INTRODUCTION
Ritual, Change, and Funerary Practices
For the human being there is only one way into this world, through the woman’s womb, but many ways to leave it, from a natural death due to old age, to deadly sicknesses and mortal accidents and disasters, to duels, wars, and meaningless massacres, like the one experienced near Oslo at Utøya on July 22, 2011. Even if there are in general only two ways of getting rid of the corpse: by inhumation (in soil, air, or water) or by cremation, the forms by which the deceased are brought to rest are as many as there are causes of death, from the corpse being left to the decompositional hazards of atmospherical forces, scavenging birds and animals, and insects, to being ‘preserved by smoking, embalming, or pickling; they are eaten – raw, cooked, or rotten… or they are dismembered and treated in a variety of these ways’ (Metcalf & Huntington 1991: 24), to being properly interred.
The funerals, the framework of how to eliminate the corpse, are ‘the occasion for avoiding people or holding parties, for fighting or having sexual orgies, for weeping or laughing, in a thousand different combinations’ (Metcalf & Huntington 1991: 24). These celebrations, generally termed death rituals, can be performed in many ways from the most simple act of deportment in solitude to the engagement of large masses of people in laborious and creative festivities. By ritual in a funerary context we mean a strategy which incorporates all the actions performed and thoughts expressed in connection with a dying and dead person, from the preparatory pre-death stages to the final deposition of the corpse and the post-mortem stages of grief and commemoration. Seeing ritual ‘as part of a process of social reproduction’ (see the article of Nilsson Stutz) we have chosen to adopt this wide and flexible definition as a reflection of the complex and multiple practices performed in funerary situations, seen both from a chronological and a geographical point of view. In short, the funerary process, or cycle, cover the rites performed from the moment of the biological death of a person to the final interment of the corpse and its thereby social death (Weiss-Krejci 2011: 70–80). It is a large web of ideas turned into actions in a wide variety of expressions.
The central theme of this book, however, is not to look primarily into different funerary practices, their function and meaning, but into the changes of such rituals and how they shall be explained. Many practices become more easily visible when looked at through studies of change. In order to approach the problem of funerary changes from a wide variety of situations, scholars from different prehistoric and historical periods (which span from the Mesolithic Period to early modern times, some contributors also drawing parallels to modern society: Nilsson Stutz, Härke/Belinskij, Brandt, Bowden) and working in different geographical areas (which cover the Old World from the Atlantic Ocean to the Caucasus and from the Arctic Sea to the Mediterranean) were asked to give examples from their fields of study and to reflect upon theoretical and methodological issues connected to their case studies. This is a serious challenge to both the editors, the publisher, and the reading public, and has been done on purpose. As editors we find it important to transgress the boundaries of time and place specialisations. Each specialisation develops its own sets of interpretations and ‘truths’ depending on the availability of physical material and/or textual information. Thus it happens that when a change in one kind of funerary practice in one field of archaeology is interpreted with reference to eschatology and cosmology, a similar change in another field is interpreted as a simple change of trend. Both fields may be right in their interpretations, but some challenges across the specialisation boundaries are necessary to stimulate further research. In fact, three of the contributors, Härke and Belinskij and Gilchrist, address this particular problem of chronological specialisation boundaries and call for more continuity studies as changes are most often not abrupt, but best visible in a longue durée perspective.
In difference to other social actions, an organised burial is performed to ‘preserve’ the deceased for ‘eternity’; tombs are therefore the most common discovery in archaeology – and since, in addition, many graves contain furnishings of remarkable workmanship and high spectacular and economic value, burial archaeology has attracted easier funding. The majority of archaeological finds in all museums around the world derive from grave contexts; burial archaeology is therefore perhaps the most thriving discipline of the field. Publications are many (the long bibliographies presented by the present contributors open only a small glimpse into this vast publishing world) and one may ask why a new publication in the field is necessary. By concentrating on change it is our hope that we shall be able to introduce new ways (or old ways in new settings) into the study of the function and meaning of funerary practices and the processes which triggered the changes. Analyses of the cadaver per se, like osteology, isotopes, and DNA, will not be considered in this publication, though this does not exclude that observations on the corpse are considered.
