleaver and George Katsiaficas (New York: Routledge, 2001), 78.
24. Ibid., 82.
25. Sundiata Acoli, “A Brief History of the Black Panther Party: Its Place in the Black Liberation Movement,” available at www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/45a/004.html.
26. David Hilliard, Keith Zimmerman, and Kent Zimmerman, Huey: Spirit of the Panther (New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 2006), 121.
27. Seale, Seize the Time, 64.
28. Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1963), 129.
29. Malcolm X and Alex Haley, The Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York: Ballantine, 1965), 36.
30. Acoli, “A Brief History.”
31. Chris Booker, “Lumpenization: A Critical Error of the Black Panther Party,” in The Black Panther Party (Reconsidered), ed. Charles E. Jones (Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1998), 347.
32. Ibid., 354.
33. Kenneth O’Reilly, “Racial Matters”: The FBI’s Secret File on Black America, 1960–1972 (New York: The Free Press, 1989), 297.
34. Ibid., 357.
35. Newton, To Die for the People, 45.
36. James Mott, interview with author, July 20, 2007.
37. Clark Bailey, interview with author, November 24, 2004.
38. Newton, To Die for the People, 152. Originally printed in Black Panther, August 15, 1970.
39. George Katsiaficas, “Organization and Movement: The Case of the Black Panther Party and the Revolutionary People’s Constitutional Convention of 1970” in Liberation, Imagination and the Black Panther Party edited by Kathleen Cleaver and George Katsiaficas, (New York: Routledge, 2001), 142.
40. In his memoir This Side of Glory: The Autobiography of David Hilliard and the Story of the Black Panther Party (Chicago: Lawrence Hill, 1993), David Hilliard comments frequently on his misgivings and misjudgements at crucial turning points in black power history.
41. Peniel E. Joseph in Waiting ‘Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York: Henry Holt, 2007) discusses the impact of Jackson and the BPP militant activity on white radicalism, 250–51.
42. Mott, author interview, 2007.
43. William Calhoun, interview with author, July 21, 2007.
44. Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman’s Story (New York: Anchor Books, 1992) provides the most emotionally complex detail about Newton and the Party’s disintegration from a firsthand account.
45. Brown, A Taste of Power, 285.
46. Michael Torrence, interview with the author, December 8, 2008.
47. Newton, To Die for the People, 113–14.
48. Leigh Raiford, “Restaging Revolution: Black Power,” Vibe magazine; “Photographic Memory” in The Civil Rights Movement in American Memory, ed. Renee C. Romano and Leigh Raiford (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2006), 238.
49. Michael Campus and Harvey Bernhard make these claims in the documentary film Mackin’ Ain’t Easy, directed by Laura Nix (New Line, 2002).
50. Dialogue from The Mack, directed by Michael Campus (Cinerama, 1973).
Chapter 7: “Ol’ Pig Nixon”: The Protest Music Tradition, Soul, and Black Power
1. An insightful analysis of Motown is in Gerald Early’s One Nation Under a Groove: Motown and American Culture (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995); Also see Nelson George, Where Did Our Love Go? The Rise and Fall of the Motown Sound (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985).
2. The Lumpen, “Old Pig Nixon,” written by W. Calhoun, 1970, transcription from recording housed at Stanford University Huey P. Newton Foundation archives.
3. “Overwhelming feast of spectacle” in Speak of Me as I Am: The Story of Paul Robeson, directed by Rachel Hermans (BBC Wales/New Jersey Public Television, 1999).
4. Steven Citron, The Wordsmiths: Oscar Hammerstein 2nd and Alan Jay Lerner (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 66.
5. Extensive discussion of the lyrics to “Ol’ Man River” can be found in Hugh Fordin’s Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II (New York: Random House, 1977), and Citron, The Wordsmiths.
6. Robeson quote found in the video Scandalize My Name: Stories from the Blacklist directed by Alexandra Isles (Unapix Entertainment, Inc., 1998).