In this introductory chapter we should like, not to make a presentation of each singular contribution (for that the reader is advised to read the abstract of each article), rather to pull together some of the theoretical issues and methodological grips used by the contributors, in order to reveal how the articles are bound together despite the wide chronological and geographical framework adopted. This will be done by presenting briefly some concepts related to the central problem of the present publication, as the question about Change and Continuity, and to some of the important elements of the funerary process connected to Belief and Ritual, Body and Deposition, Place and Burial, Performance and Commemoration.
Before doing so, however, it should at once be noted that apart from addressing changes in funerary practices, a change can also be noted in the contributors’ approach to the changing rituals problem. In the wake of the intensive debate on processual and post-processual archaeology in the 1970s and 1980s, the archaeologists moved from documenting the funerary material with a view to chronology, geographical origin, and distribution to look at the same material in a social context reflecting status and identity of the dead. In the present publication, independently of each other, the contributors have shifted their focus to the burial itself and the social behaviour, the mental metaphors, and the belief systems hidden in the funerary practices, and whether they can be extracted from the funerary material itself and/or from written evidence – in other words, the focus is shifted more to a study of the content of the practices than of their form.
Change and continuity1
The keyword in the present publication is change. But what do we mean by change? Implicitly it means something altered that is seen in relation to what is considered normal/the norm and thus requires an explanation. The purpose of this collection of articles is to document how changes manifested themselves in the archaeological/textual material, why changes were made and in what way they can be explained – whether related to changes in the funerary ceremonies and eschatological ideas per se or to other types of changes in the society. While the how question will regard the funerary form or the archaeological/textual (= empirical) data, through the questions why and in what way we may approach the funerery content or the social behaviour and ancient belief systems connected to eschatology and cosmology. However, in such discussions it is important to consider if a change in form necessitates a change in content.
From an archaeological point of view changes can be observed in many ways, most easily visible in a change in the treatment of the dead body from being inhumed to being cremated, or vice versa (Nilsson Stutz, Fowler, Ahrens, Pearce, Rebillard, Achim, Oestigaard); however, the changes may also regard the lay-out and distribution of tombs (Dolfini, Fowler, Achim), the treatment of the deceased in the tomb, whether as a primary or secondary deposition (Nilsson Stutz, Dolfini, Fowler, Oestigaard, Gilchrist), tomb forms and architecture (Fowler, Härke & Belinskij, Ahrens, Pearce, Rebillard, Achim, Bowden, Oestigaard, Gilchrist), themes in funerary pictorial decorations (Brandt), composition of the funerary goods (Fowler, Härke & Belinskij, Pearce, Bowden, Oestigaard), inscription formulas (Ahrens), etc. Though many changes in funerary practices may not be visible in the archaeological material, and only in the textual material (Tarlow, see also Rebillard) – this is a limitation difficult to get round.
What drives a ritual change? As demonstrated by many of the contributors a ritual change is not necessarily related to changes in the belief system (as, for example, witnessed with the conversion to Christianity: Achim, Gilchrist), rather to other social and cultural phenomena (Nilsson Stutz; see also Ahrens), as attitudes to death (Brandt, Rebillard), to the body (Nilsson Stutz, Dolfini, Fowler, Pearce), to tensions between social norms and individual behaviour (Härke & Belinskij, Oestigaard, Tarlow), to mental stress (Bowden), and other factors – in fact the causes of ritual change may often be strongly interlinked, and hence not bound to one single obvious cause (Härke & Belinskij).
How do changes appear? They can be abrupt breaking away from the dominating scheme (Nilsson Stutz), often the result of intentional acts of a social, political, and/or religious character on a local, regional, or world-wide level (Ahrens, Rebillard, Achim, Bowden, Oestigaard, Gilchrist); and they can be gradual of a longue durée (Fowler, Härke & Belinski, Pearce, Tarlow) referring to societal developments and alterations. In some cases a change also appears as a reworking or reinvention of older traditions (Oestigaard, Gilchrist). An observed change in the archaeological material, however, may not necessarily express a change as such, it may also be an expression of continuity. Chris Fowler in an earlier version of his contribution asked in the title: ‘The more things change, the more they remain the same?’ This is a challenging question, because what often appears to be a change may actually be an expression of the same, only expressed differently. This may be why some of the contributors have used the antonym of change, continuity, as part of their title (Fowler, Brandt, Rebillard; and indirectly Dolfini), whether as an affirmation or as a question.
Belief and ritual
Beliefs are the content of the funerary practices, with rituals the forms in which the content, through the practices, are expressed. The forms can be expressed in many ways through ephemeral actions, such as for example, dance and music, grief and laughter, and through physical material in the form of necropoleis, tombs, furnishings, but also through pictorial presentations of the practices and inscriptions in various media, both within and outside a funerary context.
When studying the physical material preserved we study the material of past actions, or the form of ritual/funerary practices (Nilsson Stutz, Brandt). According to practice theory, well presented by Nilsson Stutz, the understanding of the past actions will ideally reveal how ritual as a process works and the embodied experience of this process, i.e. the active participation in the ritual creates a sense of structure in the participant, through which meaning, inherent in action, is formulated. This means that meaning as such could vary, while the embodied knowledge – the sense of how things are done – was shared, or in other words: the participants would have had a sense of what a ‘proper’ burial would be like, but they may have projected different meanings to the practices. A similar attitude to the practices, but not expressed in a theoretical framework, can be found also in the contributions by Bowden and Oestigaard, who both, within the established ritual practices, stress the role of the living in conveying messages about the dead person, their relation to the deceased and to other members of the society, to ancestors, to the spiritual world, or in using the deceased as a medium for social outcomes in the reconstitution of society (cf. also Härke & Belinskij).
This interpretative model gives greater flexibility to the interpretations of the funerary data, but does not exclude a bond between the data (i.e. the funerary practices) and the belief systems, whether they are connected to afterlife (Fowler, Härke & Belinskij, Brandt, Gilchrist), to cosmologies concerning the human body (Dolfini), or to other eschatological ideas (Ahrens, Oestigaard, Tarlow). By looking at rituals as a practice, both in social and religious life, they open up a sphere of manifold interpretations, in which negotiations, manipulations, and constructions of political and cosmological orders are active (Oestigaard).
In these examples, belief is presented as a religious, or theological belief, concerning transcendental actions and forces, but belief, or rather ‘belief discourses’, can also be expressed in different forms, as social, scientific, and folk beliefs; by which they all affect the kinds of rituals that surround the dead body (Tarlow). Tarlow’s conclusions are drawn from the study of a wealthy set of written sources, but such a categorisation of beliefs is certainly not only limited to an early modern European society; it may well have been part and package of funerary practices in other societies in other time periods as well – we only have to start looking for them. Taboo may be an important element of such non-religious beliefs (Brandt). Tarlow also makes another observation of interest and contrary to the normal understanding of the relationship of belief and ritual: under certain circumstances ritual action may actually have been more stable than belief.
Body and deposition
The deposition of the dead body is the main objective of all funerary practices; this can be done either by cremation or inhumation. The choice of the one or the other practice has often been related to eschatological ideas and ancient belief systems, but here, as in other aspects of funerary practices, multiple explanations, evaluated case by case, are now more favoured. This comes more to light when a change from one practice to another is considered, but it does not exclude a religious explanation. For example, the Christian insistence on inhumation may well be connected to their belief of resurrection at Judgment Day (Achim, Gilchrist), but the change from cremation to inhumation in the Roman Empire from the 2nd century AD onwards was not the result of Christian thoughts of death and afterlife, but the practice was upheld by them. The change can rather be ascribed to a change of fashion, as has also been observed in earlier periods when in Rome the mode of deposition changed (Morris 1992: 52–68). Alternatively, the change in the Imperial Period has suggestively also been attributed to a new, pre-Christian concern for the body (Rebillard).
Practical circumstances may often have been the reason for a change of deposition practices, as when in Victorian England, due to over-crowded cemeteries, hygienic considerations, and new furnace technology, cremation (even if contested and causing distress and conflict) gradually became the norm (Nilsson Stutz). In a more distant past, when both practices appear next to each other in the same region or between neighbouring regions, they may not have been considered as something contrary, rather, as in the Greek and Roman Asia Minor, as two options in a multifaceted specter of funerary rites connected to practical considerations, personal preferences, traditions, fashions, and even to migrations (previously the most favoured model among cultural historians to explain the reasons for a change in the deposition mode) (Ahrens; cf. also Achim). Actually, the tendency among a couple of the present authors, in comparison with other contextual evidence, is to downplay the importance of the shifts in such funerary practices (Fowler, Pearce), though it does not eliminate the fact that cremation (more than inhumation) dramatised the transformation of the dead, making it visible to the mourners (Fowler). However, it shall not be excluded that the choice between the one or the other practice can have carried more or less strong ideological implications, especially in times of religious, social, and political upheaval, as in the early Viking Age in Norway, conveying explicit references to funerals, which both break with tradition and at the same time reinvent it (Oestigaard).