7. Robeson singing “Ol’ Man River” in his own style can be seen in Speak of Me as I Am.
8. Paul Robeson, Here I Stand (Boston: Beacon Press, 1998), 174.
9. “No pretty songs” from Robeson, Scandalize My Name.
10. Harold Cruse, The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual. (New York: Quill, 1984), 86.
11. Robeson, Here I Stand, 219.
12. Tombstone shown in final frames of Speak of Me as I Am.
13. For discussion of black-owned nightclubs during the Jazz Age, see Ted Vincent, Keep Cool: The Black Activists That Built the Age of Jazz (London: Pluto Press, 1995).
14. For extensive discussion on Holiday and “Strange Fruit,” see David Margolick and Hilton Als, Strange Fruit: The Biography of a Song (New York: Harper Perennial, 2001); Also see Angela Y. Davis, Blues Legacies and Black Feminism (New York: Pantheon, 1998).
15. Sara Pendergast and Tom Pendergast, St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture (Farmington Hills, MI: St. James Press, 2000).
16. Davis, Blues Legacies, 107.
17. Walter Mosley, RL’s Dream (New York: WW. Norton, 2002), 73.
18. William Calhoun, interview with author, July 21, 2007.
19. George, Where Did Our Love Go?, 17.
20. Early, One Nation Under a Groove, 77.
21. Ron Karenga, “On Cultural Nationalism” in The Black Aesthetic, ed. Addison Gayle Jr. (Garden City, NY: Anchor Doubleday, 1972), 36–7.
22. Robin D. G. Kelley, Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York: Free Press, 1996), 17.
23. Nina Simone with Stephen Cleary, I Put a Spell on You: The Autobiography of Nina Simone (New York: Da Capo Press, 1991), 89–90.
24. Daniel Wolff, You Send Me: The Life and Times of Sam Cooke (New York: William Morrow, 1995), 289.
25. Ibid., 291.
26. Nathaniel (Magnificent) Montague with Bob Baker, Burn, Baby! BURN! The Autobiography of Magnificent Montague (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003), 138.
27. For discussion of People’s Park, see W. J. Rorabough, Berkeley at War: The 1960s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989) and Axel Shelter, “The Last Public Space: People’s Park in Berkeley,” seminar paper, 2009.
28. Obie Benson quoted in Ben Edmonds, Marvin Gaye: What’s Going On and the Last Days of the Motown Sound (Edinburgh: Canongate, 2003), 96.
29. Frankie Gaye with Fred E. Basten, Marvin Gaye, My Brother (San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 2003), 80.
30. Peter Doggett, There’s a Riot Going On (Edinburgh: Canongate, 2007), 536.
31. George Clinton, in the documentary Parliament Funkadelic: One Nation Under a Groove, directed by Yvonne Smith (PBS, 2005).
32. Jimi Hendrix, Band of Gypsys (Capitol Records, 1970). Mysteriously, the title of the song was changed to “Message to Love” on the first printings of the album and later CD releases, obscuring the group’s homage to soul music that they had prepared.
33. Bootsy Collins, interview with author, May 27, 2011.
34. Charles Shaar Murray, Crosstown Traffic: Jimi Hendrix and the Post-War Rock ‘n’ Roll Revolution (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991), 93. Also see David Henderson, ‘Scuse Me While I Kiss the Sky: The Life and Times of Jimi Hendrix (New York: Bantam Books, 1981).
35. Hendrix had told an interviewer in 1968 that he was working on a tribute to the Black Panthers on his upcoming album, which was Electric Ladyland, in which the song “Voodoo Chile (Slight Return)” is featured. Presumably, Hendrix had a Panther tribute in mind long before his 1970 dedications. Passage found in David Henderson, ‘Scuse Me While I Kiss the Sky, updated edition (New York: Atria Books, 2009), 254.