Cremation or inhumation was one way of treating the dead body, another was to expose it to disarticulation, i.e. the whole body, or body parts, were disturbed and manipulated, whether at the moment of interment or at a later re-opening of the grave (Nilsson Stutz, Dolfini – in Mesolithic and Neolithic contexts respectively in the Baltic area and Italy), or through reburial in a secondary context (Dolfini; see also Gilchrist). This is a phenomenon which can be followed through all periods, finding its extreme result in charnel houses from the Medieval Period onwards. The explanations for their manipulation may be many. They can, as in the present examples, be connected to questions of the nature of the disarticulated bones, if they were considered of this or the other world, or if they were associated with questions of social control and normalcy (Nilsson Stutz), in which questions of ancestry and group and individual identity may have played an important part (Dolfini). In both case studies can be sensed a view in which bones of dead persons were imbued with some kind of transcendental power, a view still actively maintained, but under a different explanatory umbrella, in early modern Europe through the veneration of saints and martyrs and through folk practices as ‘bier-right’ and the curative power of the ‘dead hand’ (Tarlow).
The treatment of the body raises also a question about the soul. Even if not treated in particular in this publication the soul is normally related to ideas of immortality, as among the Etruscans (Brandt) and the Romans, and of resurrection, as among the Christians, in all three examples linked to a preceding death journey. In early Christian thinking only pure souls, not burdened with heavy sins, could find their rest inside a church (Achim), and in later Medieval thoughts the soul could be protected on its purgatory journey by items buried with the dead: in fact, the progress of the soul in judgment appears to have been directly affected by the condition of the corpse in the grave. The experience of the Christian dead in Purgatory was embodied and sensory, and the living could alleviate their suffering by taking the appropriate preparations of the corpse and the grave (Gilchrist) – ideas which were not alien to Etruscan (and Roman) ritual thinking, only enveloped in a different dress. With the Protestants the journey through Purgatory was eliminated – the soul went directly to Judgment, and nothing that the living did could make any difference to the fate of the dead person’s soul (Tarlow).
Place and burial
The deposition of the body in most societies was not a chance act; first the place and shape of the tomb had to be decided. In an Etrusco-Roman context a clear distinction was made between the place of the dead and the place of the living. Due to an inherent risk of pollution, all dead (with some exceptions of children in their first months/years of life) were buried outside the space reserved for the dwellings. However, this was a time-defined situation and not observed with the same rigidity within the boundaries of the Roman Empire. The importance of place is underlined in two of the present articles and expresses two modes of change, both connected to the conceptional views of the dead bodies: the first, in a centrifugal movement, from lived towards unlived areas (Dolfini); the other in a contrary, centripetal movement from the unlived back to the lived areas (Achim).
In the Italian peninsula, in the transition between the Neolithic and Copper Age (late 5th/4th millennia BC), burials were gradually moved from the nucleated villages to their peripheral areas before they were gathered in cemeteries located in the landscape. The process may be explained not as a change in the meaning of the burial per se, but as a change in the medium chosen by the society to stress the same group identity which were previously conveyed by co-residence, and which made the body of the dead a major locus for the reproduction of prehistoric society (Dolfini). A similar process of change from isolated burials to the use of collective burial grounds could also be observed in Northumberland, England, in the Early Bronze Age (c. 2400–1500 BC), also here underlining the importance of the body, person, and death for the community in the ritualised transformation of the dead (Fowler).