36. Dennis McNally, interview with the author, January 21, 2008.
37. Found in The U.S. vs John Lennon, directed by David Leaf and John Scheinfeld (Lionsgate, 2006).
38. William Calhoun, interview with author, November 9, 2002.
39. Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman’s Story (New York: Anchor Books. 1992), 185.
40. Ibid., 196.
41. Elaine Brown, liner notes to Seize the Time (CD Water 183, 2006).
42. Lenny Williams, interview with author, December 17, 2010.
43. Robbie Robertson in “Rolling Stone Countdown: 100 Greatest Artists of All Time, #2, Bob Dylan,” Rolling Stone, www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/100-greatest-artists-of-all-time-19691231/bob-dylan-19691231.
44. Mike Marqusee, Redemption Song: Muhammad Ali and the Spirit of the Sixties (London: Verso, 1999), 144.
45. Bobby Seale. Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton (New York: Vintage, 1973), 183–5.
46. Lee Bernstein, America is the Prison: Arts and Politics in Prison in the 1970s (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 66.
47. Calhoun, author interview, 2007.
48. Calhoun, author interview, 2007; see also the Black Panther, May 29, 1971.
Chapter 8:”Revolution Is the Only Solution”: Protest Music Today and the Legacy of the Lumpen
1. The Lumpen. “Revolution Is the Only Solution,” written by W. Calhoun, 1970, transcription from recording housed at Stanford University Huey P. Newton Foundation archives.
2. Michael Torrence, interview with author, March 12, 2012.
3. James Mott, interview with author, July 20, 2007.
4. Emory Douglas, interview with author, March 18, 2004.
5. William Calhoun, interview with author, July 21, 2007.
6. Ibid.
7. Calhoun, author interview, 2007.
8. Hugh Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1994), 241. Pearson’s account of the Cal-Pak issue is one of the most thorough. Billy Jennings also recalled in an interview that rank-and-file Panthers played music and made a popular scene out of their picket lines, and it was not entirely a dismal experience.
9. Torrence, author interview, 2012.
10. Michael Torrence, inteview with the author, December 8, 2008.
11. From interviews with Lumpen members.
12. Aaron Dixon, My People Are Rising: Memoir of a Black Panther Party Captain (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2012), 270.
13. Eric Porter, What Is This Thing Called Jazz? African American Musicians as Artists, Critics and Activists (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 164.
14. Abiodun Oyewole and Umar Bin Hassan, On a Mission (New York: Henry Holt, 1996), 6.
15. Ibid., 13.
16. Paris, “Are You a Hip-Hop Apologist?” commentary posted on www.guerrillafunk.com, April 18, 2007.
17. See Bruce Banter, “Atlantic Records Tries to Pimp Out 14yr Old Actress,” playahata.com, August 17, 2007.
18. Dr. Boyce Watkins, “BET Has Become the New KKK,” newsone.com, http://newsone.com/newsone-original/boycewatkins/dr-boyce-bet-the-new-kkk.
19. Talib Kweli, “Bushanomics” on Cornel West, Never Forget: A Journey of Revelations (Hidden Beach Forum 44, 2007), CD.
20. Angela Davis, speaking at Pauley Ballroom, UC-Berkeley, March 2, 2012.
21. “Power!,” Eyes on the Prize, directed by Louis Massiah and Terry Kay Rockefeller (PBS / Blackside, 1990) VHS
22. Huey P. Newton, To Die for the People: The Writings of Huey P. Newton, ed. Frantz Schurman (New York: Random House, 1972), 31.
23. Grace Lee Boggs, speaking at Pauley Ballroom, UC-Berkeley, March 2, 2012.
24. Angela Davis, speaking at Pauley Ballroom, UC-Berkeley, March 2, 2012.
25. Carlos Santana speaking to Brian Copland, 7Live, 2011.
26. Che Guevara, “On Socialism and Man in Cuba,” in The Che Guevara Reader (Australia: Ocean Press, 2005).