New views on the dead bodies, not as a polluter in the Etrusco-Roman view, but as sacred and holy, permanently purified at the moment of baptism and ‘prefiguring the transformed body that would be resurrected into eternal life at the end of time’ (Paxton 2011), in early Christian times (and thus linked to a changed belief system) caused an opposite, centripetal movement of the burials from the outside of towns, towards the inside – at first detached from, but later unified with the new cult monuments, the churches. The case study selected concentrates on the Scythia Minor and Moesia Secunda (present day southeast Romania and northeast Bulgaria) and presents new important data on this process from an area in the periphery of the Roman Empire, an area otherwise not easily accessible and not much known (Achim).
Size and shape of graves, and the composition and wealth of grave goods are generally considered as markers of the deceased’s social position and identity. Long descriptions of funerary monuments and physical contents are avoided in this publication. Instead the discussions and interpretations, seen in relation to funerary changes, underline the complex multiple meanings attached to the funerary data. Some interpretations are connected to ritual, worship, and belief systems (Dolfini, Fowler, Brandt, Achim, Gilchrist), others to practical purposes (Ahrens) and the use of traditions (Oestigaard), and others again to social life and behaviour (Pearce, Bowden), interpretations already touched upon in the previous sub-chapter or which will be elaborated a bit further in the next.
Performance and commemoration
The funerary ritual, much like a religious festival, is an orchestrated performance in which the ‘programme might evolve in a succession of shifting moods and sentiments, guided by symbolic, that is, imaginative and affective stimulants’ (Bouvrie 2012: 62). It covers often a pre-defined period which extends from the physical death of the person solemnised to his/her social death marked by the interment and successive concluding ritual acts. Depending on the associated belief systems the programme guides and modulates the acts and sentiments of family and friends through the ceremony and guarantees the deceased a ‘proper’ burial. The programme can involve moments of dance and music, weapon fights and erotic plays, weeping and laughter, eating and drinking – Etruscan tomb paintings being a rich treasure for establishing the components of this people’s funerary rituals (Brandt).
In societies with a belief system propagating a death journey and a life after death, the duration of the funerary rituals is often considered a liminal period in which the dead subject has not yet become an object of commemoration, but is something in between, and which by Julia Kristeva is referred to as an abject (Nilsson Stutz). It is a particularly difficult period for the deceased when he/she is operating in a no-man’s land on the way from one kind of life existence to another. The funerary process thus becomes a ritual passage for the deceased, composed of three phases: separation (the pre-liminal phase), transition (the liminal phase), and reintegration (the post-liminal phase). In Etruscan tomb paintings this process can be followed as a parallel journey undertaken by both the deceased and the living mourners in which the actions of the latter shall ease the passage of the former (Brandt). A similar mode of liminal thinking may also be unveiled if mortuary deposits (here in an Early Bronze Age context from England) are studied, not primarily as indicators of social standing and prestige, but reflecting mortuary rites (whether the body was inhumed or cremated) as being the result of a sequence of ritualised actions that transform social relations and identities (Fowler).
Christian beliefs of afterlife and the embodied experience of Purgatory contain elements of a similar thinking: separation (deathbed rites of confession, communion, and the sacrament of extreme unction) and transition (the preparation and dressing of the deceased during which the living were empowered to assist the soul through Purgatory) (Gilchrist), but in difference to the Etruscans (and Romans) the Christian mourners did not participate actively in the liminal ritual performances, and in difference to the Christians the Etruscan reintegration did not contain an element of resurrection of the flesh.
The performed sequence of ritual actions may, as mentioned, be used to orchestrate the sentiments of the mourners, for example, creating ecstatic moods through dance, laughter, and erotic plays (Brandt), but such sentiments are difficult to abstract from the funerary material. However, the material deposited by the participants of the funerary ritual may, apart from a possible social status, also reflect symbolically the identity of the dead embodying and evoking a certain life style (Pearce, in Roman Britain and Belgium/the Netherlands) – or even, through a wide diversity of burial practices, reflect the uncertainties and anxieties that accompanied the adoption of new practices in a rapidly changing world (Bowden, in post-Roman Albania).
Sacrifices and banquets are returning elements of the funerary procedures. Sacrifices of animals, in addition to honouring a particular deity, had a purative effect in societies in which death was considered as pollution, as among the Etruscans and Romans (Brandt). Sacrifices also recall blood, an important element in Etruscan funerary customs, as a blood sacrifice (whether acquired by a slain animal or through fierce human combats) was considered to give immortality to the deceased’s soul. In some societies, animals were deposited with the deceased, such as horses in the nomadic Sarmatian phase (2nd century BC–4th/5th century AD) of the Klin-Yar cemetery in the North Caucasus (Härke & Belinskij); a possible human sacrifice from the same period in the same necropolis appears to be an extremely rare occurrence, but together with the animal sacrifice may raise a question of belief in immortality.
In North Africa, in the 3rd century AD, animal sacrifice to the dead gave way to banquets as the focus of ritual attention, but was, as already observed, not the result of a Christianisation of the dead, but an important act of piety (Rebillard). Banquets had also previously been a central element in funerary rituals, in an Etruscan context marking the end of the transitional liminal period of the celebrations (Brandt), perhaps coinciding with an animal sacrifice as seen in Roman usage. In an Early Bronze Age context, animal bones from burials and their environs may comprise direct evidence for foodstuffs consumed by the funerary participants and/or burnt on the cremation pyre (Fowler), the last a habit also observed in a northern European Roman context (Pearce). Animal sacrifice is often considered as an act of purification, a concept which, together with its antonym pollution, is often closely connected with funerary practices (Brandt). In some societies (as in Bronze Age England, and Classical Greece and Rome) cremation may be looked upon as a purifying act and emblematic of physical transformation (Fowler, Ahrens), but in Persian funerary practices an exposure of the body to water and fire was considered as acts of pollution (Ahrens).
Funerary ritual is not only a question of belief (as already discussed), but also of commemoration of the deceased beyond the moment of death and interment. This runs as a leitmotif through most burial practices and is an area of extraordinary complexity as funerary rituals and memorials to the dead send out a multiplicity of messages (Bowden). However, the need for commemoration is perhaps more strongly emphasised in societies in which ancestor cult is important in regularising social and political imperatives. For example, in both Neolithic/Chalcolithic Italy and Early Bronze Age England, ancestor commemoration rituals were crucial to the development of ideas of lineages, identity and personhood (Dolfini, Fowler), basic ideas which are well preserved both in later Etruscan beliefs in afterlife (Brandt), in Roman funerary Selbstdarstellung art (Pearce), and Viking Age ‘death myths’ (Oestigaard).
To conclude, funerary practices (covering the period from the biological to the social death of a person), if looked upon as a web, or rather as a piece of textile built up of vertical threads expressing movement in time and horizontal threads movement in space, they can be said to have a clearly defined frame. The practices, however, consist of threads loosely bound to each other: some threads represent practices which can be followed through both in time and space, some represent practices which can be followed in one time period across large spaces, while others represent threads which are linked to one space over a long period of time; some practices may also appear in one shape, later developing into a different shape, but without changing content. The purpose of this introductory chapter has been to highlight some of these threads and demonstrate how the articles in the present publication are woven together despite the wide chronological and geographical framework chosen. We leave the reader to judge if we have succeeded.
Note
1 I shall in the following presentation often quote or paraphrase sequences from the contributed articles. In order not to split up the text too much with quotation marks I shall only add the name of the author in parenthesis where applicable. Since the aim of this introduction is to show how the articles are bound together in fact and spirit, I hope the readers and the authors will excuse me for using the contributors’ own words in this way.
Bouvrie, S. des 2012: ‘Greek Festivals and the Ritual Process. An Inquiry into the Olympia-cum-Heraia and the Dionysia’, in J. R. Brandt & J. W. Iddeng (eds): Greek and Roman Festivals. Content, Practice, and Meaning, Oxford University Press: Oxford, 53–93.
Morris, I. 1992: Death Ritual and Social Structure in Classical Antiquity, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
Metcalf, P. & Huntington, R. 1991: Celebrations of Death. The Anthropology of Mortuary Ritual, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
Paxton, F. S. 2011: see internet: http://www.deathreference.com/Ce-Da/Christian-Death-Rites-History-of.html (visited 28.10.11).
Weiss-Krejci, E. 2011: ‘The Formation of Mortuary Deposits: Implications for Understanding Mortuary Behaviour of Past Populations’, in S. C. Agarwal & B. A. Glencross (eds): Social Bioarchaeology, Wiley-Blackwell: Chichester & Oxford, 68–106.